COMPLETE MB0050 Research Methodology Set 1&2

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ASSIGNMENT

NAME : RAVINDER KUMAR

ROLL NUMBER : 521045814

COURSE: MBA SEM : III

SPECIALIZATION : RETAIL OPERATIONSMANAGEMENT

LEARNING CENTER CODE : 02009

LEARNING CENTER NAME : APAR INDIA COLLEGE

of Management & Technology

SUBJECT : Research Methodology

SUBJECT CODE : MB0050

ASSIGNMENT NO : SET 1

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Q.1(a). Differentiate between nominal, ordinal, interval and ratioscales, with an example of each.

Answer: The "levels of measurement", or scales of measure areexpressions that typically refer to the theory of scale types developed bythe psychologist Stanley Smith Stevens. Stevens proposed his theory ina 1946 Science article titled "On the theory of scales of measurement".In that article, Stevens claimed that all measurement in science was

conducted using four different types of scales that he called "nominal","ordinal", "interval" and "ratio".

The theory of scale types: Stevens (1946, 1951) proposed thatmeasurements can be classified into four different types of scales.These are shown in the table below as: nominal, ordinal, interval, and

Scale Type PermissibleStatistics

AdmissibleScale

Transformation

Mathematicalstructure

nominal(also

denoted ascategorical)

mode, Chi-square One to One(equality (=))

standard setstructure(unordered)

ordinal median, percentile Monotonicincreasing(order (

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Nominal Scale: At the nominal scale, i.e., for a nominal category, oneuses labels; for example, rocks can be generally categorized as igneous,sedimentary and metamorphic. For this scale, some valid operations areequivalence and set membership. Nominal measures offer names or

labels for certain characteristics.

We can use a simple example of a nominal category: first names.Looking at nearby people, we might find one or more of them namedAamir. Aamir is their label; and the set of all first names is a nominalscale. We can only check whether two people have the same name(equivalence) or whether a given name is in on a certain list of names(set membership), but it is impossible to say which name is greater orless than another (comparison) or to measure the difference betweentwo names.

Ordinal Scale: Rank-ordering data simply puts the data on an ordinalscale. Ordinal measurements describe order, but not relative size ordegree of difference between the items measured. In this scale type, thenumbers assigned to objects or events represent the rank order (1st,2nd, 3rd, etc.) of the entities assessed. A Likert Scale is a type of ordinalscale and may also use names with an order such as: "bad", "medium",and "good"; or "very satisfied", "satisfied", "neutral", "unsatisfied", "veryunsatisfied." A simple example follows:

Judge'sscore

x

Scoreminus 8

x-8

Tripledscore3x

Cubedscorex3

Alice's cookingability

10 2 30 1000

Bob's cooking

ability

9 1 27 729

Claire's cookingability

8.5 0.5 25.5 614.125

Dana's cookingability

8 0 24 512

Edgar's cookingability

5 -3 15 125

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Since x-8, 3x, and x3 are all monotonically increasing functions,replacing the ordinal judge's score by any of these alternate scores doesnot affect the relative ranking of the five people's cooking abilities. Eachcolumn of numbers is an equally legitimate ordinal scale for describing

their abilities.

Interval Scale: Quantitative attributes are all measurable on intervalscales, as any difference between the levels of an attribute can bemultiplied by any real number to exceed or equal another difference. Ahighly familiar example of interval scale measurement is temperaturewith the Celsius scale. In this particular scale, the unit of measurement is1/100 of the temperature difference between the freezing and boilingpoints of water under a pressure of 1 atmosphere. The "zero point" onan interval scale is arbitrary; and negative values can be used. Theformal mathematical term is an affine space

The central tendency of a variable measured at the interval level can berepresented by its mode, its median, or its arithmetic mean. Statisticaldispersion can be measured in most of the usual ways, which justinvolved differences or averaging, such as range, interquartile range,and standard deviation. Since one cannot divide, one cannot definemeasures that require a ratio,. One can define standardized moments,since ratios of differences are meaningful, but one cannot define

coefficient of variation, since the mean is a moment about the origin,unlike the standard deviation, which is (the square root of) a centralmoment.

Q.1(b). What are the purposes of measurement in social scienceresearch?

Answer: Three Purposes of Research

Three of the most influential and common purposes of research are

exploration, description and explanation.

Exploration involves familiarizing a researcher with a topic. Explorationsatisfies the researcher's curiosity and desire for improvedunderstanding. Exploration tests the feasibility of undertaking a moreextensive study. Exploration helps develop the methods that will be usedin a study.

Description involves describing situations and events through scientific

observation. Scientific descriptions are typically more accurate andprecise than causal ones. For example, the U. S. Census uses

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descriptive social research in its examination of characteristics of the U.S. population.

