Computer Architecture Notes
CS6303 - Computer Architecture Notes
Unit 1
Design Principles of Computer Architecture CISC vs. RISC
Instructions directly executed by hardware
Maximize instruction issue rate (ILP)
Simple instructions (easy to decode)
Access to memory only via load/store
Plenty of registers
Pipelining
Basic Computer Organization
Bus-Based Computer Organization
Data path:
Memory Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM)
The choice for main memory
Volatile (contents go away when power is lost)
Fast
Relatively small
DRAM capacity: 2x / 2 years (since 96); 64x size improvement in
last decade
Static Random Access Memory (SRAM)
The choice for cache
Much faster than DRAM, but less dense and more costly
Magnetic disks
The choice for secondary memory
Non-volatile
Slower
Relatively large
Capacity: 2x / 1 year (since 97)250X size in last decade
Solid state (Flash) memory
The choice for embedded computers
Non-volatile
Optical disks
Removable, therefore very large
Slower than disks
Magnetic tape
Even slower
Sequential (non-random) access
The choice for archival
System Software Operating system supervising program that
interfaces the users program with the hardware (e.g., Linux, MacOS,
Windows)
- Handles basic input and output operations
- Allocates storage and memory
- Provides for protected sharing among multiple applications
Compiler translate programs written in a high-level language
(e.g., C, Java) into instructions that the hardware can
executeTECHNOLOGY
A transistor is simply an on/off switch controlled by
electricity. The integrated circuit (IC) combined dozens to
hundreds of transistors into a single chip. To describe the
tremendous increase in the number of transistors from hundreds to
millions, the adjective very large scale is added to the term,
creating the abbreviation VLSI, for very large-scale integrated
circuit.CLASSES OF COMPUTERS
Desktop computers
Designed to deliver good performance to a single user at low
cost usually executing 3rd party software, usually incorporating a
graphics display, a keyboard, and a mouse
Servers
Used to run larger programs for multiple, simultaneous users
typically accessed only via a network and that places a greater
emphasis on dependability and (often) security
Modern version of what used to be called mainframes,
minicomputers and supercomputers Large workloads Built using the
same technology in desktops but higher capacity Gigabytes to
Terabytes to Peta bytes of storage
Expandable
Scalable Reliable Large spectrum: from low-end (file storage,
small businesses) to supercomputers (high end scientific and
engineering applications) Examples: file servers, web servers,
database serversSupercomputers A high performance, high cost class
of servers with hundreds to thousands of processors, terabytes of
memory and petabytes of storage that are used for high-end
scientific and engineering applicationsEmbedded computers
(processors) A computer inside another device used for running one
predetermined application Microprocessors everywhere! (washing
machines, cell phones, automobiles, video games) Run one or a few
applications Specialized hardware integrated with the application
(not your common processor) Usually stringent limitations (battery
power) High tolerance for failure (dont want your airplane avionics
to fail!) Becoming ubiquitous Engineered using processor cores
The core allows the engineer to integrate other functions into
the processor for fabrication on the same chip
Using hardware description languages: Verilog, VHDL
Embedded Processor CharacteristicsThe largest class of computers
spanning the widest range of applications and performance
Often have minimum performance requirements. Often have
stringent limitations on cost. Often have stringent limitations on
power consumption.
Often have low tolerance for failure.PERFORMANCE
Defining Performance
Lets suppose we define performance in terms of speed. This still
leaves two possible definitions. You could define the fastest plane
as the one with the highest cruising speed, taking a single
passenger from one point to another in the least time. If you were
interested in transporting 450 passengers from one point to
another, however, the 747 would clearly be the fastest, as the last
column of the figure shows. Similarly, we can define computer
performance in several different ways.
Throughput and Response Time Do the following changes to a
computer system increase throughput, decrease response time, or
both?
