Communicating Across Cultures: Dutch Expatriates in Japan A ...

Communicating Across Cultures: Dutch Expatriates in Japan A Case Study in Tokyo

A Master Thesis Presented to Management of Cultural Diversity, The Faculty of Humanities, 2017-2018 Tilburg University

Titing Hung ANR Number: 2002702

Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Kutlay Yağmur Second reader: Dr. Camilla Spadavecchia

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Abstract In an age of fast growing workforce diversity, intercultural communication plays an increasingly important role in the field of international human resource management. Since communication is a cultural specific behavior, communicating with people from different cultures and linguistic backgrounds often causes misunderstandings or misinterpretations and communication breakdowns. In a fast globalizing world, many professionals, who are identified as expatriates or sojourners, are highly mobile and move around the globe. Cultural adaptation and intercultural competence of an expatriate are vital for them to communicate successfully. Lack of insight in other’s cultural practices, such as nonverbal messages and cultural behaviours, and not understanding culturally loaded messages lead to communication problems. They also limit the effectiveness of communication. In this Thesis, I compare and contrast the groups of professionals from two diverse cultural backgrounds. The cultural difficulties of Dutch expatriates in communicating with the Japanese professionals are investigated. Japanese culture is considered to be closed and unique. Besides, it is considered to be very different from western cultures and the Japanese tend to have a strong in-group cultural identity, which might lead to cognitive barriers when communicating with foreigners. Many western expatriates have reported difficulties in communicating with the local Japanese. This study will therefore examine the factors that lead to cultural misunderstandings, cultural misinterpretation and communication breakdowns in host-expatriate communication. Results show a balance in cultural adaptation, the intercultural competence and the ability to get through the barriers in spite of the differences in language, nonverbal cues, and cognition. It is suggested that the best way in dealing with cultural differences is having respect for the differences and appreciating the new culture. Taking contextual factors into consideration in dealing with challenges is important. Finally, sufficient time is needed for cultural adaptation and mental preparation so that expatriates can deal with frustrations caused by the difficulties. Keywords: Intercultural communication, Dutch Expatriate, Japan, Cultural adaptation, Cultural Competence, Communication Barrier, International human resource management, Talent retention

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Preface This thesis is written as a completion of the master education in the program of Management of Cultural Diversity, at Tilburg University. The interest in this research originally stemmed from my personal experience of culture shock in Japan and in the Netherlands. As a middlemen between the two cultures, I wondered how a Dutch professional would experience Japan. Hence, I decided to go to Tokyo, Japan to look for the answer. I not only had a pleasant time learning about the experiences of the participants but also largely expanded my knowledge of intercultural communication and diversity management.

I could not have finished this paper without a strong support group. Fortunately, I was not alone on this road. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Kutlay Yağmur for his patient guidance and precious comments. I would also like to thank all the other professors in this master program, who have taught me much. I wish to thank all of the warm-hearted respondents without whose sharing of experiences and willingness to participate I would not have been able to conduct this paper. Last but not least, I also want to take the chance to express my heartfelt thanks to my family and friends. My boyfriend Kevin deserve a particular note of thanks: your amazing support has, as always, served me well. I hope you enjoy your reading. Titing Hung Tilburg, August, 2108

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Table of contents

Abstract 2

Preface 3

Table of contents 4

Chapter 1. Introduction and problem statement 6

Chapter 2. Theoretical background 9 2.1. Retention of talent and effective communication 9 2.2. Communication, culture, and intercultural communication 9 2.3. Cultural differences 11

2.3.1 High and low context culture 11 2.3.2. Face concern and conflict 12

2.4. Cultural adaptation: short term adaptation 13 2.5. Intercultural communication competence 15 2.6. Intercultural communication variables 16

2.6.1. Nonverbal communication as a barrier 16 2.6.2.1 Japanese nonverbal expression 17

2.6.2. Language as a barrier. 19 2.6.3. Cognitive barriers 20

2.6.3.1. Identity 20 2.6.3.2. Other cognition barriers 21

2.7. Women Expatriates in Japan 22

Chapter 3. Methodology 24 3.1. Epistemology and approach 24 3.2. Sample strategy 24 3.3 Participants 25 3.4. Data collection 27 3.5. Transcription and data analysis 27 3.6. Research quality indicators 28

Chapter 4. Results 29 4.1. Perception of Cultural differences 29

4.1.1. Communication style 29 4.1.2. Delivery of the work 32

4.1.2.1. Work pace 32 4.1.2.2. Decision making 33

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4.1.3. Building relationships: Coffee or Alcohol 35 4.2. Differences beyond culture 36 4.3. Cultural adaptation 37

4.3.1. Culture 37 4.3.2. Language 39

4.4. Communication Barriers 40 4.4.1. Nonverbal signal 40 4.4.2. Language 40 4.4.3. Cognition barrier 42

4.5. Suggestions 42

Chapter 5. Conclusions 44 5.1. Conclusions 44

5.1.1. Cultural adaptation 44 5.1.2. Intercultural competences (ICC) 48 5.1.3. Communication barriers 49 5.1.4. Miscommunication 50

5.2. Discussion 51 5.3. Limitations and future research 52 5.4. Recommendations 53

Literature references 55

Appendices 61 Appendix A. Figures 61 Appendix B. The interview guide. 64

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Chapter 1. Introduction and problem statement Communication is an important tool for the dissemination of information and for reaching mutual understanding. Therefore, it is an imperative factor in the effective functioning of an organization, both internally and externally. It is evident that communication contributes significantly to sustainable, long-term organizational success (Kittler, Rygl & Mackinnon, 2011). Nevertheless, achieving appropriate and effective communication is not an easy task, and especially intercultural communication since it is a highly culture-specific behavior.

Applegate & Sypher (1988) indicated that culture defines the logic of communication. It has an interpretative function for the members of a group, which share that particular culture. Accordingly, it is commonly believed that intercultural communication (IC) is more fragile than intracultural communication. It tends to cause more problems which stem from misunderstanding or misinterpretation of the given message, and impair attempts in achieving successful communicative outcomes and to remedy communication breakdown. Yet, as globalization increases the pace of workforce diversity, it is crucial to recognize the challenges of IC, especially when it comes to cultures with distinct values and communication styles. It is an increasingly important subject in international human resource management (Kotthoff & Spencer-Oatey, 2009). According to Harzing and Van Ruysseveldt (2004), effective and open communication is the first requirement in retaining global talent successfully.

Problems encountered by western expatriates communicating with the Japanese has confirmed this challenge. Japanese culture is considered to be unique and very different from western cultures. There are innumerable studies that demonstrate the communicative challenges between Japanese and westerners. For instance, a great volume of studies focus on the cultural and communication challenges between North Americans and the Japanese ( Jackson, 2014). Pittam, Gallois, Iwawaki & Kroonenberg (1995) wrote about the differences between Australian and Japanese concepts of expressive behavior. Peltokorpi (2006, 2008, 2010) carried out several research projects on Nordic expatriates in Japan. The majority of the earlier studies regarding intercultural communication conclude that IC appropriateness and effectiveness of the sojourner relies on effective cross-cultural adaptation. Others argue in favour of the importance of intercultural communication competences (ICC) (Imahori & Lanigan, 1989). The latter authors emphasize the need to integrate the above mentioned competences as well as other influential variables to achieve successful IC.

Therefore, successful adjustment to the new language and cultural context within the host country is fundamental and vital for expatriates to succeed in the establishment of appropriateness and effectiveness in communication. This argument holds especially true in Japan. Nishiyama (2000) indicate that:

‘Many foreigners coming to live and work in Japan, especially Westerners, naively assuming that it is a modern cosmopolitan country, are not well prepared to encounter the vast cultural differences they will have to face. They will undoubtedly experience severe culture shock, and they will need to make physical, mental, and psychological adjustments.’ (p. 175)

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For successful adaptation to a new cultural environment, the motivation, knowledge and skills of cultural adaptation, including culture and language, are the first decisive factors (Lutig & Koester, 2013). In this study, the definition of expatriates follows McNulty & Brewster’s (2017, p.46) that expatriates are ‘individuals who reside temporarily in a country of which they are not a citizen, being relocated abroad either by an organization, by self-initiation or directly employed within the host-country.’ Expatriates would formulate a different goal compared to those who intend a long-term stay in the country. Empirical evidence confirm that many companies’ overseas staff were unable to effectively cope with foreign social and business practices by reason of ‘easing the temporary but often bewildering transition in a new environment’ (Gudykunst, 2005, p. 246). This could pose challenges for them to formulate successful adaptation and communication with the Japanese. Besides, as mentioned, successful communication requires mutual understanding. There is need for both communicating parties to have understanding and the ability to adapt to the other culture. Therefore, adaptation is also necessary for host-country nationals. Moreover, ICC is essential for expatriates to communicate effectively and appropriately in cross cultural interactions. Some key components of these competences include motivation, self- and other knowledge, and tolerance for uncertainty (Jones, 2013).

Furthermore, Jandt (2016) indicates three important influential variables for intercultural communication: nonverbal communication barriers, language barriers, and cognitive barriers. Firstly, not all nonverbal cues have the same meaning or are interpreted in the same way in different cultures, and the importance that each culture places on nonverbal expressions are not necessarily similar. This gap could easily lead to misreading or to overlooking the given nonverbal cues delivered when people are interacting across cultures, and eventually lead to miscommunication. Secondly, language plays a significant role in communication. Different cultural languages challenge the sending of verbal signals and messages.

The final barrier suggested by Jandt is the cognitive barrier. The gap between subscribed and ascribed identity of the communicators can lead to failure in communication. Accordingly, the identity gap happens more often in cross-cultural relationships. In addition, social identification is also a factor that influences communicative outcome (Stephan & Stephan, as cited in Gudykunst & Mody, 2001). Tajfel & Turner’s (1979) Social Identity Theory (SIT) illustrate that individuals tend to favour in-group members with whom they identify and build a boundary relative to out-group members. The Japanese have a strong sense of cultural identity and they tend to regard foreigners as outsiders (Schütte, 2013). It is very difficult for an outsider to have appropriate and effective communication with the Japanese. Jandt (2016) suggests several other barriers caused by cognition, including ethnocentrism, stereotypes, anxiety, assuming similarity instead of differences, and prejudice, all of which create difficulties in communication.

Since there is an increasing number of Dutch expatriates in Japan, I propose a research to deepen our understanding of the communicative challenges faced by Dutch expatriates in Japan. According to Meyer’s (2014) cultural map, Dutch and Japanese cultures differs distinctly in that Japanese, as a High Context Culture, and Dutch, as a Low Context Culture, are representative of opposite poles of the spectrum (Figure 1). Given the lack of research on the interaction between these two cultures, this study would contribute in filling an important gap in

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intercultural communication research. Furthermore, although this research mainly focus on the difficulties that Dutch expatriates face, the communication difficulties relative to the side of the Japanese are also included, since communication is an interactive process.

This research is based on the conviction that appropriate and effective communication can only be achieved through mutual-understanding (Jones, 2013). The following research question and subset of questions are central to the study:

Research Question: Which factors lead to: (i) cultural misunderstanding and cultural misinterpretation in

communication between Dutch expatriates in Japan and host-nationals, and (ii) communication breakdown based on the cultural differences between them?

Sub-Questions:

1. What is the level of awareness among Dutch expatriates and host-country

nationals with regard to the differences between their respective cultures? How does this influence their communication?

2. What are the factors that lead to the unwillingness of Dutch expatriates and host-country nationals in adapting to the differences in language and culture of host country nationals, and vice versa? How does this influence their communication?

3. What are the factors that lead to the failure in adaptation to language and cultural differences for both Dutch expatriates and host-country nationals even when they are willing to make the necessary adjustments? How does this influence their communication?

4. What are the most reported intercultural incompetencies of Dutch expatriates and host-country nationals? How does this influence their communication?