Explanation involves answering the questions of what, where, when,

and how. Explanatory studies answer questions of why. For example, anexplanatory analysis of the 2002 General Social Survey (GSS) dataindicates that 38 percent of men and 30 percent of women saidmarijuana should be legalized, while 55 percent of liberals and 27percent of conservatives said the same. Given these statistics, you couldstart to develop an explanation for attitudes toward marijuanalegalization. In addition, further study of gender and political orientationcould lead to a deeper explanation of this issue.

Q.2.(a). What are the sources from which one may be able to

identify research problems?

Answer: Sources Of Problems

Curiosity: One of the oldest and most common sources of researchproblems is curiosity. Just as your interest in baseball or gardening maystimulate you to investigate the topic in greater depth, so researchersmay investigate phenomena that attract their personal interest. Forexample, a man named Lipset belonged to the International

Typographical Union, and his son's well-known study of democraticdecision-making processes was specifically concerned with thatorganization. The younger Lipset was curious because the union wasvery large and, according to contemporary social thinking, should havesuccumbed to an oligarchic decision-making process (a rule of the manyby the few), yet appeared to be very democratic.

Significant Others: While personal interests or curiosity may be keymotivating factors in problem selection, it's a basic assumption in thesocial sciences that individuals learn from and are influenced by others.Because researchers are usually recruited and trained in universities,the selection of research topics often reflects the influence of teachers orfellow students.

Social Problems: In addition to personal curiosity and the influence ofothers, concern with social problems has been a major source of socialresearch. As discussed in more detail in Chapter 4, one of the first usesof social surveys was to study poverty. Likewise, concerns with the Naziextermination of 6 million Jews and discrimination in this country have

generated a vast body of psychological and social-psychologicalresearch on ethnic, gender, sexual orientation, and racial prejudice.

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Q.2.(b). Why literature survey is important in research?

Answer: Research is made in order to inform people with newknowledge or discovery. However, it is not to be expected thateverybody would willingly believe what you are tackling in your wholeresearch paper. Thus, what you can do to make your research morecredible will be to support them with other works which have spokenabout the same topic that you have for your research. This is whereliterature review comes in.

There are many reasons why literature review is rendered as asignificant part of any research or dissertation paper. You may ask whatmakes it as such if it is only supposed to contain tidbits of other relatedworks. Literature review is the part of the paper where the researcher

will be given the opportunity to strengthen your paper for you will beciting what other reliable authors have said about your topic. This willprove that you are not just writing about any random subject but thatmany others have also poured their thoughts on the topic.You may also ask what makes literature review a necessary part of thepaper. This question can be answered by trying not to include the reviewin your paper. Obviously, it affects the length of your paper but this is notthe noticeable part. What would most certainly be lacking is the fact thatyour paper, without the literature review, only contains all of your

opinions about the facts that you have discovered through yourresearch. Thus, how can you further convince the readers, in this case,the committee who will scrutinize your paper? This is the need that isanswered only by the literature review. By the mere fact that you areusing referencing by citing what more credible people had said aboutthe topic will build a stronger foundation for your paper.With a literature review, you need to establish a clear tie between theworks that you have cited and the topic that you are writing about. Youshould be able to justify the inclusion of a certain work in your review so

as to make everything that you have written useful. The more youinclude useless points in your paper, the more that the committee willthink that you have not put in a lot of thinking into your paper.Literature review is also unique from the rest of the paper. While youhave to fill most of the paper with your own analysis, in a literaturereview alone, you will have to write purely about related works of otherpeople.

Q.3.(a). What are the characteristics of a good research design?Answer: Characteristics of Research Design Generally a good research

design minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collectedand analyzed. The design which gives the smallest experimental error is

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reported to be the best design in scientific investigation. Similarly, adesign which yields maximum information and provides a opportunity forconsidering different aspects of a problem is considered to be the mostappropriate efficient design .

1.Objectivity: It refers to the findings related to the method of datacollection and scoring of the responses. The research design shouldpermit the measuring instrument which are fairly objective in which everyobserver or judge scoring the performance must precisely give the samereport. In other words, the objectivity of the procedure may be judged bythe degree of agreement between the final scores assigned to differentindividuals by more than one independent observer. This ensures theobjectivity of the collected data which shall be capable of analysis anddrawing generalizations.

2.Reliability: Reliability refers to consistency through out a series ofmeasurements. For eg: if a respondent gives out a response to aparticular item, he is expected to give the same response to that itemeven if he is asked repeatedly. If he is changing his response to thesame item, the consistency will be lost. So the researcher should framethe items in a questionnaire in such a way that it provides consistency orreliability.

3.Validity: Any measuring device or instrument is said to be valid when

it measures what it is expected to measure. For eg: an intelligence testconcucted for measuring the I.Q should measure only the intelligenceand nothing else, and the questionnaire shall be framed accordingly.