1. Replacing the processor in a computer with a faster
version
2. Adding additional processors to a system that uses multiple
processors
for separate tasksfor example, searching the World Wide Web
Example
Time taken to run aprogram = 10s on A, 15s on BRelative
performance =Execution TimeB / Execution TimeA
=15s/10s
=1.5
So A is 1.5 times faster than B
Measuring Execution TimeElapsed time
Total response time, including all aspects Processing, I/O, OS
overhead, idle time Determines system performance
CPU time
Time spent processing a given job Discounts I/O time, other jobs
shares
Comprises user CPU time and systemCPUtime Different programs are
affected differentlybyCPU and system performance
CPU ClockingOperation of digital hardware governed by a
constant-rate clock
Clock period: duration of a clock cycle
e.g., 250ps = 0.25ns = 2501012s
Clock frequency (rate): cycles per second
e.g., 4.0GHz = 4000MHz = 4.0109Hz CPU TIME
Example Computer A: 2GHz clock, 10s CPU time
Designing Computer B
Aim for 6s CPU time
Can do faster clock, but causes 1.2 clock cycles
How fast must Computer B clock be?
Instruction Count and CPI Instruction Count for a program
Determined by program, ISA and compiler
Average cycles per instruction
Determined by CPU hardware
If different instructions have different CPI
Average CPI affected by instruction mix
CPI Example Computer A: Cycle Time = 250ps, CPI = 2.0
Computer B: Cycle Time = 500ps, CPI = 1.2
Same ISA
Which is faster, and by how much?
CPI in More Detail If different instruction classes take
different numbers of cycles
Weighted average CPI
CPI Example Alternative compiled code sequences using
instructions in classes A, B, C Class A B C
CPI for class 1 2 3
IC in sequence 12 1 2
IC in sequence 2 4 1 1
Sequence 1: IC = 5
Clock Cycles= 21 + 12 + 23= 10
Avg. CPI = 10/5 = 2.0
Sequence 2: IC = 6
Clock Cycles= 41 + 12 + 13= 9
Avg. CPI = 9/6 = 1.5
Performance depends on Algorithm: affects IC, possibly CPI
Programming language: affects IC, CPI Compiler: affects IC, CPI
Instruction set architecture: affects IC, CPI, Tc
computers are constructed using a clock that determines when
events take place in the hardware. These discrete time intervals
are called clock cycles (or ticks, clock ticks, clock periods,
clocks, cycles). Designers refer to the length of a clock period
both as the time for a complete clock cycle (e.g., 250 picoseconds,
or 250 ps) and as the clock rate (e.g., 4 gigahertz, or 4 GHz),
which is the inverse of the clock period. In the next subsection,
we will formalize the relationship between the clock cyclesof the
hardware designer and the seconds of the computer user.Computer
Performance and its Factors
Instruction Performance
The term clock cycles per instruction, which is the average
number of clock cycles each instruction takes to execute, is often
abbreviated as CPIClassic cpu performance
POWERWALL
UNIPROCESSOR AND MULTIPROCEASSOR
The power limit has forced a dramatic change in the design of
microprocessors. Figure shows the improvement in response time of
programs for desktop microprocessors over time. Since 2002, the
rate has slowed from a factor of 1.5 per year to less than a factor
of 1.2 per year.
As an analogy, suppose the task was to write a newspaper story.
Eight reporters working on the same story could potentially write a
story eight times faster. To achieve this increased speed, one
would need to break up the task so that each reporter had something
to do at the same time. Thus, we must schedule the subtasks. If
anything went wrong and just one reporter took longer than the
seven
others did, then the benefits of having eight writers would be
diminished. Thus, we must balance the load evenly to get the
desired speedup. Another danger would be if reporters had to spend
a lot of time talking to each other to write their sections. You
would also fall short if one part of the story, such as the
conclusion, couldnt be written until all of the other parts were
completed. Thus, care must be taken to reduce communication and
synchronization overhead. For both this analogy and parallel
programming, the challenges include scheduling, load balancing,
time for synchronization, and overhead for communication between
the parties. As you might guess, the challenge is stiffer with more
reporters for a newspaper story and more processors for parallel
programming
OPERATIONS OF COMPUTER HARDWARE
OPERANDS OF COMPUTER HARDWARE
A very large number of registers may increase the clock cycle
time simply because it takes electronic signals longer when they
must travel farther. Guidelines such as smaller is faster are not
absolutes; 31 registers may not be faster than 32. Yet, the truth
behind such observations causes computer designers to take them
seriously. In this case, the designer must balance the craving of
programs
for more registers with the designers desire to keep the clock
cycle fast.Another reason for not using more than 32 is the number
of bits it would take in the instruction forma
Memory OperandsAs explained above, arithmetic operations occur
only on registers in MIPS instructions; thus, MIPS must include
instructions that transfer data between memory and registers. Such
instructions are called data transfer instructions. To access a
word in memory, the instruction must supply the memory address.