5. What are the most reported intercultural communication barriers, including nonverbal communication barriers, language barriers, and cognition barriers, in local-expatriates communication? How does this influence their communication?

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Chapter 2. Theoretical background

2.1. Retention of talent and effective communication Most employers worldwide suffer from a shortage of suitable talent in their talent markets to fulfil their needs (Strack et al., as cited in Tarique & Schuler, 2010). According to McKinsey's study in 2015 (as cited in Nguyen-Phuong-Mai, 2017), the 'War for Talent' has become more competitive because of the demographic shifts in global workforce. A recent international research revealed that merely 13 percent of its participants are actively engaged at their work (Nguyen-Phuong-Mai, 2017). Society for Human Resource Management and Wall Street Journal Job Recovery Study (as cited in Frank & Taylor, 2004) demonstrated that 80 percent of the employees surveyed intended to change their jobs when they get the chance. Another survey, the Conference Board survey (as cited in Frank & Taylor, 2004), present the highest employee discontent rate since the survey began in 1995. With the increase of competition, availability of multiple opportunities, and low levels of satisfaction of employers, employees are becoming increasingly less patient and more prone to switch jobs. These numbers have raised an awareness to pay more attention to the issues of employee disengagement. An ICP study (2016) shows that disengaged workers and early talent turnover lead to high sunk costs, disengagement costs (34% of annual salary), replacement costs (up to 400% of annual salary for one expert) and the waste of time. Although talent retention plays a crucial role in today’s global talent market, money is not the only important or major factor in retaining talents. Research shows a positive relationship between appropriate and effective communication and the intention of talents to stay (e.g. Horwitz, Heng & Quazi, 2003; Frank & Taylor, 2004; Allen, Bryant & Vardaman, 2010). Bastien (1987) revealed that non-effective communication increase uncertainty and anxiety, which may lead to employee dissatisfaction and increased turnover.

According to OECD Economic Surveys (2017), Japan is the third-largest economy in the world by nominal Gross Domestic Product and the fourth-largest by Purchasing Power Parity. Many talents are attracted by Japan’s leading role in the world economy. Moreover, the country is well known for its high-quality infrastructure, good living conditions, and unique culture, which according to ICP (2016) are all important talent attractions. However, research reports the difficulties in communication between expatriates and the host-nationals (Jackson, 2014; Peltokorpi, 2006, 2008, 2010). These difficulties may increase the frustration of expatriates both at work and in their personal lives, and also decrease their passion to stay in the country.

2.2. Communication, culture, and intercultural communication It is important to understand communication and its processes in achieving effective IC. Lustig and Koester (2013) recognize six characteristics of communication and define it as ‘a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual process in which people create shared meanings’ (p.12): 1. Communication is commonly believed to be symbolic and viewed as ‘social interaction

through symbols and message systems’ (Gerbner, as cited in Miller, 2005, p, 4). A symbol can be a word, an action, or an object which signify the meaning of a unit. Meaning is a perception,

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a thought, a sense, or a feeling that an individual receive, which can be delivered only by means of a message (Lustig & Koester, 2013) . 2. Communication is an interpretive process. A delivered message must be interpreted by the receiver to make sense of it. When there is a gap between the intended ‘conveyed meaning’ and the ‘interpreted meaning’, mutual understanding and agreement are difficult to achieve. 3. Communication is transactional in that all communicators within one conversation simultaneously send and receive messages and sustain a meaning developed within. 4. Communication is considered to be contextual. Various contextual factors, including physical context, social context, and interpersonal context, influence the communication process. 5. Communication is also a dynamic process since it is a moving and developing chain of many distinct but interrelated steps. 6. Communication involves shared meanings. With its interpretative and transactional nature, communication require communicators to shared symbols and message systems so that the given message can be understood as intended. Such a unique message system is typically endemic to a particular culture.

According to James, Balding and Harris (2012), culture is a historically and socially created and transmitted system, which is shared by a specific group. Individuals learn about their culture as they interact with others while they are socializing. It is the property of a group of people rather than of an individual. The meaning of a verbal word or nonverbal behavior is co-determined by a group. Goodenough (as cited in Sharifian, 2015) also describes culture as ‘the forms of things that people have in mind, their models for perceiving, relating, and otherwise interpreting them’ (p. 388). Culture consists of ‘a fuzzy set of basic assumptions and values, orientations to life, beliefs, policies, procedures and behavioural conventions that are shared by a group of people’ (Spencer-Oatey, 2008, p.3). Consequently individuals from the same culture group can share thought and behavioural guidelines that enable them to interpret messages in a similar way. In this sense, there is an important link between culture and communication. The exchanged messages are interpreted through that ‘fuzzy set’ of culture by the receiver. Common cultural denominators allow the sender and the receiver to have a mutual understanding of their communication, enabling the transaction process to continue. However, everyone’s cultural framework is shaped by more than one culture since people are influenced by their upbringing, by society, etc. These cultural influences can differ significantly. Scollon and Scollon (as cited in Kaur, 2011) indicate that:

‘When we are communicating with people who are very different from us, it is very difficult to know how to draw inferences about what they mean, and so it is impossible to depend on shared knowledge and background for confidence in our interpretations.’ (p. 94)

It is more challenging to communicate with people from distinct cultures since it is an attempt to create and share meanings with individuals who have clearly defined symbols and message systems. In addition, the greater the differences between two cultures, the more challenging the intercultural communication processes become. Stephan and Stephan (as cited in Gudykunst &

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Mody, 2001) imply that ‘people commonly misconstrue or misconceive the behaviors of individuals from other cultures because they view these behaviors within the framework of the values, beliefs, and norms of their own culture’ (p.127).

IC mostly refers to the communication ‘’between people from different national cultures, and many scholars limit it to face-to-face communication’’ (Gudykunst & Mody, 2001, p. 179). Competent communication ‘is interaction that is perceived as effective in fulfilling certain rewarding objectives in a way that is also appropriate to the context in which the interaction occurs’ (Spitzberg et al., as cited in Lustig & Koester, 2013, p.61). It is suggested that there are two approaches in dealing with IC: The encyclopedic approach and the self-reflective approach (Siebers, 2017). An encyclopedic approach suggests ‘making the strange familiar’. This approach put forward that one is familiar with the customs and habits of the culture that you are communicating with. Learning and trying to adapt are preconditions for successful interactive outcomes. Yet, the problem with this approach is firstly that this is sometimes based on stereotypes. It reduces the complexity of a culture to a limited set of guidelines for behaviour, and rules out individual differences. Secondly, it is difficult to retain knowledge of all the cultures in one’s brain. Thirdly, when individuals consider communication with others with set cultural guidelines, it can block the observation about how people really act and interact. The second approach, the self-reflective approach, proposes ‘making the familiar strange’, and the aim is to encourage people to reflect on and to contextualize their experience in dealing with the IC issues that they face instead of following cultural guidelines strictly.

2.3. Cultural differences Culture is an abstract concept composed of values, beliefs, and norms of a group that cannot be easily measured. Hence, many researchers create patterns or value dimensions to identify the differences between different cultures. Hall’s (1976) High Context and Low Context Cultural model will be introduced and used in this research to identify the differences between Dutch and Japanese culture. However, it is relevant to point out that there are various critiques on this culture-general conceptual model. These critiques point out the lack of a complete argument as to whether these models are in fact culture general or not (Arasaratnam & Doerfel, 2005). Bird and Osland (2002) describe these type of culture studies as ‘sophisticated stereotyping’, which do not convey the complexity within cultures. Søderberg (2002) holds a similar argument that these out-of-date intercultural studies make generalizations and oversimplify cultures. They do not examine the ‘social variation, diversity, and power relations within a nation or an organization, or between nations and organizations’ (p. 108). Nevertheless, it is still reasonable to believe that there are similarities in the same culture. There are factors that produce at least some degree of homogeneity in these interactions within particular cultural groups such as education, nationalism, and media. It helps us to understand a culture on a basic level.

2.3.1 High and low context culture Hall (1976) describes IC as a form of communication that aims to share information

across different cultures and social groups. He categorizes the cultures relative to two dimensions as high context (HC) and low context (LC) cultures: ‘the cultures of the world can be

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compared on a scale from high to low context’ (Hall & Hall, 1990, p.6). According to Katan (2004) context can be understood as ‘stored information’ or ‘the amount of information the other person can be expected to possess on a given subject, while the text is transmitted information’ (p. 245). The main difference between two sides of the scale is the importance that each culture places on the delivered context and the actual message. Hall (2016) explained that a high-context communication or message is ‘‘one in which most of the information is either in the physical context or internalized in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message’’ (p. 91). Therefore, not everything is verbally delivered and the unspoken part of the messages is important. Accordingly, a great deal of background information is required to fully understand the complete message,

By contrast, LC culture is straightforward and explicit. The spoken context carries out all the important things that need to be delivered. HC relies on the context-oriented communication and LC relies on the content-oriented communication. Despite the fact that Hall’s model is often criticized by scholars for its oversimplification, many empirical researchers have supported his framework. Therefore, it remains useful as a tool in recognizing the key differences between cultures.

Hall & Hall (1990) constructed a table that categorizes different countries (Figure 2.) from the highest context nation at the top to the lowest context nation at the bottom. Japan, representing a HC culture, is listed first on the table. However, Hall & Hall’s table (1990) does not list the Netherlands. The category “German-speaking countries” which represent LC culture, is considered to be the closest match. Meyer (2014) constructed a culture map (Figure 1.) based on Hall’s HC and LC framework. This culture map positions the Netherlands as a LC culture, which confirms the previous assumption. A there is clearly a difference between the two communication styles communication between the two ends could easily go awry, especially in an organizational setting that contains many different stakeholders.

2.3.2. Face concern and conflict It is evident from previous cross-cultural studies that face threatening speech acts is an important source of cross-cultural miscommunication (Beebe & Takahashi, 1989). The concept of face can be seen as ‘the public self-image that every member wants for himself’ (Brown and Levinson, 1978, p. 66). Face threatening act occurs when these acts intrinsically threaten the face of the interlocutor in social interactions, which may lead to conflict. The potential severity of a face threatening speech act and conflict are driven by certain social variables as well as one’s ability of self-control (Ting-Toomey & Oetzel, as cited in Gudykunst & Mody, 2001).

It is suggested that the individualism-collectivism in society is the key variable. The authors explain that:

‘Individualism is a cultural pattern that consists of loosely linked individuals who

view themselves as independent of collectives and who give priority to their personal goals over the goals of others. Collectivism is a cultural pattern consisting of closely

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linked individuals who view themselves as one or more collectives (family, coworkers, tribe, nation) and are willing to give the priority to the goals of these collectives over their own personal goals’ (p.144)

People from an individualistic culture tend to value their own interests and distribute power more equally and disagree relative to high power distance. Power distance is “the social distance of the speaker and the hearer; the relative power of the speaker and the hearer; and the absolute ranking of imposition in a particular culture” (Cutrone, 2011, p. 52). In a low power culture people have more direct confrontations more often. By contrast, people in collectivistic and in high power distance society, value more collectivistic goals and are expected to accept that the power is distributed unequally. Less powerful members tend to follow the order of the more powerful members. They try to avoid conflict as much as possible in order to maintain the harmony of the social group.

Ting-Toomey (as cited in Jandt, 2016) further suggests that because LC cultures are considered to be individualistic and they value self-interest, they use more direct-face negotiation and express themselves in a manner relative to self-face maintenance. On the other hand, HC cultures tend to use more indirect-face negotiation and maintain more mutual-face and other-face since it is a collectivistic culture. When communicators in a conversation have very different cultural norms and politeness strategies, it is more difficult for them to achieve good communication outcomes. Therefore, Dutch culture, as a LC culture, is more individualistic and has less power distance. They have a preference towards direct-face negotiation. By contrast, the power distribution in Japanese culture is less equal. They tend to prefer indirect-face negotiation. Consequently, when individuals from these two cultural backgrounds communicate with one another, it can be problematic if no cultural adaptations have been made.