4.Generalizability: It means how best the data collected from thesamples can be utilized for drawing certain generalisations applicable toa large group from which sample is drawn. Thus a research designhelps an investigator to generalize his findings provided he has takendue care in defining the population, selecting the sample, deriving

appropriate statistical analysis etc. while preparing the research design.Q.3.(b). What are the components of a research design?

Answer: Working Design - preliminary plan for beginning a qualitativeresearch project.

1) subjects to be studied2) sites to be studied3) time frame for data collection4) possible variables to be considered

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Purposeful Sampling - nonrandom sampling design that selectssubjects or sites due to specific characteristics or phenomena understudy.

Working Hypotheses - hypotheses regarding possible outcomes thatguide the research study (also see foreshadowed problems)

Data Collection - forms of data collection vary widely depending on thequalitative research design employed.

o the researcher must be able to gain access to the situationo the researcher must decide on his/her role in data collectiono participant-observer or observer onlyo interactive or noninteractive data collectiono the researcher must decide upon the format for data collectiono interviewso observations

Specimen record - a narrative description of one person in a naturalsituation as seen by skilled observers over a substantial period of time.

Record stream of divide stream analyze

behaviour into units units

Oral History - interviews conducted with the use of a tape recorder.1) entire conversation recorded2) allows examination of inflections3) emphasize open-ended questions4) analyzed through listening to tape rather than transcribing it

Data Analysis and Interpretation

1) Data Analysis - begins soon after data collection begins to allowverification, refinement, or restatement of working hypotheses/foreshadowed problems/or initial theories.

2) Qualitative data analysis is a series of successive approximationstoward an accurate description and interpretation of phenomenaunder study.

Coding - process of data reduction through data organization--allowsresearcher to "see what's there" for purposes of:

Sorting/categorization

1) Comparison with initial hypotheses/problem statements (support orcontradict earlier ideas)

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2) Refinement of design/hypotheses3) Able to accurately capture information relevant to the research

problem4) Information captured is useful in describing and understanding the

phenomenon being studiedCoding categories:

1) Are influenced by the purpose and context of the study2) Are specific to the study3) May be determined before or after data collection and review4) Need not be mutually exclusive

Possible Codes:

o Setting/Context Codes - reflect the context or setting in whichphenomena under study occur (e.g. several different settings-highschool/vocational school/etc.- included under school environment)

o Process Codes - focus on the sequence of events and howchanges occur during the study (e.g. different ways in whichstudents go about dropping out of school)

Q.4.(a). Distinguish between Doubles sampling and multiphasesampling.

Ans: How double sampling plan works

Double and multiple sampling plans were invented to give a

questionable lot another chance. For example, if in double sampling the

results of the first sample are not conclusive with regard to accepting or

rejecting, a second simple is taken. Application of double sampling

requires that a first sample of size n1 is taken at random from the (large)

lot. The number of defectives is then counted and compared to the first

sample acceptance number r1. Denote the number of defectives in

sample 1 by d1 and in sample 2 by D2=d1+d2. Now this is compared to

the acceptance number a2 and the rejection number r2 of sample 2. In

double sampling, r2=a2+1 to ensure a decision on the sample

If D2a2, the lot is accepted.

If D2r2 the lot is rejected.

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Design of double sampling plan

The parameters required to construct the OC curve are similar to the

single sample case. The two point of interest are (p1,1-) and (p2, ,

where p1 is the lot fraction defective for plan 1 and p2 is the lot fractiondefective for plan 2. As far as the respective sample sizes are

concerned, the second sample size must be equal to, or an even

multiple of the first sample size. There exist a variety of tables that

assist the user in constructing double and multiple sampling plans. The

index to these tables is the p2/p1 ratio, where p2>p1. One set of tables

taken from the Army Chemical corps Engineering Agency for =.05 and

=.10, is given below:

Tables for n1 = n2

accept approximation values

R = numbers of pn1 for

p2/p1 c1 c2 P = .95 P =

.10

11.90 0 1 0.21 2.50

7.54 1 2 0.52 3.92

6.79 0 2 0.43 2.96

5.39 1 3 0.76 4.11

4.65 2 4 1.16 5.39

4.25 1 4 1.04 4.42

3.88 2 5 1.43 5.55

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3.63 3 6 1.87 6.78

3.38 2 6 1.72 5.82

3.21 3 7 2.15 6.91

3.09 4 8 2.62 8.10

2.85 4 9 2.90 8.26

2.60 5 11 3.68 9.56

2.44 5 12 4.00 9.77

2.32 5 13 4.35 10.08

2.22 5 14 4.70 10.45

2.12 5 16 5.39 11.41

Tables for n2 = 2n1

Multiple sampling:

Multiple

Sampling

is an

extensionof the

double

sampling

concept

Multiple sampling is an extension of doublesampling. It involves inspection of 1 to ksuccessive samples as required to reach an

ultimate decision.