Memory is just a large, single-dimensional array, with the address
acting as the index to that array, starting at 0. For example, in
Figure the address of the third data element is 2, and the value of
Memory[2] is 10.
Given the importance of registers, what is the rate of increase
in the number of
registers in a chip over time?
1. Very fast: They increase as fast as Moores law, which
predicts doubling the
number of transistors on a chip every 18 months.
2. Very slow: Since programs are usually distributed in the
language of the
computer, there is inertia in instruction set architecture, and
so the number
of registers increases only as fast as new instruction sets
become viable.
REPRESENTING INSTRUCTION
LOGICAL INSTRUCTION
Case/Switch Statement
Most programming languages have a case or switch statement that
allows the programmer to select one of many alternatives depending
on a single value. The simplest way to implement switch is via a
sequence of conditional tests, turning the switch statement into a
chain of if-then-else statements. Sometimes the alternatives may be
more efficiently encoded as a table of addresses of alternative
instruction sequences, called a jump address table or jump table,
and the program needs only to index into the table and then jump to
the appropriate sequence. The jump table is then just an array of
words containing addresses that correspond to labels in the code.
The program loads the appropriate entry from the jump table into a
register. It then needs to jump using the address in the register.
To support such situations, computers like MIPS include a jump
register instruction (jr), meaning an unconditional jump to the
address specified in a register. Then it jumps to the proper
address using this instructionNested Loop
Procedures that do not call others are called leaf procedures.
Life would be simple if all procedures were leaf procedures, but
they arent. Just as a spy might employ other spies as part of a
mission, who in turn might use even more spies, so do procedures
invoke other procedures. Moreover, recursive procedures even invoke
clones of themselves. Just as we need to be careful when using
registers in procedures, more care must also be taken when invoking
nonleaf procedures.
ADDRESSING MODES
1. Immediate addressing, where the operand is a constant within
the instruction
itself
2. Register addressing, where the operand is a register
Base or displacement addressing, where the operand is at the
memory location
whose address is the sum of a register and a constant in the
instruction
4. PC-relative addressing, where the branch address is the sum
of the PC and a
constant
in the instruction
5. Pseudodirect addressing, where the jump address is the 26
bits of the instruction
concatenated with the upper bits of the PC
UNIT 2
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
Digits are added bit by bit from right to left, with carries
passed to the next digit to the left, just as you would do by hand.
Subtraction uses addition: the appropriate operand is simply
negated before being added.
Binary Addition and Subtraction
Example
1. Add 610 and 710
2. Subtract 610 from 710
Adding 610 and 710 can be done as follows:
0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111two = 7ten
+ 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0110two = 6ten
= 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1101two = 13ten
The 4 bits to the right have all the action;
Subtracting 6ten from 7ten can be done directly:
0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111two = 7ten
0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0110two = 6ten
= 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001two = 1ten
or Subtraction can be done via addition using the twos
complement representation of -6:
0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0111two = 7ten
+ 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1010two = 6ten
= 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0001two = 1ten
The above figure shows the sums and carries. The carries are
shown in parentheses, with the arrows showing how they are
passed.
Binary addition, showing carries from right to left. The
rightmost bit adds 1 to 0, resulting in the sum of this bit being 1
and the carry out from this bit being 0. Hence, the operation for
the second digit to the right is 0 + 1 + 1. This generates a 0 for
this sum bit and a carry out of 1. The third digit is the sum of 1
+ 1 + 1, resulting in a carry out of 1 and a sum bit of 1. The
fourth bit is 1 + 0 + 0, yielding a 1 sum and no carry.
When the result from an operation cannot be represented with the
available hardware, in this case a 32-bit word. When can overflow
occur in addition? When adding operands with different signs,
overflow cannot occur. The reason is the sum must be no larger than
one of the operands. For example, -10 + 4 = -6. Since the operands
fit in 32 bits and the sum is no larger than an operand, the sum
must fit in 32 bits as well. Therefore, no overflow can occur when
adding positive and negative operands. There are similar
restrictions to the occurrence of overflow during subtract, but its
just the opposite principle: when the signs of the operands are the
same, overflow cannot occur. To see this, remember that x - y = x +
(-y) because we subtract by negating the second operand and then
add. Therefore, when we subtract operands of the same sign we end
up by adding operands of different signs. From the prior paragraph,
we know that overflow cannot occur in this case either.