The ability of self control is another key variable in dealing with face concerns. Self control is relative to one’s self-image, which is the composition of the individual-self and interdependent-self (Markus & Kitayama, as cited in Ting-Toomey & Oetzel, 2001). The former is the unique self that has an individuated repertoire of feelings, cognitions, and motivations. The latter is the self that seeks for a relational connection. People make different decisions during their human interactions, depending on which ‘self’ is dominant, thereby influencing how they deal with disagreements or conflict. When the individual-self speaks, people tend to defend their ideas or way of doing things. By contrast, when the interdependent-self is dominant, they try to maintain relational connections and to avoid conflict.

2.4. Cultural adaptation: short term adaptation When sojourners enter a new culture, attempting to work and live in the new cultural

environment, they inevitably experience culture shock (Gudykunst, 2005). Bochner (2003) suggests that the determinants of culture shock include the difference in the things that an individual regard as important, the culture-distance, and the differences in core values. Culture shock can be understood as “as the psychological disorientation experienced by people who suddenly enter radically different cultural environments to live and work” (Xia, 2009, p. 97). They

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do not know the social rules that guide the members that inhabit this ‘new’ world and that now surround them. This can lead to escalating anxiety and uncertainty.

Therefore, it is necessary for sojourners to adapt to the host culture. The majority of IC studies also imply that cultural adaptation is a must for appropriate and effective IC. Adaptation can be defined as ‘the dynamic process by which individuals, upon relocating to an unfamiliar cultural environment, establish (or reestablish) and maintain a relatively stable, reciprocal, and functional relationship with the environment’ (Gudykunst & Mody, 2001, p.260). The authors indicate that the goal of such cultural adaptation is to achieve overall ‘person-environment fit’ that allows an individual to function appropriately within specific environmental conditions by adapting one’s internal cultural structure, and also adapting to the external pressure of environment.

To deal with the issue of cultural adaptation, Gullahorn and Gullahorn (1963) proposed a W-curve model, which is the extension of the U-curve introduced by Lysgaard in 1955. Although the utility of the W-curve theory is also challenged by several researchers, it still provides a useful framework in identifying the psychological and socio-cultural elements of sojourners’ experiences (Warner, 2011). The W-curve model illustrate that a sojourner experiences culture shock in five stages: (i) Honeymoon, (ii) Culture Shock, (iii) Initial Adjustment (iv) Mental Isolation, and (v) Acceptance and Integration (figure 3). The first, honeymoon stage, usually occurs prior to the arrival in the host country and it can stick around shortly after. Generally newly arrived sojourners mostly experience excitement and curiosity relative to the new environment during this phase. During the second stage the excitement wears off, the ‘shock’ of the new sets in and then they try to find ways to deal with this. Sojourners must adjust to a new set of physical surroundings, but the reality of the latter may be different to their expectations or from their prior experience. This can lead to negative feelings such as frustration, discomfort, recoil and self-doubt. Nevertheless, as time passes, sojourners may enter the stage of Initial Adjustment. During this stage, adjustment to physical surroundings has been accomplished. At the fourth stage, sojourners could start to question themselves again. Even if they are more familiar with the physical surroundings, feelings of mental isolation emerge. They often feel isolated by their environment and their values are challenged. Yet, it is reported that this stage is easier to go through if they have a person with whom they can share their feelings. This could introduce the next stage when their self confidence rebounds. They start to feel more integrated into their new environment and see more similarities in values rather than viewing things as abnormal, and focusing on differences.

Scholars define three elements as decisive factors relative to success in intercultural adaptation: motivation, knowledge and skills (Imahori and Lanigan, 1989; Lutig & Koester, 2013).

1. Motivation The motivation to communicate interculturally refers to a ‘’set of feelings, intentions,

needs, and drives associated with the anticipation of or actual engagement in intercultural communication’’ (Wiseman, 2002, p. 211). It relates to the overall set of emotional associations, including feelings and intentions, as individuals anticipate and actually facilitate IC (Lutig & Koester, 2013).

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2. Knowledge Wiseman, Hammer, and Nishida’s research (as cited in Imahori and Lanigan, 1989)

reveal the significant role of knowledge. The need for cultural knowledge stems from the cultural differences of communicators who should be equipped with both culture-general information and culture-specific information (Lustig & Koester, 2013). Cultural awareness could be described as ‘the heightened ability of individuals to understand and to internalize their own cultural values, beliefs, and unique characteristics (i.e. worldview), while comprehending that others may not share those same values, beliefs and characteristics’ (Hovater, 2007, p.6). Without understanding the influence and importance of cultural values and differences, there could be a risk that an individual may engage in cultural insensitivity and accidentally impose his or her own prejudices on others. Wiseman (2002) suggests that ‘’a knowledgeable communicator needs information about the people, the communication rules, the context, and the normative expectations governing the interaction with the member of another culture’’ (p. 211).

3. Skills Scholars also single out the importance of skills in effective cultural adaptation for IC

(Imahori and Lanigan, 1989). Skills can be termed as the ability to actually carry out appropriate and effective actions in cultural adaptation relative to IC (Lustig & Koester, 2013). The authors also propose that these three elements, motivation, knowledge, and skills, are indispensable for cultural adaptation in successful IC. Gudykunst (2005) indicates that the cultural adaptation is especially important for those who are in a foreign country when they attempt to communicate with the local people. The author also points out that the cultural adaptation behaviour of those with the intention of only a short term stay would be different to those who intend to reside there permanently.

2.5. Intercultural communication competence It is commonly argued that ICC is the key ability in today’s highly diversified business environment. Deardorff (2006) define intercultural competence as the ability to develop targeted knowledge, skills and attitudes that lead to visible behaviour and communication that are both effective and appropriate in intercultural interactions. The researcher formulated an ICC model and concluded with five elements that comprise ICC. Furthermore, the ICC is conceptualized as a continuous circular process (figure 4). Therefore it is impossible for an individual to become completely interculturally competent. It is a lifelong learning process which always allows room for further development.

Firstly, based on the result of the research, Deardorff identified a number of requisite attitudes such as openness, curiosity and discovery, and respect. Openness and curiosity refers to one’s willingness to leave the comfort zone, whereas an attitude of discovery means that one is enthusiastic in approaching others’ culture and values. The attitude of respect implies that one fully appreciates and values cultural diversity. These attitudes are foundational for moving on to the next stage. Deardorff includes knowledge and skills as competences in the model. Knowledge refers to cultural self-awareness, culture-specific knowledge, deep understanding of culture and sociolinguistic awareness. Cultural self-awareness is to understand how one’s

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culture influences one’s identity and worldview. Having culture-specific knowledge means that one is better equipped to understand others’ culture and culture driven behavior. Deep cultural knowledge is the understanding of others’ world view and the role and impact of culture. Lastly, sociolinguistic awareness is the awareness of the diversity of language. The knowledge discussed above enables an individual to understand others’ thoughts and perspectives. The processing of knowledge lead to the acquisition of certain skills: observe, listen, evaluate, analyze, interpret, and relate. The third stage specifies the internal outcomes. In an ideal situation, the competencies developed in previous stages will result in an internal informed frame of reference which consists of flexibility, adaptability, an ethnorelative perspective and empathy. Individuals would have acquired the ability to put themselves in others’ shoes and see things from the perspective of the interactant and react in a pleasing or desirable way. The last stage that is suggested is the external outcome, which is the visible outcome of the abovementioned development process as experienced by others. This enables an individual to reach ‘effective and appropriate behavior and communication in intercultural situations’ (p.249).

Since communication is also an interactive process, all the interactants’ satisfactions must be fulfilled in achieving ICC. All of the interactants are responsible to actively participate in the process to achieve successful communication. In line with the interactive nature of communication, Imahori and Lanigan (1989) argue that in IC, ‘a highly competent sojourner not only adapts his/her behavior to the host-nation but also helps the host-nationals to adjust their behaviors’ (p. 274).

In addition, Koester and Olebe’s research (as cited in Imahori and Lanigan, 1989) reveal that when communicators can develop better intercultural relationships, they exhibit characteristics of close interpersonal relationships, such as: (i) intimacy, (ii) relational stability and commitment, (iii) a high degree of interpersonal knowledge, and (iv) idiosyncratic rules. Gudykunst and Kim (as cited in Imahori and Lanigan, 1989) agree with this viewpoint. They suggest that when an intercultural relationship develops into intimacy, this relationship would develop from ‘a cultural level of knowledge to the psychological level of knowledge’ (p.275).

2.6. Intercultural communication variables

2.6.1. Nonverbal communication as a barrier The messages in communication can be encoded in two types of symbols: unspoken and spoken words. This section will firstly deal with the barrier created by unspoken symbols in nonverbal communication (NVC). Burgoon, Boller, & Woodall (Jandt, 2016) define NVC as ‘those actions and attributes of humans that have socially shared meaning, are intentionally sent or interpreted as intentional, are consciously sent or consciously received, and have the potential for feedback from the receiver’. Also, it has the function of replacing spoken messages. It enables messages to be sent across language barriers. For instance, it can assist in sending out negative messages and in reducing discomfort. It also assists in formatting impressions that could guide communication, making relationships clear, regulating interaction, and reinforcing and modifying verbal messages (Jandt, 2016).

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Although nonverbal communication is a universal phenomenon, the meanings of nonverbal cues are not. For instance, in many countries nodding of the head means approval and shaking one’s head signals disagreement; yet in some cultures it has a completely opposite meaning. However, Jandt indicates that people easily recognize the differences in spoken language, and often assume that they also understand nonverbal expressions. This creates a great risk for misinterpretation. Furthermore, different cultures use nonverbal expressions in different ways. As discussed previously, HC rely heavily on nonverbal communication, and LC to a lesser extent. With such differences, the intended nonverbal cues are sometimes misrecognized whilst unintended ones can be overinterpreted.

2.6.2.1 Japanese nonverbal expression

As mentioned before, Hall (1976) made it clear that in Japanese communication, non-verbal codes play crucial roles in term of expression and style. McDaniel (2006) points out that the cultural similitude of nonverbal messages leads to an intuitive, nonverbal comprehension by diminishing the requirement to orally specify numerous details. Their importance even outweigh the verbal aspects of communication and verbal means are considered as secondary and often unreliable. Clancy (1986) also explains that ’Japanese have little faith in verbal expression or in those who rely on it’ (p.241). Befu (McDaniel, 2006) states that Japanese people frequently mean the opposite of what is verbally said. An often used example is the term "いい". Depends on the context, it can mean yes or no but in a polite way. You can only differentiate its meaning by the speaker’s nonverbal expressions. It is commonly known that in Japanese culture, the social protocol calls for utmost attention to the right ‘atmosphere’. Knowing how to read the air (atmosphere), is considered to be essential for smooth communication. However, for foreigners these nonverbal cues are tricky to recognize and to take the hint.

There is a variety of body language in Japanese culture. However, body language is used differently when communicating with different people, and in different situations. Japanese are often more expressive with their body language when they are dealing with in-group members (McDaniel, 2006). Richie (as cited in McDaniel, 2006) indicated that the Japanese never use hand gestures to refer to a person who is present in a conversation since this is considered to be impolite. Furthermore, according to McDaniel (2006) bowing is considered to be the most important body language in Japanese culture. Ikeguchi’s (2003) research concluded that bowing in Japan serves different functions: (i) signifying the start of a relationship (ii) an affect display (iii) emphasizing an oral statement (iv) an aid in verbal utterances (v) a means to resolve conflict and (vi) a habit or ritual. However, executing the bow improperly can be dangerous and considered to be a significant insult. Bowing is to respect and it denotes hierarchical status relative to age or status, from the youngest (lowest) to the oldest (highest). He or she must ensure that the bow is lower than that of the superior person, who determines how long the bow will take. If both communicators are of equal status, they begin the bow in the same manner and end at the same time (Wang, 2009). However, although Japanese use a lot of body language while communicating, they use only a few arm movements or arm gestures (Varner, 2005). In most western cultures big arm movements or arm gestures are used as power posing to enhance speakers’ confidence and to convince the listener. To the contrary, the Japanese consider it to be threatening to the harmony of the group. Moreover, according to

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Pease and Pease (2004), the Japanese way of listening to someone involves a repertoire of smiley nods. It represents politeness, indicating that the listener is paying attention. However for Westerners and Europeans, this a signal of agreement, which often causes misinterpretation.