Mil-Std 105D suggests k = 7 is a good number.Multiple sampling plans are usually presentedin tabular form:

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Procedureformultiplesampling

The procedure commences with taking arandom sample of size n1from a large lot of sizeN and counting the number of defectives, d1.

if d1 a1 the lot is accepted.if d1 r1 the lot is rejected.if a1 < d1 < r1, another sample is taken.

If subsequent samples are required, the firstsample procedure is repeated sample bysample. For each sample, the total number ofdefectives found at any stage, say stage i, is

This is compared with the acceptance numberai and the rejection number ri for that stage untila decision is made. Sometimes acceptance isnot allowed at the early stages of multiplesampling; however, rejection can occur at anystage.

Q.4.(b). What is replicated or interpenetrating sampling?

Answer: The experiment should be reaped more than once. Thus,each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. Bydoing so, the statistical accuracy of the experiments is increased. Forexample, suppose we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice.For this purpose we may divide the field into two parts and grow one

variety in one part and the other variety in the other part. We cancompare the yield of the two parts and draw conclusion on that basis.But if we are to apply the principle of replication to this experiment, thenwe first divide the field into several parts, grow one variety in half ofthese parts and the other variety in the remaining parts. We can collectthe data yield of the two varieities and draw conclusion by comaring thesame.

The result so obtained will be more reliable in comparison to theconclusion we draw without applying the principle of replication.The entire experiment can even by repeated several times for better

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results. Consequently replication does not present any difficulty, butcomputationally it does. However, it should be remembered thatreplication is introduced in order to increase the precision of a study, thatis to say, to increase the accuracy with which the main effects and

interations can be estimated.

Q.5.(a). How is secondary data useful to researcher?

Answer:Secondary data is classified in terms of its source eitherinternal or external. Internal, or in-house data, is secondaryinformation acquired within the organization where researchis being carried out. External secondary data is obtainedfrom outside sources.

The two major advantages of using secondary data in market researchare time and cost savings.

The secondary research process can be completed rapidlygenerally in 2 to 3 week. Substantial useful secondary data can becollected in a matter of days by a skillful analyst.

When secondary data is available, the researcher need only locatethe source of the data and extract the required information.

Secondary research is generally less expensive than primaryresearch. The bulk of secondary research data gathering does notrequire the use of expensive, specialized, highly trained personnel.

Secondary research expenses are incurred by the originator of theinformation.

Internal data sources: Internal secondary data is usually aninexpensive information source for the company conducting research,and is the place to start for existing operations. Internally generated

sales and pricing data can be used as a research source. The use of thisdata is to define the competitive position of the firm, an evaluation of amarketing strategy the firm has used in the past, or gaining a betterunderstanding of the companys best customers.

1. Sales and marketing reports. These can include such things as:

Type of product/service purchased Type of end-user/industry segment Method of payment

Product or product line Sales territory

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Salesperson Date of purchase Amount of purchase Price

Application by product Location of end-user

2. Accounting and financial records. These are often an overlookedsource of internal secondary information and can be invaluable in theidentification, clarification and prediction of certain problems. Accountingrecords can be used to evaluate the success of various marketingstrategies such as revenues from a direct marketing campaign.

External data sources

There is a wealth of statistical and research data available today. Somesources are:

Federal government Provincial/state governments Statistics agencies Trade associations General business publications

Magazine and newspaper articles Annual reports Academic publications Library sources Computerized bibliographies Syndicated services.

Q.5.(b). What are the criteria used for evaluation of secondary data?

Answer: When a researcher wants to use secodary data for his

research, he should evaluate them before deciding to use them.

1.Data Pertinence: The first consideration in evaluation is to examinethe pertinence of the available secondary data to the research problemunder study. The following questions should be considered.

a) What are the definitions and classifications employed? Are theyconsistent?

b) What are the measurements of variables used? What is the degree

to which they conform to the requirements of our research?

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2. Data Quality: If the researcher is convinced about the availablesecondary data for his needs, the next step is to examine the quality ofthe data. The quality of data refers to their accuracy, reliability andcompleteness. The assurance and reliability of the available secondary

data depends on the organization which collected them and the purposefor which they were collected. What is the authority and prestige of theorganization? Is it well recognized? Is it noted for reliability? It iscapable of collecting reliable data? Does it use trained and well qualifiedinvestigators?

3. Data Completeness: The completeness refers to the actualconverage of the published data. This depends on the methodology andsampling design adopted by the original organization. Is themethodology sound? Is the sample sixe samll or large? Is the sampling

method appropriate?

Q.6. What are the differences between observation andinterviewing as methods of data collection? Give two specificexamples of situations where either observation or interviewingwould be more appropriate.

Answer: InterviewsIn interviews information is obtained through inquiry and recorded by

enumerators. Structured interviews are performed by using surveyforms, whereas open interviews are notes taken while talking withrespondents. The notes are subsequently structured (interpreted) forfurther analysis. Open-ended interviews, which need to be interpretedand analysed even during the interview, have to be carried out by well-trained observers and/or enumerators.