Adding or subtracting two 32-bit numbers can yield a result that
needs 33 bits to be fully expressed. The lack of a 33rd bit means
that when overflow occurs, the sign bit is set with the value of
the result instead of the proper sign of the result. Since we need
just one extra bit, only the sign bit can be wrong. Hence, overflow
occurs when adding two positive numbers and the sum is negative, or
vice versa. This means a carry out occurred into the sign bit.
Overflow occurs in subtraction when we subtract a negative number
from a positive number and get a negative result, or when we
subtract a positive number from a negative number and get a
positive result. This means a borrow occurred from the sign
bit.
Two kinds of Overflow Conditions
MIPS detects overflow with an exception, also called an
interrupt on many computers. An exception or interrupt is
essentially an unscheduled procedure call. The address of the
instruction that overflowed is saved in a register, and the
computer jumps to a predefined address to invoke the appropriate
routine for that exception. The interrupted address is saved so
that in some situations the program can continue after corrective
code is executed.
MIPS includes a register called the exception program counter
(EPC) to contain the address of the instruction that caused the
exception. The instruction move from system control (mfc0) is used
to copy EPC into a general-purpose register so that MIPS software
has the option of returning to the offending instruction via a jump
register instruction.
MULTIPLICATION
The multiplication of decimal numbers in longhand to remind
ourselves of the steps of multiplication and the names of the
operands. For reasons that will become clear shortly, we limit this
decimal example to using only the digits 0 and 1. Multiplying
100010 by 100110:
Multiplicand 100010
Multiplier x 100110
---------
1000
0000
0000
1000
-------------------
Product 100100010
The first operand is called the multiplicand and the second the
multiplier. The final result is called the product.
The old algorithm shows that taking the digits of the multiplier
one at a time from right to left, multiplying the multiplicand by
the single digit of the multiplier, and shifting the intermediate
product one digit to the left of the earlier intermediate
products.
The number of digits in the product is considerably larger than
the number in either the multiplicand or the multiplier
If the sign bits were ignored then, the length of the
multiplication of an n-bit multiplicand and an m-bit multiplier is
a product that is n + m bits long. n + m bits are required to
represent all possible products
Multiply must cope with overflow because we frequently want a
32-bit product as the result of multiplying two 32-bit numbers
In the above example1. Just place a copy of the multiplicand (1
multiplicand) in the proper place if the multiplier digit is a 1,
or2. Place 0 (0 multiplicand) in the proper place if the digit is
0.
SEQUENTIAL VERSION OF THE MULTIPLICATION ALGORITHM AND
HARDWARE
This design mimics the algorithm what we learned in school. The
following figure shows the hardware.
We have drawn the hardware so that data flows from top to bottom
to resemble more closely the paper-and-pencil method. Lets assume
that the multiplier is in the 32-bit Multiplier register and that
the 64-bit Product register is initialized to 0. From the
paper-and-pencil example above, its clear that we will need to move
the multiplicand left one digit each step, as it may be added to
the intermediate products. Over 32 steps, a 32-bit multiplicand
would move 32 bits to the left. Hence, we need a 64-bit
Multiplicand register, initialized with the 32-bit multiplicand in
the right half and zero in the left half. This register is then
shifted left 1 bit each step to align the multiplicand with the sum
being accumulated in the 64-bit Product register.
THREE BASIC STEPS NEEDED FOR EACH BIT
The least significant bit of the multiplier (Multiplier0)
determines whether the multiplicand is added to the Product
register. The left shift in step 2 has the effect of moving the
intermediate operands to the left, just as when multiplying with
paper and pencil. The shift right in step 3 gives us the next bit
of the multiplier to examine in the following iteration. These
three steps are repeated 32 times to obtain the product. If each
step took a clock cycle, this algorithm would require almost 100
clock cycles to multiply two 32-bit numbers.
This algorithm and hardware are easily refined to take 1 clock
cycle per step. The speed-up comes from performing the operations
in parallel: the multiplier and multiplicand are shifted while the
multiplicand is added to the product if the multiplier bit is a 1.
The hardware just has to ensure that it tests the right bit of the
multiplier and gets the pre shifted version of the multiplicand.
The hardware is usually further optimized to halve the width of the
adder and registers by noticing where there are unused portions of
registers and adders.