Japanese do not normally show emotions through public facial displays since they highly emphasize harmony in their culture. Ekman (1972) points out that the Japanese tend to mask negative feelings, especially when dealing with outgroup members. Smiling is often used to cover their annoyance (Morsbach, 1973), to avoid answering a question or a negative answer (McDaniel, 2006). It can be very confusing for western foreigners since it is very different from their culture and difficult to decipher. Bond & Kornai’s (as cited in McDaniel, 2006) experiment determined that the Japanese often feel uncomfortable and agitated when subjected to an interviewer's gaze. March (1990) mark that the avoidance of eye contact, for instance looking away from the speaker or sitting silently with eyes closed, indicate attentiveness and possibly agreement, which is exactly the opposite of many other cultures where it is often interpreted as an insult. McDaniel ( 2006) states that in Japan direct eye contact shows a superior attitude and a clear exercise of hierarchical prerogative whilst avoiding eye contact stands for humility.

Moreover, in Japanese culture the timing relative to a speaking turn in a conversation is also very different from western culture. Comfort and Franklin (2014) indicated that in Japan ‘there is a very short pause between turns in a conversation’ (p.145). In Northwest European cultures and in North American cultures, people get a speaking turn when the other person has finished talking. In Southern Europe and Latin America, people tend to overlap while talking. Both the latter timing may be considered as be rude for the Japanese. Moreover, Doi (1973) also specify that the Japanese frequently use brief conversational breaks to demonstrate respect, which is often misinterpreted as a lack of response by foreigners.

Paralanguage is very important in Japanese expression. According to Nishida (1996), during interpersonal discussions, the Japanese constantly use short, culturally unique reponses (aizuchi) to indicate that they are paying attention (e.g. sou nan da, soo). ‘Hai’, which literally means ‘yes’, is one of the most frequently used expressions. This can be very confusing for foreigners since the ‘yes’ in this context does not stand for a affirmative ‘yes’ but just a bridge between a cluster of sentences indicating that they are paying attention or that they understand. Morsbach (as cited in McDaniel, 2006) claimed that voice tone and pitch is also used to confirm status and the use of them differs in communicating with junior and senior people. Moreover, laughter during communication have different meanings in Japan. As in most cultures, it is a signal of joy. However, Neustupný’s (as cited in Nakai, 2002) research indicates that Japanese interviewees uses laughter as a designated strategy to mediate feelings of shame and embarrassment. It is also used to disguise emotions such as sadness, or anger in Japanese culture in order to maintain harmony (Seward, as cited in McDaniel, 2006). Brown and Levinson (as cited in Nakane, 2002) suggest that the Japanese express their ‘ego preserving wants’ with laughter to offer their politeness. If the listeners are unable to distinguish laughter as a form of politeness, they would be considered rude. Maynard (as cited in Nishimura, Nevgi & Tella., 2008) specifies the importance of tonation in the Japanese language. A word or a sentence delivered with different intonations can have totally different meanings.

A substantial body of literature examines the significant role of silence in Japanese communication (Nakane, 2002). A Japanese proverb says ‘to say nothing is a flower’ illustrates

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this perfectly. Kawabata Yasunari, Nobel Prizewinning Japanese novelist, has explained that ‘the Japanese communicate through unspoken understanding, a type of telepathy, because for them truth is in the implicit rather than in the stated. The Japanese call it ‘ishin-denshin’, communication by the heart’ (as cited in Ruch, 1984, p.65). Silences are considered to be speech acts that convey messages in Japanese communication. They can express disagreement, rejection, or an uncomfortable dilemma through silence to avoid the other losing face and also to maintain harmony (Nakane, 2002). It is often used as a politeness strategy. Anderson (as cited in Nakane, 2002) indicated that silence could also be as simple as the representation of embarrassment or nervousness. The meaning of silence is highly contextualized in Japan.

2.6.2. Language as a barrier. According to the Whorfian thesis (Sapir-Whorf, as cited in Jandt, 2016), there is a direct relationship between culture and language. Sapir-Whorf argue for linguistic determinism in that ‘Language structure controls thought and cultural norms. Each of us lives not in the midst of the whole world but only in that part of the world that our language permits us to know’ (p.131). Nevertheless, some other scholars do not fully support this viewpoint, but nevertheless agree with the inextricable connection between language and culture that linguistic characteristics and culture norms positively influence each other. That is, as Jandt (2016) indicated: ‘Culture is controlled by and controls language’ (p.131). The interactive influence of culture and language can be seen clearly from different aspects of language such as vocabulary, grammar, and syntax. Firstly, different cultures call for different vocabularies. For instance, certain activities only occurs in one culture and therefore only this culture needs to create words for such an activity. Apart from vocabulary, grammar and syntax are also heavily influenced by culture. Jandt (2016) used the comparison between English and Japanese as an example. English puts more emphasis on the action taker. In English, most sentences have a clear subject. By contrast, Japanese language focuses more on the object. 75% of a Japanese sentence lack a subject and the subject is identified by the context. Similarly, in Japanese culture, the ‘self’ is considered to be less important.

Language can be defined as ‘a set of symbols shared by a community to communicate meaning and experience’ (Jandt, 2016, p.128). Accordingly, language serves as an important communication medium. Yet, the challenge comes when two cultures with different linguistic backgrounds try to exchange meaning and experience, hence the need for translation. However, translation is not perfect. Jandt (2016) lists some of the main difficulties. Firstly, every language has certain words and concepts with no single equivalent in other languages. This makes accurate translation difficult. Besides, knowing a language does not merely mean knowing the meanings of words but also fixed set sentences with a specific meaning, such as idioms. Idioms are institutionalized and conventionalized, and mirrors specific facets of a culture. The lack of experiential and conceptual equivalence in cultures creates a limitation for accurate translation. That is, if an object, an experience, or an abstract idea does not exist in one culture, it is rather difficult to translate that specific object, experience, or abstract idea into that culture.

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Further to the barriers that translation can create, communication in English where English is the Lingua Franca (ELF), can negatively impact the exchange of information. It is estimated that one fourth of the world’s population is familiar with English and it is the most used lingua franca today. (Ostler, as cited in Jandt, 2016). Nevertheless, ELF does not seem to be the perfect solution either. It is commonly argued that ‘ELF is not a linguistic variety; it is a function of the language given its possible domains of use. These domains multiply the more English is used around the world’ (Matsuda, 2012, p.44). In that respect, with the widespread use of English, there is not a standard form of English. The language has co-developed with the local culture and norms. There are English users from different cultures who attempt to deliver a message within their context and the receivers try to interpret the message within their own linguistic contexts. In addition, using ELF becomes even more problematic when the speakers are not only from different cultural backgrounds and English is not the native language of either communicators. In such context, the communicators not only have a ‘lack of shared knowledge and assumption, but also different varieties of English and levels of competence" (Mauranen, as cited in Kaur, 2011, p97). Ineffective communication is often the result when non-native speakers of English speak ELF imperfectly. Language deficiency hinders them from communicating successfully. Researchers argue that ELF users need to be ‘resourceful and flexible, able to accommodate a wide range of variation at all levels’ in intercultural settings (Matsuda, 2012, p.44).

2.6.3. Cognitive barriers An individual’s cognition is influenced by the combination of their own cultural background as well as their current contextual environment. Consequently, it also influences an individual’s behavior in terms of how they act or react in a communication process (Stephan & Stephan, as cited in Gudykunst & Mody, 2001). This chapter deals with the barriers created by cognition in communication.

2.6.3.1. Identity

It is commonly believed that identity plays an important role in IC (e.g. Lustig & Koester, 2013; Gudykunst & Mody, 2001). It serves as a bridge between culture and communication (Martin & Nakayama, 2004). Identity is ‘the ways people constitute and position themselves in the world and make themselves and their relations with others meaningful’ (Siebers, 2004). Martin and Nakayama further indicate that through the process of communication, individuals formulate their own identity and also enable the interactants to understand it. It not only emerges during the process but it is also being negotiated, co-created, reinforced and challenged through communication (Martin & Nakayama, 2004). Each individual has multiple layers of identities depending on this process, for instance religious, age, national, ethnic, or occupational identity (HORTOBÁGYI, 2009). Besides, identity is also influenced by societal forces. Martin & Nakayama (2004) explain that ‘the reality is that we are all pigeonholed into identity categories, or contexts, even before we are born’ (p.46). Those physical identities are involuntary and socially assigned identities, such as gender, ethnicity, or physical ability, and they are not easily

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changeable. Yet at the same time identity is also dynamic due to the fact that the world we live in is ever changing.

Furthermore, identity also develops differently in different cultures. For example, in individualistic cultures, young people put more emphasis on the development of self identity. In collectivist cultures, individuals tend to group together and see themselves as a member of the group. They focus more on interdependence instead the independence of the individual. However, there is sometimes a gap between how a person identifies the self, the subscribed identity, and how others attribute an ascribed identity to an individual. This could be a pitfall for successful communication. Also, as discussed, everyone has multilayers of identity and the issue here is which of the identity is dominant at which moment? This can be challenging when the communicator has a different perspective on it.

Moreover, social identity creates yet another source of miscommunication. Social identification is ‘a perception of oneness with a group of persons’ (Ashforth & Mael, 1989, p.20). This identity is built upon the perception of the sameness with the group. The authors argue that the social identity is generated from ‘the categorization of individuals, the distinctiveness and prestige of the group, the salience of outgroups, and the factors that traditionally are associated with group formation’ (p.20) As long as people identify with a specific group, social barriers are built when communicating with outgroup members. This creates anxiety, uncertainty, or prejudice, which have negative effects on successful communication.

2.6.3.2. Other cognition barriers

Besides the barriers caused by identity, Barna (as cited in Jandt, 2016) lists several factors that can lead to IC barrier: (i) anxiety, (ii) assuming similarity instead of differences, (iii) ethnocentrism, (iv) stereotypes, (v) prejudice, (vi) nonverbal communication, and vii) language. The latter two were already discussed previously and the additional factors will be dealt with in this section.

Firstly, people may feel anxious when encountering a different environment, different culture, or different language. Anxiety is an overpowering feeling, and hampers effective communication. Secondly, ‘assuming similarity instead of differences’ is listed above. When people are situated in a new culture, which has similarities to their own culture, they can easily make an assumption that there are no differences between the two cultures and ignore the need to observe and adapt, which can lead to miscommunication. Thirdly, ethnocentrism refers to negatively judging others’ cultures by the standards of one’s own culture. A sense of cultural superiority can keep people from relating effectively across cultural lines. Consequently successful IC is compromised. Other barriers suggested are stereotyping and prejudice. Stereotyping can be defined as ‘negative or positive judgements made about individuals based on any observable or believed group membership’ (Jandt, 2016, p.86). It is the oversimplified or overgeneralized image or idea of an individual to a specific group. Whereas stereotype can be positive or negative, prejudice is a negative opinion, suspicion or even hatred of a specific group which is not based on reason or actual experiences. The foregoing emphasizes the importance of our own culture, because it can keep us from projecting our values onto others and hinder effective IC.