Open-ended interviews

Open-ended interviews cover a variety of data-gathering activities,including a number of social science research methods.

o Focus groupso Panel surveyso Structured interviewo Interview approach for sample catch, effort and prices, theo Interview approach for boat/gear activities

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Direct observations

o Observerso At-sea observerso Observers at landing sites, processing plants and markets

Complete landings of all catch in relation to a vessel's trip (i.e. emptyingof holds) is preferred since records can then be matched againstlogsheets. However, in some circumstances off-loading in harbours, atthe dock or at sea may only be partial, some being retained on boarduntil the next off-loading. In this case, records should be maintained ofboth catch landed and retained on board.

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ASSIGNMENT

NAME : RAVINDER KUMAR

ROLL NUMBER : 521045814

COURSE: MBA SEM : III

SPECIALIZATION : RETAIL OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

LEARNING CENTER CODE : 02009

LEARNING CENTER NAME : APAR INDIA COLLEGE of

Management & Technology

SUBJECT : Research Methodology

SUBJECT CODE : MB0050

ASSIGNMENT NO : SET 2

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Q.1.(a).Explain the General characteristics of observation.

Answer: Every moment we are exposed to some kind of events oroccurrences. If we try to frame some definite opinion about the events

we come across, we have to observe the instances keenly.It shows that three factors are involved in the case of an observation.There must be some object to be observed, the sense organs to observethe object and the mind to become aware of it. This process is repeatedfor several times in order to arrive at a conclusion.Characteristics:

1) Observation is the case of regulated perception of events.

Observations are made by help of sense organs. So it is basicallyperceptual. Perception may be either external or internal.Perception of natural events or occurrences is external perception.

To know something directly by introspection without using the senseorgans is called internal perception. Feeling of sorrow, joy, happinessetc. is internal perception.

A vast nature is present before us. Every moment we come across someevent of nature. When similar types of events are observed in repeated

manner, one feels to find out an explanation with regard to thefunctioning of nature. That helps us to distinguish the random or casualperception from regulated perception.

2) Observation should be systematic and selective. Observationexcludes the cases of careless and stray perceptions.

It should be systematic and selective. When the purpose of observationis decided we select those instances, which have got relevance with thepurpose. Suppose we want to observe the colour of the crows.

A prejudiced mind cannot make observation neutral. If a person isbiased, then his observation will not be true or objective.

Joyce has pointed out that very often observations are not free fromsubjective influences. There can be three types of subjective influencesof the observer, namely, intellectual, physical and moral.

The germs are not visible to naked eyes. Many stars and planets are not

visible to us. A colour blind man cannot observe colours perfectly.

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Q.2.(b).What is the Utility of Observation in Business Research?

Answer: If our goal is to find an idea or business opportunity, we may

need information on the unmet needs of consumers, the most popularproducts, the most profitable businesses, new tastes, new fashions, etc.

In this case, using the observational technique would be to go tomarkets or shopping areas and see what are the most popular productsor services, which are the products ordered, but are not found, look atthe products that could be replaced by others who might have a betterreception, etc..If our goal is to analyze our target, we may need information about your

preferences, tastes, desires, behaviors, habits, etc.

In this case, using the observational technique would be to visit placeswhere our target audience frequents, and watch them walk around thearea, review products, ask questions, and choose certain products.If our goal is to analyze the competition, we may need information abouttheir products, processes, personnel, strategies, etc.

If our goal is to evaluate the feasibility of leasing a new location for ourbusiness, we may need information on customer traffic, localaccessibility, local visibility, etc.

In this case, using the observational technique could be to wanderaround the local area as possible, observe customer traffic in the areathroughout the day, the existence of local competition and the number ofvisitors they have, the environment in the area, etc.

The advantages of using the observation technique is that we can obtainaccurate information that could not otherwise obtain, for example,

information on spontaneous behaviors that occur only in everyday lifeand its natural resources, or information that people could not orunwilling to provide us for several reasons. Also, another advantage isthat the technique is inexpensive and easy to apply.

However, disadvantages of this technique are the inability to identifyemotions, attitudes, or the motivations that lead a consumer to performan act. It is always advisable to use it alongside other researchtechniques.

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Q. 2.(a).Briefly explain Interviewing techniques in BusinessResearch?

Answer: Interviewing a person requires good communication skills,presence of mind, and general sense of logic. Interviews can be ofdifferent types like business interview, research interview, mediainterview and so on.

Before the Interview

There are a few pointers which one must keep in mind before youactually interview a candidate. Here are some of the basic things thatyou need to keep in mind before the interview:

Make sure you inform the candidate about the venue and timing ofthe interview well in advance. Also it is considered polite to conveythe approximate duration of the interview to the candidate.