Replacing arithmetic by shifts can also occur when multiplying
by constants. Some compilers replace multiplies by short constants
with a series of shifts and adds. Because one bit to the left
represents a number twice as large in base 2, shifting the bits
left has the same effect as multiplying by a power of 2. Almost
every compiler will perform the strength reduction optimization of
substituting a left shift for a multiply by a power of 2.
EXAMPLE FOR A MULTIPLY ALGORITHM
Using 4-bit numbers to save space, multiply 210 310, or 00102
00112.
The value of each register for each of the steps is given in the
above figure. The final value is 0000 01102 or 610.
SIGNED MULTIPLICATION
In the signed multiplication, convert the multiplier and
multiplicand to positive numbers and then remember the original
signs.
The algorithms should then be run for 31 iterations, leaving the
signs out of the calculation.
The shifting steps would need to extend the sign of the product
for signed numbers. When the algorithm completes, the lower word
would have the 32-bit product.
FASTER MULTIPLICATION
Faster multiplications are possible by essentially providing one
32-bit adder for each bit of the multiplier: one input is the
multiplicand ANDed with a multiplier bit, and the other is the
output of a prior adder.
Connect the outputs of adders on the right to the inputs of
adders on the left, making a stack of adders 32 high.
The above figure shows an alternative way to organize 32
additions in a parallel tree. Instead of waiting for 32 add times,
we wait just the log2 (32) or five 32-bit add times.
Multiply can go even faster than five add times because of the
use of carry save adders It is easy to pipeline such a design to be
able to support many multiplies simultaneously
MULTIPLY IN MIPS
MIPS provides a separate pair of 32-bit registers to contain the
64-bit product, called Hi and Lo. To produce a properly signed or
unsigned product, MIPS has two instructions: multiply (mult) and
multiply unsigned (multu). To fetch the integer 32-bit product, the
programmer uses move from lo (mflo). The MIPS assembler generates a
pseudoinstruction for multiply that specifies three generalpurpose
registers, generating mflo and mfhi instructions to place the
product into registers.
DIVISION
The reciprocal operation of multiply is divide, an operation
that is even less frequent and even more quirky. It even offers the
opportunity to perform a mathematically invalid operation: dividing
by 0.
Lets start with an example of long division using decimal
numbers to recall the names of the operands and the grammar school
division algorithm. For reasons similar to those in the previous
section, we limit the decimal digits to just 0 or 1.
EXAMPLE
The example is dividing 1,001,01010 by 100010:
Divides two operands, called the dividend and divisor, and the
result, called the quotient, are accompanied by a second result,
called the remainder. Here is another way to express the
relationship between the components:
Dividend = Quotient Divisor + Remainder
where the remainder is smaller than the divisor. Infrequently,
programs use the divide instruction just to get the remainder,
ignoring the quotient. The basic grammar school division algorithm
tries to see how big a number can be subtracted, creating a digit
of the quotient on each attempt. Our carefully selected decimal
example uses only the numbers 0 and 1, so its easy to figure out
how many times the divisor goes into the portion of the dividend:
its either 0 times or 1 time. Binary numbers contain only 0 or 1,
so binary division is restricted to these two choices, thereby
simplifying binary division.
Lets assume that both the dividend and the divisor are positive
and hence the quotient and the remainder are nonnegative. The
division operands and both results are 32-bit values, and we will
ignore the sign for now.
A DIVISION ALGORITHM AND HARDWARE
The above figure shows hardware to mimic our grammar school
algorithm. We start with the 32-bit Quotient register set to 0.
Each iteration of the algorithm needs to move the divisor to the
right one digit, so we start with the divisor placed in the left
half of the 64-bit Divisor register and shift it right 1 bit each
step to align it with the dividend. The Remainder register is
initialized with the dividend.
THREE STEPS OF THE FIRST DIVISION ALGORITHM.
The above figure shows three steps of the first division
algorithm. Unlike a human, the computer isnt smart enough to know
in advance whether the divisor is smaller than the dividend. It
must first subtract the divisor in step 1; remember that this is
how we performed the comparison in the set on less than
instruction. If the result is positive, the divisor was smaller or
equal to the dividend, so we generate a 1 in the quotient (step
2a). If the result is negative, the next step is to restore the
original value by adding the divisor back to the remainder and
generate a 0 in the quotient (step 2b). The divisor is shifted
right and then we iterate again. The remainder and quotient will be
found in their namesake registers after the iterations are
complete.