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2.7. Women Expatriates in Japan Gender equality at work has always been an issue in Japan. The equal employment opportunity law, which was enacted in 1985 prohibiting discrimination against women in vocational training, fringe benefits, retirement and dismissal, has not been very effective so far (Takenobu, 2003). According to Global Gap Report (2017), Japan has a significantly wide gender gap for professional and technical workers: the country ranked 114th in economic participation and opportunity out of the 144 countries, falling far behind all the other developed countries. While being a professional woman in Japan is difficult, being a female foreign worker in Japan is filled with challenges.

Hartl (2003) indicate that the number of women expatriates has been increasing steadily over the past years although it is still small in proportion compared to men. In Tokyo, according to the initial search for participants of this research, there is a great number of foreign women professionals. However, Taylor and Napier (1997) indicated that women expatriates face more challenges than male expatriates in the country. The result of the researches reveal that Japan is a difficult working environment for foreign women for several reasons. The authors compare the experiences of women professionals working abroad in different countries, specifically Japan, China, and Turkey, and describe the issues that they face in these countries. The following part will focus on the experiences of American expatriates in Japan; this happens to be the only study about western women professionals in Japan that was done in the past three decades.

Firstly, women faced challenges in gaining credibility and expatriates in Japan is reported to face more difficulties than the expatriates in other countries. The only woman who indicated no severe challenges, was in a senior position. Due to the hierarchical company culture, which is very common in Japan, her title and age already earned her credibility. Female expatriates also perceive less acceptance in Japan because they are labeled as simply ‘just foreign’. This reason frustrates those expatriates even more since it means that there is nearly nothing they can do to improve the situation from its root. The second issue they face is one of high visibility and responsibility. It is reported that the women felt, ’while foreigners generally are viewed as odd, women foreigners are viewed as particularly curious’ (p.843). They themselves, or their work and responsibilities, are more readily scrutinized, whilst their situation in their home country would have been entirely different. However, this can be positive or negative, depending on the context. Thirdly, it is noted that interpersonal skills are more important when in foreign settings. While most of them reported to have no big problems, younger women (less than 35 years) tend to experience more challenges from their relationships with local Japanese women. The authors reported that according to the participants, the reason for this was jealousy or frustration that the Japanese women experience when they did not have the same opportunities.

Furthermore, they had difficulty in accepting the culture of power distance. They were frustrated by the apparent lack of subordinate initiative. In Japan, two reasons were suggested: impossibility of questioning the superiors; expectation that a foreigner has more knowledge than a local employee. Next, the women were frustrated by the social life in their non-work domain.

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Mostly, their social network consists mainly of other expatriates since it’s easier and the relationships are deeper. Having local Japanese friends is rarely reported by expatriates. Moreover, the authors also indicated that due to the long working hours in Japan, the is less time for social activities. In addition, it was also indicated that certain activities were ‘restricted’ or limited for women. But this also has its positive side. In Japan, it is commonly expected to have drinks with colleagues after work until late at night. For a foreign woman it is much easier to avoid these activities. Sexual harassment was another reported problem. Especially younger women made reference to such harassment by Japanese men, even though no serious incidents were mentioned. Typically these incidents occurred during the time that they had drinks with Japanese subordinates after work. Lastly, female professionals in Japan encounter more initial resistance to be accepted as bosses or subordinates. It takes more time for them to earn trust and respect. Nevertheless, it is important to note that gender may not have been the only source of the experiences discussed, but there could have been other factors at play.

However, the research was carried out in 1997 and the world has changed to such an extent that the experiences reported may not be valid anymore. Yet, it is commonly agreed that the Japanese society changes much slower than most other countries due to the contemporary nature of Japan’s selective globalization.

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Chapter 3. Methodology This chapter describes the grounded theory methodology applied in the research and why grounded theory is considered to be the most suitable approach for this study. This chapter will further focus on research design, sample strategy, the process of data collection and data analysis. Finally, the research quality indicators are discussed.

3.1. Epistemology and approach This research is a qualitative research and conducted in line with grounded theory methodology. The aim of this research is to explore the IC challenges with actual cases in real life settings relative to an in-depth view. Charmaz (2003) suggested that grounded theory methodology provides a flexible strategy which allows the researcher to do an in-depth exploration of the field of interest. It is also a useful tool to get close to the data and figure out the reason, the process, and the outcome of a communicator’s behaviour in specific circumstances. This methodology captures the complexities of real life situations in the repetitive data collection and analysis process, which matches the need of the research question. Therefore, it is considered to be ideal for this research.

3.2. Sample strategy Purposive sampling strategy is applied in this research. The interviewees are chosen by the researcher based on the assumption that all the sample units together are likely to "yield the most information and have the greatest impact on the development of knowledge" (Patton, 2002, p. 236). The research requires the help of both the Dutch expatriates and the host Japanese respectively to explore and identify the problems and solutions relative to their experiences and opinions from the interview. Both groups of participants are currently in Tokyo and have work experience with people from both Japanese and Dutch cultures. For both the Dutch expatriates and the local Japanese, characteristics such as gender, language ability, periods in Japan (six months is considered to be the minimum criteria), and overseas experiences are taken into consideration in choosing participants. In line with the research strategy, a typically smaller, but in-depth sample size is considered to be more useful in attempting to capture all the important aspects of the challenges that Dutch expatriates encounter. The participants are reached through social networks such as easyexpat.com, internation, expat.com, and facebook groups ‘Foreigners Living In Japan’, ‘Expats in Japan’, and ‘Nederlandse Kantokring’. The sample of a social media post can be found in figure 5. This research also involves snowball sampling in that several participants were introduced and recommended through initial research participants.

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3.3 Participants An overview of the participants can be found in table 1. There are eight Dutch participants involved in this research; six male and two females. Their duration of stay in Japan range from the shortest, one year in total to the longest, two years and 6 months. All the Dutch participants are currently working for international organizations except for Nathan. He previously worked for a Japanese company with only Japanese colleagues for an internship and he is currently working for a Japan based start-up, which positions itself as an international company with an international team. Thijs, Max, and another Japanese participant, Sana work for the same Dutch company. There are five Japanese participants in this research, all them are female with experience of living in western countries. Three participants used to live in the Netherlands for different reasons. Saki lived in the Netherlands for higher education, Chihiro married a Dutch partner, and Mio lived in the Netherlands from the age of six until finishing high school because of the work of her father. The latter two participants speak the Dutch language. All the Japanese participants are currently working for Dutch companies: Mio, Saki, and Chihiro are working for the same non-profit, governmental organization, and the other two work for commercial companies. Sana only has experience in working for international companies and the others have worked for both Japanese and international companies.

All thirteen participants indicated a preference for working for international companies. Some Dutch participants justified their preference because of their personal dislike of corporate culture and a poor work-life balance in Japanese companies. Furthermore, due to the fact that all the participants work for international companies, English is the main language used at work and Dutch and Japanese are secondary languages. All of the participants can speak English.

The reasons that motivated Dutch participants to go to Japan were diverse. More than half of them were self-motivated by their interest in Japan. Fleur was headhunted, Max was relocated by the company, and Hailey moved with her expatriate husband and started her own career in Japan. All self-initiated Dutch expatriate participants already started to learn Japanese before their arrival, and Ralph and Levi reported to have advanced levels in Japanese because they used to be exchange students in Japan. The rest all indicated that they started learning Japanese before or after arrival and at different levels. Roan and Ralph have Asian trade management background and did an exchange in Japan. Levi and Nathan did not specifically study the aforementioned type of program. But the former also did an exchange in Japan and wrote his thesis about Japanese business. The latter had experience of Japan during his graduation program. All Dutch participants more or less learnt some information about Japanese culture, social rules, and etiquette before arrival to Japan by either cross-cultural training offered by the company or books and Internet information. The consensus was that the cultural training aimed mainly at raising the awareness of cultural differences and to learn the etiquette in business practice. However, none of the Japanese participants are reported to have any cross-cultural training experiences. All Dutch participants find Japanese culture interesting and are attracted by Japan’s high-quality infrastructure and good living conditions. Nathan indicated that he decided to work in Japan partially because he wanted to learn about the Japanese spirit, which is very different from Dutch culture.

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In terms of Dutch participants’ intention for an extended stay in Japan, none of them indicated that they have confirmed their future plans yet. There are several reasons for not staying in Japan, which include loneliness, no support from family and friends, frustration with work, further career development ambitions, personal plans for exploring other parts of the world, and the predetermined short-term plans for staying in Japan that negatively influenced the adaptation process. Table 1A. Interview participants: Dutch participants

Name Nationality Gender Overseas experience other than

Japan

Study experience in Japan

Second time in Japan

Duration of stay in

Japan (until May, 2018)

Motivation to Japan

Fleur Dutch Female Yes No No 1 year 8 months

Headhunted

Nathan Dutch Male No No Yes 5 months + 7 months

Self-initiated

Hailey Dutch Female No No No 2 years 6 months

Self-employed

Roan Dutch Male No Yes Yes 1 year + 1 year

Self-initiated

Ralph Dutch Male No Yes Yes 1 year + 6 months

Self-initiated

Levi Dutch Male No Yes Yes 1 year + 9 months

Self-initiated

Thijs Dutch Male No No No 2 years 3 months

Self-initiated

Max Dutch Male No No No 1 year 5 months

Relocated

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Table 1B. Interview participants: Japanese participants

Name Nationality Gender Overseas experience other than

Japan

Lived in the Netherlands

Previous job in

international company

Sana Japanese Female Yes No Yes

Nana Japanese Female Yes No Yes

Mio Japanese Female Yes Yes No

Saki Japanese Female Yes Yes Yes

Chihiro Japanese Female Yes Yes Yes

3.4. Data collection The data collection of this research consists of face-to-face interviews. Interviews were guided by pre-structured questions (Appendix 2). The interviews were conducted in an explorative way and with flexibility, allowing situations to take the lead to get more information around the topic and the full story behind it. The interviews were carried out in Tokyo, Japan. Tokyo is not only a major world economic and industrial center but also the political and economic capital of Japan. Furthermore, the city has the most Dutch expatriates according to the initial search for participants in this research. Hence, it was considered to be the most ideal location to carry out this research. All of the interviews were conducted between 9, April and 1 May, 2018. The language used in the interviews was ELF as this is the language most used for communication between the Dutch and the Japanese. The data collection and the data analysis was carried out simultaneously. The processes in this research followed, as mentioned above, a grounded approach: gathering and comparing raw data to develop tentative interpretations in different categories. The researcher used memo writing as the tool to achieve the former. According to the findings from the initial data, the researcher returned to the field to collect more data to check and refine the categories. A total amount of thirteen face-to-face interviews were carried out.

3.5. Transcription and data analysis In line with the research strategy, the methodology applied to the analysis in this research is open selective coding. This stage involves detailed contextual analysis of memos, audio recording material and transcripts of the interviews. The transcriptions were all organized in an identical format in Excel to ensure consistency. Silences, pauses, nonverbal sounds, and behavior were also included in the transcription to capture all that the respondents expressed, with or without intention, both verbal and nonverbal. Background noises were also included in

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terms of the attempt to reconstruct the original scene during the interview. All the transcriptions were checked twice after the full transcriptions were done to make sure that they are complete. After the transcription, through two stages of systemic selective coding and integration of categories, patterns and dimensions of the given phenomena emerge from the categorized qualitative data and structures through the process of constant comparison. Memos were written throughout the process of data coding and analysis. Some parts of the memos were used as part of this paper. Some of the transcriptions were also selected to be used in the chapter on results. The selection is based on the potential of clearer explanation of participants’ thoughts and attitudes relating to the issues.

3.6. Research quality indicators To gain insights from different perspectives, this research includes interviewees’ different backgrounds within the same target group in terms of gender, language ability, current employment, overseas experiences and working experiences. The structured interviews were carried out to ensure that the interviews have a similar structure and to enhance consistency.

Broader theories used in the analysis enhance its external validity as they are helpful in explaining the differences in attitudes of people within the same culture on cultural adaptation of foreigners. The results are presented as thoroughly as possible including the contextual factors to enhance its external validity.