Before the interview you, make sure you have a clear idea of the

qualities and technical skills that you are looking out for. Plan the structure of the interview, determine if you want to keep it

a rigorous question answer session, or want the candidate tospeak his mind about general issues. If you want to keep it aquestion answer session, make sure you list down all the probablequestions and even if you want to make it an impromptu affair, it isbetter to list down the general points that you want to addressduring the interview.

In case you already have the candidates resume, reference lettersor any other documents which have been submitted beforehand,make it a point to go through the documents. It will give you anidea about the candidates educational qualification, workexperience and other useful information. This will help you answerbetter and more relevant questions.

At the end of the interview tell the candidate the period

The Actual Interview

Greet the person with a smile and a professional handshake. Makesure the candidate is comfortable. Do not intimidate the candidate.

Make sure to mention things from the candidates resume or othersubmitted material that you find impressive or problematic.

Do not ask personal questions during a job interview.

Listen carefully while your candidate speaks. Ask questions aboutthe things that the candidate mentions during the interview.

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After the InterviewAfter the interview, make sure you call up the candidate within thepromised time frame. Inform the decision, without beating around thebush. In case you have rejected the candidate, be polite while conveying

the message, and also assure that if in future the company needs theirservices, you will contact them for sure.Remember that interviewing a person is a tough job. Keep all the abovepoints in mind and rest assured that the interview will be a smoothsailing

Q.2.(b).What are the problems encountered in Interview?Answer: Problems EncounteredAs in most surveys, difficulties were encountered during the datacollection period, and several of these were similar across countries.One of the common problems encountered by the research teams wasthe limited time allocated, as the questionnaires were quite long (it tookapproximately 1-2 hours to complete one questionnaire).

For instance, in Thailand, some of the medium and large farms refusedto participate without prior appointment, and some gave vague answersand figures, underestimating values especially concerning sales andprofits (showing business loss over the years), because of fear thatrevealed information might be used against them as grounds for taxfraudulence charges. Some were hesitant to share information becausetheir integrators prohibit them from exposing it (particularly data oncapital investment, costs, and returns) to the interviewers. In such cases,interviewers had to look for replacements in order to meet the targetednumber of respondents.

It was difficult to find a sufficient sample for different types ofmanagement, such as independents and contracts, since in some

countries one or the other dominates. In Thailand, independent layerproducers dominated; in India, there were no contracts for layers. In thePhilippines, hog contract growers were concentrated in one or twoprovinces, large independent commercial broiler farms were difficult toidentify and locate because of outdated lists, and small independentswere extremely small (up to only 100 birds). In Brazil, contract andcommercial broiler growers were prevalent; while in India, there was noup-to-date information on the population of poultry farms, making itdifficult to select appropriate samples.

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Q.3.(a).What are the various steps in processing of data?Answer: 5 Steps To Data Processing

Data is an integral part of all business processes. It is the invisiblebackbone that supports all the operations and activities within abusiness. Without access to relevant data, businesses would getcompletely paralyzed. This is because quality data helps formulateeffective business strategies and fruitful business decisions.Here are the 5 steps that are included in data processing:EditingThere is a big difference between data and useful data. While there arehuge volumes of data available on the internet, useful data has to beextracted from the huge volumes of the same. Extracting relevant data is

one of the core procedures of data processing. When data has beenaccumulated from various sources, it is edited in order to discard theinappropriate data and retain relevant data.

CodingEven after the editing process, the available data is not in any specificorder. To make it more sensible and usable for further use, it needs tobe aligned into a particular system. The method of coding ensures justthat and arranges data in a comprehendible format. The process is also

known as netting or bucketing.

Data EntryAfter the data has been properly arranged and coded, it is entered intothe software that performs the eventual cross tabulation. Data entryprofessionals do the task efficiently.

ValidationAfter the cleansing phase, comes the validation process. Data validation

refers to the process of thoroughly checking the collected data to ensureoptimal quality levels. All the accumulated data is double checked inorder to ensure that it contains no inconsistencies and is utterly relevant.

TabulationThis is the final step in data processing. The final product i.e. the data istabulated and arranged in a systematic format so that it can be furtheranalyzed.

All these processes make up the complete data processing activitywhich ensures the said data is available for access.

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Q.3(b).How is data editing is done at the Time of Recording ofData?Answer: Processing of data is editing of the data instruments. Editing isa process of checking to detect and correct errors and omissions. Data

editing happens at two stages, one at the time of recording of the dataand second at the time of analysis of data.

Data Editings at the Time of Recording of Data

Document editing and testing of the data at the time of datarecording is done considering the following questions in mind.

1) Do the filters agree or are the data inconsistent?2) Have missing values been set to values, which are the same for

all research questions?3) Have variable descriptions been specified?4) Have lables for variable names and value lables been defined and

written?