EXAMPLE
A DIVIDE ALGORITHM
Using a 4-bit version of the algorithm to save pages, lets try
dividing 710 by 210, or 0000 01112 by 00102.
The above figure shows the value of each register for each of
the steps, with the quotient being 3ten and the remainder 1ten.
Notice that the test in step 2 of whether the remainder is positive
or negative simply tests whether the sign bit of the Remainder
register is a 0 or 1. The surprising requirement of this algorithm
is that it takes n + 1 steps to get the proper quotient and
remainder.
This algorithm and hardware can be refined to be faster and
cheaper. The speedup comes from shifting the operands and the
quotient simultaneously with the subtraction. This refinement
halves the width of the adder and registers by noticing where there
are unused portions of registers and adders.
The following figure shows the revised hardware.
SIGNED DIVISION
The one complication of signed division is that we must also set
the sign of the remainder. Remember that the following equation
must always hold:Dividend = Quotient Divisor + Remainder
To understand how to set the sign of the remainder, lets look at
the example of dividing all the combinations of 710 by 210. The
first case is easy:
+7 +2: Quotient = +3, Remainder = +1
Checking the results:
7 = 3 2 + (+1) = 6 + 1
If we change the sign of the dividend, the quotient must change
as well:
7 +2: Quotient = 3
Rewriting our basic formula to calculate the remainder:
Remainder = (Dividend Quotient Divisor) = 7 (3 +2) = 7(6) =
1
So,
7 +2: Quotient = 3, Remainder = 1
Checking the results again:
7 = 3 2 + (1) = 6 1
The reason the answer isnt a quotient of 4 and a remainder of
+1, which would also fit this formula, is that the absolute value
of the quotient would then change depending on the sign of the
dividend and the divisor! Clearly, if
(x y) (x) y
programming would be an even greater challenge. This anomalous
behavior is avoided by following the rule that the dividend and
remainder must have the same signs, no matter what the signs of the
divisor and quotient. We calculate the other combinations by
following the same rule:
+7 2: Quotient = 3, Remainder = +1
7 2: Quotient = +3, Remainder = 1
Thus the correctly signed division algorithm negates the
quotient if the signs of the operands are opposite and makes the
sign of the nonzero remainder match the dividend.
FASTER DIVISION
We used many adders to speed up multiply, but we cannot do the
same trick for divide. The reason is that we need to know the sign
of the difference before we can perform the next step of the
algorithm, whereas with multiply we could calculate the 32 partial
products immediately.
There are techniques to produce more than one bit of the
quotient per step. The SRT division technique tries to guess
several quotient bits per step, using a table lookup based on the
upper bits of the dividend and remainder. It relies on subsequent
steps to correct wrong guesses. A typical value today is 4 bits.
The key is guessing the value to subtract. With binary division,
there is only a single choice.These algorithms use 6 bits from the
remainder and 4 bits from the divisor to index a table that
determines the guess for each step. The accuracy of this fast
method depends on having proper values in the lookup table. SUBWORD
PARALLELLISM
A subword is a lower precision unit of data contained within a
word. In subword parallelism, multiple subwords are packed into a
word and then process whole words. With the appropriate subword
boundaries this technique results in parallel processing of
subwords. Since the same instruction is applied to all subwords
within the word, This is a form of SIMD(Single Instruction Multiple
Data) processing.
It is possible to apply subword parallelism to noncontiguous
subwords of different sizes within a word. In practical
implementation is simple if subwords are same size and they are
contiguous within a word. The data parallel programs that benefit
from subword parallelism tend to process data that are of the same
size.
For example if word size is 64bits and subwords sizes are 8,16
and 32 bits. Hence an instruction operates on eight 8bit subwords,
four 16bit subwords, two 32bit subwords or one 64bit subword in
parallel.
Subword parallelism is an efficient and flexible solution for
media processing because algorithm exhibit a great deal of data
parallelism on lower precision data.
It is also useful for computations unrelated to multimedia that
exhibit data parallelism on lower precision data.
Graphics and audio applications can take advantage of performing
simultaneous operations on short vectors
Example: 128-bit adder:
Sixteen 8-bit adds
Eight 16-bit adds
Four 32-bit adds
Also called data-level parallelism, vector parallelism, or
Single Instruction, Multiple Data (SIMD)
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