Several methods enhance the reliability of this research. The interviews are carried out in a place where the interviewee feels comfortable to talk since the content sometimes is related to personal issues. Moreover, targeting the receipt of sincere answers instead of socially desirable responses, the construction of sameness with the participants is important, especially for the Japanese interviewees. The interviewer introduced herself by using the features that are familiar to them. With the Japanese respondents, the interviewer started with a casual talk and mentioned the parts of her personal background related to Japan to raise a sense of sameness with them. Previous research indicated that being a western researcher means the lack of the ‘ability to gain valid data through interviews in East Asia’ (Vallaster as cited in Peltokorpi, 2006, p.80). Kowner (2002) also reported that the Japanese do not exhibit mounting tension, which is the cause of the barrier, when communicating with people from Asian countries. Therefore, the interviewer had an advantage being an Asian and having similar phenotypic characteristics and cultural similarity with the Japanese, in this case. For the interviews with the Dutch respondents, researcher’s personal experience of living in the Netherlands was helpful in creating the perception of sameness of a social group. Moreover, anonymity was mentioned and guaranteed to the interviewees to protect them and to encourage them to speak freely. All the names in this paper are pseudo names. Also, in order to avoid researcher bias, the data were coded strictly in line with grounded approach. The research findings were also discussed with the supervisor to eliminate researcher bias.

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Chapter 4. Results This chapter presents the results of the interviews from both Dutch and Japanese participants. This section starts with a discussion of Dutch participants’ motivation and future plans in Japan. The next part of the chapter describes the characteristics of Dutch and Japanese culture and the cultural differences between them according to the reports of the participants. The third part of the chapter discusses the differences beyond their cultures. The participants’ attitude and practices in cultural adaptation can be found in the next part. The following part discusses the communication barriers that negatively influence expatriate-local communication. In the last part of the chapter, the suggestions of all the participants for better communication are discussed.

4.1. Perception of Cultural differences All the participants indicated that there are significant differences between Dutch and Japanese cultures. Max reported that he was chosen to work in Japan by his boss partially because he is more sensitive in terms of cultural differences. Roan, who works as a talent hunter, also indicated that many companies only look for people who already have experience or connections in Japan to decrease the possibility of turnover. All the Japanese participants indicated that they have knowledge of cultural differences because they had experience with foreigners in their earlier jobs. However, it was also reported by several Japanese participants there are many Japanese people, especially those who have not experienced contact with foreigners, who were not aware of the gap between cultures.

Chihiro: …...now people um notice there’s no difference….. as human, if somebody is not different than you, how come you can do this to me, we are same human level. But if you look at those backgrounds, cultural backgrounds. I think it’s different.

( Female, Japanese) Furthermore, no matter the nationality, all the participants share similar views about the characteristics of Dutch and Japanese culture in general and there are several major cultural differences singled out in this research, which are discussed in the following section.

4.1.1. Communication style The most reported cultural differences concern the style of communication, the Dutch

directness and Japanese indirectness, which lead to certain challenges. Levi: I would say the most Germans in general um Dutch as well. They need very direct

communication to understand…...So I know there is a lot of literature about it I have used it for for my thesis as well but the literature is correct. Japanese are VERY indirect that they are trying

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to say things with nice words and or they are they, they get the point across, but they're not very direct and harsh in the wording.

(Male, Dutch)

Saki: Not a lot of people communicate directly in Japan. So we need to read what they meant. So you say, they say, yes. But is it really yes? They say no but is it really no?

(Female, Japanese) All participants noticed and confirmed these differences. For Japanese, it is better not to

make one’s thought explicit. Some things are better left unsaid. Most of the participants agreed that there is a need to to ‘read the air’ when talking to Japanese, which means that when direct speech is avoided people ‘read’ the atmosphere and nonverbal expressions to understand the delivered message. More than half of Dutch participants indicated that sometimes Japanese’ indirectness is a source of frustration to them.

All the participants of both cultural groups indicated that the majority of Japanese people prefer the indirect way of communication and that they might feel uncomfortable with this as it has negative effect on communication.

Thijs: So I never got direct feedback from that division manager that I pushed (with a direct question).

(Male, Dutch) Some participants had noticed that some Japanese people also want to express themselves, but they did not how to or they did not dare to.

Chihiro: They, I feel like that they want to say something but they are not dare to......With my current (Dutch) boss I can say anything I want to say.

(Female, Japanese) But all the Japanese participants indicated their preference in delivering and in receiving direct messages because of their frequent foreign contact. Saki expressed that she did not like direct way of communication at the beginning but once they get used to it, they appreciate that they can give and receive opinions freely.

Saki: ...It's really hard maybe in this first time. But it's ,the fact is the fact, fact is fact. And people need to open that. And if you don't know the facts. It's difficult to find out the facts, then it's all even more difficult to improve.

(Female, Japanese) Chihiro indicated that at some occasions she has mixed feelings when she expresses her own thoughts directly because it can cause trouble for others or break the harmony that Japanese highly value but she still preferred directness.

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Chihiro: And every time if I have to do that I want to jump, jump to the train because it was so stressful. But I endure because in Japanese culture you should never say I can't do that or I don't want to, I don't want to do it. So I endure. But at the end I went to my boss. And I said, oh to be honest I really don’t want to this job and I feel really unhappy. He said why you didn't tell me first two years ago, you know. So important you say immediately you don't like it. But in Japan you have tendency to (2) to feel it's you all, all, all quilt. Guilt. You have, you feel, you have guilty feeling. If somebody asked you something and if you cannot fulfill. That's the feel you know…. I think it’s your job you should grow in your job. That's typical maybe way of thinking in Japanese. You NEED to learn in your job. If you are not learning enough. I can do that! That's our attitude...I shouldn't bother somebody with my own problem.

(Female, Japanese)

Sana and Chihiro mentioned the dilemma that they had with two communication styles, and that either the one or the other had to be followed. However, they could not follow both styles at the same time when in a group, and this often caused difficulties.

Sana: I prefer DIRECT way (laugh), if all the people are direct way. If all the people are. (Female, Japanese)

All the participants confirmed Dutch to be rather direct. Yet, Nana noticed that

sometimes Dutch people are not that direct. The reason for this was that some Dutch people had noticed the differences between Japanese and Dutch culture and they tried to make adjustments for the benefit of successful communication. For some reason she experienced it as negative when foreigners communicated with her in an indirect way. Some Dutch participants also noticed that an exception to Japanese indirectness is when Japanese people talk to people who are close to them. This is the concept of Uchi-soto (inside-outside): people treat those who are closer to them and those who are strangers to them differently. Nana and Fleur, who are colleagues, indicated that often external parties who they are cooperating with misunderstood their messages although they put everything forward in a forthright way. This is because Japanese people has a tendency to assume that people tend not to be direct so there is a need for them to further interpret. Mio also agreed that her communication challenges came from Japanese people outside the company, who had less experience in dealing with foreigners.

Mio: Miscommunication. Yeah, more with external parties for example we have a lot of communication with ministries or local authorities and if they are not used to communicate Dutch people.

(Female, Japanese)

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4.1.2. Delivery of the work Another key difference that was thoroughly discussed was the preference of how individuals chose to deliver their work in these two cultures. The main difference pertains to two aspects, work pace and decision making process, which are discussed in the following part.

4.1.2.1. Work pace

Most of the Dutch participants indicated the difficulty in delivering the work in an efficient way in Japan. Most of the Japanese participants also recognized this difference in work pace. While Dutch people tend to work at a faster pace, Japanese people prefer to work at a slower pace and carefully assess long-range implications and impact of their decisions and actions over an extended time period. Some Japanese participants indicated the need for them to be fully prepared before taking the action.

Fleur: I do have a feeling that in general efficiency is less important for Japanese. Um that (2) to me, it can be very slow.

(Female, Dutch) Chihiro: Japanese people. We are very cautious. We want to make a hundred percent

preparation. We like to make perfect answer. But my (Dutch) boss say quick and dirty, quick and dirty. But then I think so, professionalism. So we always prepare. But and my boss say just give me the information. You just have to give it. I need it everyday. (Laugh) All the time.

(Female, Japanese) Most of all participants mentioned the practice of establishing long-term relationships with the Japanese. As a result some of the Dutch participants faced the challenges of spending much more time than they had anticipated in finishing a task. Nevertheless, most of them saw the positive side of establishing long-term relationships.

Fleur: Especially we need to start a relationship with a new agency or a new company …... here they first email a couple of times. They want to meet you and then sometimes it can takes months before you go into a certain topic. And then it so happened we finally arrive to the topic, we find out that we cannot get what we need. So then you spend months. And then (3) yeah. That's I noticed but but once you establish that relationship. They're trying harder to do whatever it takes to make it happen.

(Female, Dutch)

Nathan: It's it's it's really a differences in culture I think like they want to, especially the big companies, they want to have long term, stable, mutual relation with the companies they work with. Well, I was like, okay, this one time job so I'm just looking for a company which this is possible. So it's a totally different way of thinking and I'm not sure which way is better. I mean, on the short term, my way is better. I'd be like, it was the only way to finish everything in my

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interest, yeah. But um the long term, which is a company should plan for. I don't know which one would have been better... I also did a course lean manufacturing, or lean production also like the production systems. I was actually surprised like it. It's Japanese philosophy. Now we do it more and more in the Netherlands....So I'm here mostly to learn not to not to (2) improve.

( Male, Dutch)

4.1.2.2. Decision making

Furthermore, the way decisions are made, is very different in the two cultures. Most of the participants indicated that generally in Japan, decisions are all made by those in positions of authority in the company. Japanese people tend to feel that there is a greater ‘distance’, the higher the level of authority. Also, Fleur indicated discomfort when she felt personally belittled by her superior when she was ordered to do things in a specific way, instead of being directed in improving the content of her work. Furthermore, Chihiro and Roan suggested the importance of seniority in Japan. Older people or the one who has worked in a company longer, normally has a higher status.

Chihiro: I think in Japan, top down is still very traditional. The boss say "okay we do" then we have no choice. I'm doing it. In Holland, maybe more equal, maybe more open… Japanese people don't like stand out.

(Female, Japanese) Roan: Because you need to always know the hiring manager that wants to hire someone

in their company, that person needs to be older than the candidate, the candidate needs to be younger than the person that um, well, management.

(Male, Dutch)

Some Japanese participants indicated that the decisions were not only made by the authority, but that they were decided beforehand because of the Japanese work ethic to prepare themselves fully before taking action, and it is very different from Dutch culture.

Saki: ... when Dutch people say brainstorming, really brainstorming. So they discuss in

the meeting. But Japanese, I don't know but I, what I have is Japanese people prepared in advance, even for the brainstorming or a discussion like in general any meeting... So if you go to the meeting where Japanese people attend do decisions already made. There no space for discussion during the meeting.

(Female, Japanese)

From the quote it is clear that the Dutch make decisions in a different way. All Dutch participants indicate the preference to have open-discussions and equality at work.

Levi: And Dutch people are very direct and very, as I said, not so hierarchal, so we talk very often directly to our bosses, which is not the case here.

(Male, Dutch)

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In addition, some participants from both culture groups referred to the fact that they were aware of the differences in Dutch culture and that Dutch were more flexible and tolerant relative to cultural differences.

Nana: Yeah I guess that because the population is quite small, yeah. Maybe, many, many European country has a different nationality too. That's why they are so good at adapting their communication style communications or environment...Um like if I compare it to other nationality like like Italian, or Spanish, or Germany. Yeah. Overall, it should be quite smooth on communication.

( Female, Japanese)

Mio: I think yeah from much Japanese contacts...they say always say oh I really love this because they are so open...So I think for from my own experience, seeing people my contacts, I think the Netherlands is very accessible.