All editing and cleaning steps are documented, so that, the redefinitionof variables or later analytical modification requirements could be easilyincorporated into the data sets.

Q.4.(a).What are the fundamental of frequency Distribution?

Answer: The fundamental frequency, often referred to simply as thefundamental and abbreviated f0 or F0, is defined as the lowest frequencyof a periodic waveform. In terms of a superposition of sinusoids (e.g.Fourier series), the fundamental frequency is the lowest frequencysinusoidal in the sum.

We can show a waveform is periodic by finding some period T for which

the following equation is true:x(t) = x(t + T) = x(t + 2T) = x(t + 3T) = ...Where x(t) is the function of the waveform.

This means that for multiples of some period T the value of the signal isalways the same. The lowest value of T for which this is true is called thefundamental period (T0) and thus the fundamental frequency (F0) is

given by the equation:

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Where F0 is the fundamental frequency and T0 is the fundamentalperiod.

The fundamental frequency of a sound wave in a tube with a single

CLOSED end can be found using the equation:

L can be found using the equation:

(lambda) can be found using the following equation:

The fundamental frequency of a sound wave in a tube with either bothends OPEN or both ends CLOSED can be found using the equation

L can be found using the equation:

The wavelength, which is the distance in the medium between the

beginning and end of a cycle, is found using the equation:

Where:

F0 = fundamental FrequencyL = length of the tubev = velocity of the sound wave = wavelength

At 20 C (68 F) the speed of sound in air is 343 m/s (1129 ft/s). Thisspeed is temperature dependent and does increase at a rate of 0.6 m/sfor each degree Celsius increase in temperature (1.1 ft/s for everyincrease of 1 F).

The velocity of a sound wave at different temperatures:-

v = 343.2 m/s at 20 C v = 331.3 m/s at 0 C

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[edit] Mechanical systems

Consider a beam, fixed at one end and having a mass attached to theother; this would be a single degree of freedom (SDoF) oscillator. Once

set into motion it will oscillate at its natural frequency. For a singledegree of freedom oscillator, a system in which the motion can bedescribed by a single coordinate, the natural frequency depends on twosystem properties: mass and stiffness. The radian frequency, n, can befound using the following equation:

Where:

k = stiffness of the beamm = mass of weightn = radian frequency (radians per second)

From the radian frequency, the natural frequency, fn, can be found bysimply dividing n by 2. Without first finding the radian frequency,the natural frequency can be found directly using:

Where:fn = natural frequency in hertz (cycles/second)k = stiffness of the beam (Newtons/Meter or N/m)m = mass at the end (kg)while doing the modal analysis of structures and mechanicalequipments, the frequency of 1st mode is called fundamentalfrequency.

Q.4.(b).What are the types and general rules for graphicalrepresentation of data?

Answer:General Rules for Drawing Graphs, Diagrams and Maps1. Selection of a Suitable Graphical Method

Each characteristic of the data can only be suitably represented by anappropriate graphical method. For example,

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To show the data related to the temperature or growth ofpopulation between different periods in time line graph are used.

Similarly, bar diagrams are used for showing rainfall or theproduction of commodities.

The population distribution, both human and livestock, or thedistribution of the crop producing areas are shown by dot maps.

The population density can be shown by choropleth maps.Thus, it is necessary and important to select suitable graphical methodto represent data.

1. Selection of Suitable ScaleEach diagram or map is drawn to a scale which is used to measure thedata. The scale must cover the entire data that is to be represented. The

scale should neither be too large nor toosmall.

Q.5.Strictly speaking, would case studies be considered asscientific research? Why or why not?

Answer: A case study is an intensive analysis of an individual unit

(e.g., a person, group, or event) stressing developmental factors inrelation to context. The case study is common in social sciences and lifesciences. Case studies may be descriptive or explanatory. The lattertype is used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles.They may be prospective, in which criteria are established and casesfitting the criteria are included as they become available, orretrospective, in which criteria are established for selecting cases fromhistorical records for inclusion in the study.

Case selection and structure of the case study

An average, or typical, case is often not the richest in information. Inclarifying lines of history and causation it is more useful to selectsubjects that offer an interesting, unusual or particularly revealing set ofcircumstances. A case selection that is based on representativeness willseldom be able to produce these kinds of insights. When selecting asubject for a case study, researchers will therefore use information-oriented sampling, as opposed to random sampling.Outlier cases (thatis, those which are extreme, deviant or atypical) reveal more information

than the putatively representative case. Alternatively, a case may beselected as a key case, chosen because of the inherent interest of the

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case or the circumstances surrounding it. Or it may be chosen becauseof researchers' in-depth local knowledge; where researchers have thislocal knowledge they are in a position to soak and poke as Fenno putsit, and thereby to offer reasoned lines of explanation based on this rich

knowledge of setting and circumstances.