( Female, Japanese)

By contrast, more than half of the participants indicated that there is a fixed set of social images in Japan that must be obeyed. In this regard, a Dutch participant mentioned that many Japanese feel more comfortable if they stay within the rules. But all the Japanese participants in this research indicates that it is not necessarily for themselves to be fixed in this social box.

Thijs: I think they're probably some people in the Japanese society to do fall within that box that are actually very comfortable in that because they know exactly what's being expected when they do have need to act.

( Male, Dutch) Furthermore, individuals with different gender also have different power positions on the

workfloor in Japan. Nathan and Ralph had seen gender discrimination at work and Levi had seen gender inequality work as well. Roan indicated that international companies mostly try to maintain a healthy balance. But in Japanese companies, it is distinctly unequal.

Nathan: One of the differences for example if you go there's like a lot of social drinking in

Japan which is a work, and when there's like one female she suspected pour the drinks for all the other employees. That's I find personally really awkward to. So it's always become like sometimes struggle but one hand it's your, the culture and on the other hand it's like to me it doesn't accepting that kind of culture…I have this conversation with the women herself from time to time as well like some women, they say, like, yeah, I find it annoying, but it's part of the culture. They accept themselves and I tried to make it clear like for me like for me it's like it's offensive if you do it.

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(Male, Dutch)

Ralph: Often people are like, hey, know your place. (When a Dutch woman is giving suggestions)

(Male, Dutch)

Levi: …...but I've seen people being such em rude to another and I've also seen men behaving very inappropriate towards women and it seems some kind of acceptable because we're drunk and we're at the party but I if you do this in the Netherlands you will get arrested. I've seen this kind of levels I would call it as sexual harassments and this will be shows a strong still strong disbalance between genders here which is okay but not really okay.

(Male, Dutch)

4.1.3. Building relationships: Coffee or Alcohol Dutch and Japanese build up their relationships at work in different ways and the way in which they value these relationships also vary. Some participants indicated that in Japanese companies, it is common for coworkers to go out for social drinks after work, which is partially obligated. By contrast, Ralph and Max stated their preference to build relationships during work hours, such as coffee time, but that does not work in Japan.

Max: …... you probably heard a lot, drinking to get more information...In the Netherlands by drinking coffee…...And here you do with drinking and that that's a different way like AFTER work, and that's that's a difference. In the Netherlands, you do most part at work and that is it. And they feel more comfortable to speak up. And I think building up that trust by sometimes buying a coffee, going to the coffee shop and also ASK the questions maybe they have more towards a privacy situation, but I'm getting to feel that that didn't try to give me something back in sense of sharing what they think in their world…..the difficulty is also that yeah you're you don't connect well with your colleagues.….. But still, when you when you come back from the weekend and on a Monday, you start you come to the office. (2) And you ask how was your weekends? You see them thinking (Curious face) what, why are you asking? We are working, right? (smile) When you have a drinking party or whatever and they go wild. The next day, nine o'clock (a serious face pretending typing). And that's the thing I miss I really missed the personal interaction, showing personal interest.

(Male, Dutch) Ralph also suggested that Japanese do not separate work from the private domain and that he wanted to have a clear cut between business and private time and space.

Ralph: And besides, you may know the Dutch really separate their business life in their private life yeah so like if you go home. It's five or six o'clock. You just don't work again you're free. But some difference I noticed that again is that they all send me messages, even though it's like Dutch evening like 11 o'clock and they still think I'm working or something, you

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know…..Yeah, yeah because actually used to go by email, but they're sending me by Facebook messages.

(Male, Dutch) However, by contrast, Chihiro indicated going out for drinks after work with colleagues is helpful for voicing her opinions and that it improved communication. Besides, she did not want to build up personal connections with colleagues at work.

Chihiro: Yes and as well it's difficult to understand each other so we started to go out for drinks. More actions with colleagues. Then our communication is better. So in Japan, going out for drink with your colleague work, help…….The sometimes is if you drink, other people drink, it's easy to, to, how to say, to deliver your opinion. Sometimes, I explode, which is no good. I complain a lot. But sometimes you need to release your stress for your feelings. And in office sometimes it's difficult if you don't have alcohol.…...Not real friend I guess. They still belong to your office…... Of course I get alone with everyone but we go out, we go for drinks, we do a lot. But not as friends I guess.

(Female, Japanese)

4.2. Differences beyond culture From the result of this research, there also things other than culture that influence people’s mindsets and how they do things at work. All the participants reported that they more or less changed the way they work according to the organizational culture of the company that they are working for. Some participants indicated the influence of corporate culture on the Japanese employees. Typically, in the Japanese employment system a freshmen who had just graduated from school start from the bottom, usually with an internship at a company. Many of these interns stay in the same company for life and get promoted regularly by merit of age or by year in the company. Hence, most Japanese people learn, adapt, and develop from the work that they do at first, so the company culture shapes Japanese people's work style. Also, Japanese select their first company carefully so that if they chose to work for a company, international or domestic, they mostly know and to some extent agree or accept the company culture.

Sana: But actually it's not sometimes depending on the not people but depending on the company. The idea is that the people adjust to the company, for some in especially in the, in Japan….So I think totally depending on what kind of decisions they make at the point……

(Female, Japanese)

Chihiro: I change my attitude… You can't really make two attitudes. You can't really make two attitudes. So you became like, you because you work for [a Dutch organization]. Otherwise you can not survive.

(Female, Japanese)

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Another variable is personal experience and education. All participants agree that

Japanese people can be categorized in two categories when it comes to the way they see and deal with cultural differences: a group with frequent foreign contact and ability to speak English, and another group with rare foreign contact who has no confidence or ability speaking English. The former group is in the minority in Japan. Roan, a male Dutch participant, who works as a talent hunter, indicated that ‚’... there's extreme shortage of international Japanese who can speak English good enough to do business……’. All participants in this research agree that the Japanese people in this group are better at dealing with cultural differences and some of them find the group useful relative to bridging cultural differences.

4.3. Cultural adaptation

4.3.1. Culture All the participants in both groups of this research have expressed the need for personal adjustment in dealing with differences. However, the participants adapted to one another in different degrees and for several different reasons. Only Levi indicated that he tried to adapt as much as possible to the Japanese culture, and that even his German boss preferred to maintain some of his own culture. Levi thought that this allows him to work more efficiently and that it enables him most to establish relationships with Japanese colleagues. Max indicated that his short-term stay made him less motivated to adapt. Some Dutch participants indicated the frustration that they experienced when they tried to adapt, but was still regarded as ‘merely a foreigner’.

Ralph: I was in a Japanese class. I actually adapted every single thing that you can

adapt. So I was like bowing and you know the pitch in the screen, the forums and the strictness and think I felt Japanese. I didn't meet any foreigners for the whole year. Actually, I felt very Japanese but if I look in the mirror of course I see my blonde hairs ...They never will see me as someone who is equal to them will belong to that group. I will always be the outsider. And that's something I felt really sad about even though…

(Male, Dutch) Fleur and Max mention that while they know they should adapt, putting it into practice is more difficult. Nathan question the need to fully adapt to the Japanese culture because regardless of how well he could adapt, he will remain the outsider. He also noticed the advantage in not fully adapting because Japanese people tend to make exceptions for foreigners, especially western foreigners, because they knew they were foreign so it was acceptable if they did not know the social rules. Yet, when they started to know the language, the Japanese would expect them to follow the social rules more strictly. All the Japanese participants agree with the view that they make exception for foreigners. Chihiro further indicated that she expected the foreigner who knows the Japanese language to also know the social rules.

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Nathan: ...The question is whether it's necessary to be fully Japanese… for Western foreigner, (3) they don't, they think like they won't to be able to speak the language and they won't understand the society rules. So they're kind of reluctant with Western foreigners…. But I heard from a friend of mine who like once you start the Japanese language. They are also expected you to know the social rules … I mean that's that's also like it opens doors in one hand, but also the other hand, sometimes I feel like the monkey doing tricks. You know. So they think they look wonderful that you because oh, you're so you're different and might for the little bit wired for them. But they will never let this monkey control the department, you know. So I'm not sure whether there's some ceiling if you stay like the foreigner that's what I'm curious about.

(Male, Dutch)

As mentioned, although all participants indicated that it was necessary for them to adapt, some Japanese participants expressed their hopes that Dutch people would not adapt, or not adapt too much, since they thought it was positive for foreigners to introduce change. Some Dutch participants also claimed that it had been suggested that they should not adapt so that they can bring new influence.

Max: … Still, you don't want to be the outlier and want to be part of the team. I think

that's maybe more here in Japan and maybe the Netherlands, but (1) still I think if you or someone in the Netherlands which would prefer? Be part of the team or you want to be a outsider.

(Male, Dutch)

Thijs: … if I talk with, for example, to my manager, then that's actually something that he embrace before because with doing that allows them to still push the bottoms a bit in the end, hopefully fight for some change. So I've asked many times should I adjust my communication style and the way that I do things to the style which is more common here and the answer that I get from my direct division is no…

(Male, Dutch)

To the contrary, some participants from both cultures remarked that other Japanese people expected foreigners to adapt well when they are in their country. Mio indicated that Japanese people from the older generation placed more value in maintaining Japanese culture and etiquette. Not adapting may cause uncomfortableness for some older Japanese. Several Dutch participants noticed that without adaptation, Japanese tend to share less information.

Saki: If Japanese visit the other countries, Japanese will be preparing for the country probably… I think that's the way I see and Japanese people don't really have the global mindset. So unless they are really I mean working globally…

(Female, Japanese) This created a dilemma for Fleur since she was told by her Japanese colleagues not to

adapt and then told by others that she should adapt. She did not know how to find a balance

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between the two. Furthermore, when she tries to follow Japanese colleagues’ suggestion in not adapting, things did not work as well. In addition, she indicated that the culture gap is bigger than any in her previous experience so this makes the adaptation process more difficult.

Fleur: And because yeah, we are told that Dutch people are really direct so when you go to company and you're trying to tone that down. Still, you want to come across clearly and that you're not sure how to do that… Well, they told me that they were hoping to get a bit Western influence so they wanted me to act the same way as in the Netherlands without actually knowing how that is. So it's a bit tricky…..But when I tried to do that. It was not working… So I lived one year in the United States. And one year in France. And I think they're really quite adaptable culture and changed me more. Here I have a feeling that I see the difference observing but I pretty much stay the same way I try to adapt to ways of working but I don't feel I'm becoming more Japanese….

(Female, Dutch) For Dutch participants to achieve their goals in Japan sometimes made it difficult for

them to adapt.

Max: I need to adjust to their culture. As good as I can. But I'm also here to to bring a change in the company. So that's the balance you need to find.

(Male, Dutch) Most Dutch participants indicated that they are not willing to face the dilemma of

adapting fully when it comes to values that are unacceptable for them, such as gender equality or personal principles.

Nathan: … there's like a lot of social drinking in Japan which is a work, and when there's like one female she supposed pour the drinks for all the other employees. That's I find personally really awkward um to. So it's always becomes like sometimes struggle but one hand it's your, the culture and on the other hand it's like to me it doesn't to accepting that kind of culture… but it's part of the culture they accept themselves and I tried to make it clear like for me like for me it's like it's offensive if you do it.

(Male, Dutch) No Dutch participant clearly indicated that they hope their communication counterpart

would adapt to their way of communication but most of them expressed the hope of finding a balance between cultures.

4.3.2. Language Most participants indicated it is beneficial to learn the host language because it also helps to learn about the culture. Knowledge of the host language is not only beneficial in the business domain but also in their private lives. It makes it easier to connect with Japanese people and

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therefore also improves communication. Fleur indicated that she was not motivated to learn the language initially because she gave priority to adapt in terms of other aspects first. Hailey indicated that because of her short-term stay she wasn’t t motivated to learn the host language. Yet, the lack of motivation relative to learning the language for short-term stay, does not apply to all the participants. Ralph and Levi learnt the host language up to advanced level during their one year stay as exchange students.