Three types of cases may thus be distinguished:

1. Key cases2. Outlier cases3. Local knowledge cases

Generalizing from case studies

A critical case can be defined as having strategic importance in relationto the general problem. A critical case allows the following type ofgeneralization, If it is valid for this case, it is valid for all (or many)cases. In its negative form, the generalization would be, If it is not validfor this case, then it is not valid for any (or only few) cases.

Galileos view continued to be subjected to doubt, however, and theAristotelian view was not finally rejected until half a century later, withthe invention of the air pump. The air pump made it possible to conduct

the ultimate experiment, known by every pupil, whereby a coin or apiece of lead inside a vacuum tube falls with the same speed as afeather. After this experiment, Aristotles view could be maintained nolonger. What is especially worth noting, however, is that the matter wassettled by an individual case due to the clever choice of the extremes ofmetal and feather.

The Case Study Paradox

Case studies have existed as long as recorded history. Much of what is

known about the empirical world has been produced by case studyresearch, and many of the classics in a long range of disciplines arecase studies, including in psychology, sociology, anthropology, history,education, economics, political science, management, geography,biology, and medical science. Half of all articles in the top politicalscience journals use case studies, for instance. But there is a paradoxhere, as argued by Oxford professor Bent Flyvbjerg. At the same timethat case studies are extensively used and have produced canonicalworks, one may observe that the case study is generally held in low

regard, or is simply ignored, within the academy. Statistics on coursesoffered in universities confirm this. It has been argued that the case

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study paradox exists because the case study is widely misunderstood asa research method. Flyvbjerg argues that by clearing themisunderstandings about the case study, the case study paradox maybe resolved.

Q.6. (a). Analyse the case study and descriptive approach toresearch.

Answer: Descriptive research does not fit neatly into the definition ofeither quantitative or qualitative research methodologies, but instead itcan utilize elements of both, often within the same study. The termdescriptive research refers to the type of research question, design, anddata analysis that will be applied to a given topic. Descriptive statisticstell what is, while inferential statistics try to determine cause and effect.

Descriptive research can be either quantitative or qualitative. It caninvolve collections of quantitative information that can be tabulated alonga continuum in numerical form, such as scores on a test or the numberof times a person chooses to use a-certain feature of a multimediaprogram, or it can describe categories of information such as gender orpatterns of interaction when using technology in a group situation.

On the other hand, descriptive research might simply report the

percentage summary on a single variable. Examples of this are the tallyof reference citations in selected instructional design and technologyjournals by Anglin and Towers (1992); Barry's (1994) investigation of thecontroversy surrounding advertising and Channel One; Lu, Morlan,Lerchlorlarn, Lee, and Dike's (1993) investigation of the internationalutilization of media in education (1993); and Pettersson, Metallinos,Muffoletto, Shaw, and Takakuwa's (1993) analysis of the use of verbo-visual information in teaching geography in various countries.

The Nature of Descriptive Research

The descriptive function of research is heavily dependent oninstrumentation for measurement and observation (Borg & Gall, 1989).Researchers may work for many years to perfect such instrumentationso that the resulting measurement will be accurate, reliable, andgeneralizable.

A typical NAEP publication is The Reading Report Card, which providesdescriptive information about the reading achievement of junior high and

high school students during the past 2 decades.

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The methods of collecting data for descriptive research can be employedsingly or in various combinations, depending on the research questionsat hand. Descriptive research often calls upon quasi-experimentalresearch design (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). Some of the common data

collection methods applied to questions within the realm of descriptiveresearch include surveys, interviews, observations, and portfolios.

Q.6.(b).Distinguish between research methods & researchMethodology.

Answer: Research Methods vs Research Design

For those pursuing research in any field of study, both research methodsand research design hold great significance. There are many researchmethods that provide a loose framework or guidelines to conduct aresearch project. One has to choose a method that suits therequirements of the project and the researcher is comfortable with. Onthe other hand, research design is the specific framework within which aproject is pursued and completed. Many remain confused about thedifferences between research methods and research design.

It is a fact that despite there being scores of research methods, notevery method can perfectly match a particular research project. Thereare qualitative as well as quantitative research methods. These aregeneralized outlines that provide a framework and the choice isnarrowed down depending upon the area of research that you havechosen. Now that you have selected a particular research method, youneed to apply it in the best possible manner to your project. Researchdesign refers to the blue print that you prepare using the researchmethod chosen and it delineates the steps that you need to take.Research design thus tells what is to be done at what time. Research

design tells how the goals of a research project can be accomplished.Key features of any research design are methodology, collection andassignment of samples, collection and analysis of data along withprocedures and instruments to be used.

If one is not careful enough while choosing a research design and aresearch method, the results obtained from a research project may notbe satisfactory or may be anomalous. In such a situation, because of aflaw in the research design you may have to look for alternative research

methods which would necessitate changes in your research design aswell.