Max: And we did a Japanese course every week, Japanese, but it's more fun Japanese in the sense of understanding some of the words and knowing how to use it…. So it's a choice maybe. But I'm here for two years. It's a bit of the, that's also the difficulty you have. And that's, I think, everywhere you go. You have a temporary mindset. It's very difficult to to invest locally in an efficient doing.

(Male, Dutch)

4.4. Communication Barriers

4.4.1. Nonverbal signal As previously mentioned by the participants, the ability of ‘reading the air’ is important when

communicating with Japanese. Nevertheless, all Japanese participants indicated that it is not easy for foreigners to learn this and it takes a long time. It involves bodily expression, facial expression, and environmental factors. It can only be learnt by knowing Japanese culture well. All Dutch participants indicated that sometimes the way Japanese communicate can be vague to them.

Mio … I think as Japanese I have to. Yeah (laugh). In Japan, we reading the air is VERY important. … If you know the Japanese culture, you will learn automatically, I think, but if you don't know the culture, then I think it's never possible to learn it. It's not just a language, but it's the way of communicating for most verbal with non-verbal communication so um (2) you look at the face of the person and you see well the person says yes but it's meant to be no and you see it on the face and then you will say on a different way this he can say no easily that's Kuuki Yomenai, for example, one example. But yeah, it's not just the (2) the language because if you take the language it's yes with you have to see the face. You have to know his background with he can say NOT no but he meant no (laugh)

( Female, Japanese)

4.4.2. Language

All the participants recognized language to be a key issue that could lead to miscommunication in Japan. This can happen in several different ways. Firstly, it is reported from all of them that proficient English speakers still remain rare among Japanese people. Some participants claimed that it is because in Japanese English education is mostly focused on grammar and writing skills. In Nathan’s previous job in a Japanese company, there was no one in the office who could speak English at a communicative level, which caused great difficulties for him at the

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beginning. He later solved the situation by writing English emails daily to communicate. Hailey indicates that the lack of English proficiency creates difficulties for her to build relationships with Japanese because it is more difficult to have an in depth conversation when she herself is not fluent in Japanese. Some other Dutch participants indicate the difficulties to explain their intended messages in English in such a way that Japanese people can understand.

The lack of English proficiency also create mental barriers that most Dutch participants had experienced: many Japanese feel shy or lose face when they do not speak English well hence they block communication with those who cannot speak Japanese directly. Some Japanese participants agreed with this view and one of them added that it happens more with the older generation. Most young people are willing to speak English. Several Dutch participants were not satisfied with the quality of the interpreter that they had.

Max: And they also they don't want to lose face if they don't speak English. So what happens is, other people know so they kind of blocking you to make an appointment with someone else who's who's not speaking in English.

(Male, Dutch) Nathan experienced miscommunication when the same English word or sentence was

interpreted differently. Literal meaning of ‘yes’ or ‘hai’ (yes in Japanese) is affirmation or assent, but it also can be used to express ‘I am paying attention’.

Nathan: So the the fun thing like they keep saying, Yes. Like I did my first presentation, I asked them questions also every slide if they understand me. But on this questions they could answer with hai( Japanese "YES"). And that's what they did. And at the end of the presentation, I asked them an open question. So they're like really panic. They didn't understand it. So what I noticed later on is that they will say, yes in the fact they're still listening. It doesn't mean they understand it, it doesn't mean like they agree with it, just means like I'm still listening.

(Male, Dutch)

In addition, Nathan indicated that pronunciation sometimes created barriers as well. He had experienced miscommunication which stemmed from his incorrect Japanese pronunciation.

Some Japanese participants also suggested that there are several sentences that are commonly used in Japan serving as the polite form of negative answers, such as ‘we will think about it’ , ‘it’s difficult’, ‘I will take that into consideration’. It is suggested by Max that sometimes Japanese are limited by their ability to speak English or by finding the corresponding polite word that they want to use in English. If they struggle to give a polite answer, they may suddenly revert to indirect answers, but then they can still be surprised by direct feedback responses. However, their English proficiency may limit them to find a modifier for the intended polite answer and also to make it less confusing for the expatriate. Other Dutch participants remarked that when they find it difficult to receive direct messages whilst speaking Japanese, they may suddenly switch to English and then receive a clearer answer.

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4.4.3. Cognition barrier Max indicated that as some of his Japanese colleagues see him merely as a short-term expatriate, they are less willing to build a relationship with him, which has a big influence on their communication. Also because of the Japanese promotion system, they already know who the person is that will be promoted to his position when he leaves so they are more willing to build a relationship with that person instead in terms of long-term consideration. As mentioned, all the Dutch participants are aware of the fact that they are going to be ‘just the foreigner’ and it made them less willing to adapt. Consequently, it also creates cognition barriers since they do not feel included. Nana indicated a similar viewpoint. When asked whether she thinks it is helpful for foreigners to learn Japanese language and culture for the sake of better communication, she indicated that foreigners can never truly understand Japanese culture, so even if they express themselves in the Japanese way, Japanese already have a different attitude towards them as foreigners. Lastly, half of Dutch participants referred to the challenges in finding the actual source of miscommunication.

Nana: Yeah, but they can NEVER… That's not help so much… Because I'm a Japanese… Yeah and that it's my culture.

(Female, Japanese) Lastly, half of Dutch participants referred to the challenges in finding the actual source of miscommunication.

Max: And sometimes you think (nodding head with the sound hum) they understand what I mean. And actually, they don't act like like they did. So the question is, do they not, don't understand me or don't don't want to do it. And those are the things which makes it sometimes difficult.

(Male, Dutch)

4.5. Suggestions All the participants from both culture groups suggested the importance of learning about and respecting the host culture. Chihiro indicated the need to appreciate the beauty of Japanese culture. For instance, Japanese see indirectness and silence as intelligence. She suggested that watching old Japanese movies is helpful to generate interest in Japanese culture. This was proved by a Dutch participant as he found his interests in Japanese culture from its movies, which led him to Japan initially.

Some participants from both cultures agreed that asking clear and specific questions is helpful in solving the problem of unclear messages. Levi suggested to be observant and to learn about how other Japanese people express themselves and deal with things. A number of participants claimed that it is helpful to ask for help or suggestion from Japanese people who are familiar with the cultural differences. It is useful to have them as a ‘bridge’ to connect the different cultures. Some Dutch participants who speak Japanese suggest switching from

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Japanese to English when a direct answer is preferred during communication. Nana suggests getting to know the person that you're dealing with as much as possible in order to communicate smoothly instead instead of treating all Japanese people in the same way, and not acknowledging them as individuals. Mio suggests one should try to connect more with the host nationals and learn about society instead of staying only in the expatriate circle. Half of the Dutch participants suggested that they know Japanese culture better by knowing and connecting with host nationals. Also half of the Dutch participants recommend learning the Japanese language. There were also some Dutch participants who suggested that they share knowledge about their own culture with the Japanese because they are also interested and curious about Dutch culture. Some Dutch participants shared their experience of feeling lonely and one of them suggested that foreigners should be informed about this before their sojourn since many expatriates he knew were not prepared before their arrival in the host country. Several Dutch participants suggest that one should have patience and not to be easily frustrated in the beginning because of failure. It requires time and practice to get to know the culture and to achieve the set goals.

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Chapter 5. Conclusions Based on the evidence derived from the interviews with the Dutch expatriates, this study deals with various aspects of communication problems in Tokyo. The aim was to deepen our understanding of the communicative challenges caused by cultural misunderstanding and misinterpretation as well as communication breakdown. In this chapter, the findings will be summarized and the research questions will be answered. The next section discusses the theoretical and practical implications of the findings. In the third part, some limitations of the study are mentioned and implications for future research are discussed. Recommendations are presented in the final part of this Chapter.

5.1. Conclusions

5.1.1. Cultural adaptation What is the level of awareness among Dutch expatriates and host-country nationals with regard to the differences between their respective cultures? How does this influence their communication? Based on the findings, it is clear that companies have a preference in selecting employees who have cultural sensitivity and awareness when they will be working as expatriates in another country as this improves their chances of success in their work. Besides, companies mostly look for people who already have interests in and/or connections with Japan and its culture since it is crucial for talent retention. Self-initiated expatriates have already proved their affinity for Japan and its culture. Hence, people who have work experience in Japan and are more aware of cultural difference and the ensuing need for adaptation, are more likely to be selected. Furthermore, it is also those who already have experience of study background, or interests in Japan, would be those who will most likely to be motivated in looking for a career in Japan.

In addition, before these expatriates made the decision to move to the host country, they investigated and learned about the host country since moving abroad is not an easy decision to make. By doing so they nurtured an awareness of the cultural differences. Ahead of their departure the relocating or headhunted expatriates get the chance for cross-cultural training which allows them to become fully aware of the differences of and the need to adapt to the local culture.

The result also indicate that while all the Japanese participants have an awareness of the cultural and linguistic differences between the two cultures from previous experience, not many Japanese people are aware of this gap. The majority of Japanese people do not have much experiences in dealing with a foreign culture and are not proficient or confident in speaking in English. Some of them might not be able to recognize the differences or realise that the discomfort they experience are actually the result of cultural differences. From the challenges that were identified in the previous chapter, it was found that the main challenges

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expatriates face is mostly from members in the Japanese team or from Japanese at other companies who have less experience of contact with foreigners. Furthermore, on the basis of the findings, it is clear that having cross-cultural training is helpful in recognizing cultural differences and preparing them for dealing with different culture. However, usually host-nationals do not have this training. Without being aware of the culture gap, it is therefore impossible for them to be aware of the need to make some adjustments or have more understanding of their communication counterpart. This makes communicating across cultures more difficult for both expatriates and host-nationals.

What are the factors that lead to the unwillingness of Dutch expatriates and host-country nationals in adapting to the differences in language and culture of host country nationals, and vice versa? How does this influence their communication? From the results of this research, all the Dutch participants understand the necessity to adapt to the host-culture, but not all of them find it necessary to make concerted efforts to adjust Japanese culture. There are several reasons for this. Firstly, their short-term intention of the stay in the host-country make some Dutch expatriates less motivated to adapt to the host-culture even they know it has negative influences. Also, the gap between Japanese and Dutch culture is considered to be big according to Hall’s model. Bochner (2003) suggests that the cultural distance between cultures is the determinant of the level of culture shock and therefore more difficult to adapt. The gap between Dutch and Japanese culture are much bigger than the gap between Dutch culture and other western cultures. For this reason some expatriates found it more difficult to adapt to the host-culture in Japan than to their previous living experiences in other western countries.

The process, however, can be frustrating. This is seen in Gullahorn and Gullahorn’s (1963) W-curve model in that the second stage expatriates start to face challenges from initial adjustment to a new and different environment in all aspects. They firstly have to figure out how to put their existing knowledge about the host culture into practice since there is a big difference between knowledge and practice. Time is necessary for guest- and host-nationals to find suitable ways in working together. Especially in Japan, a country where long-term relationships are much valued, this initial adjustment stage tend to take longer than in other countries. The findings suggest that this can be overwhelming when there is no visible improvement following their attempts to act according to the Japanese culture, and therefore it is detrimental to the self-will to continue the adaptation.

Moreover, as also indicated in the W-curve model, mental isolation, feelings of loneliness and lack of support from family and friends, occur at fourth stage. Dutch participants felt that often they are not seen as part of the group. They tend to feel isolated and disappointed, especially when their interdependent-self prompts them to seek for a relational connection. Therefore, even when Dutch people is considered to be less collectivist they still try to maintain relational connections in certain circumstances. These negative feelings might be the reason why they leave the host-country. When expatriate are not motivated to stay longer, they are not motivated adapt. This can lead to an even worse situation in expatriate-host communications.

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It is clear from the findings that some host- and guest- nationals expect expatriates to introduce differences by maintaining some part of their culture. Some companies relocate or hire foreigners with the aim of ‘importing’ different mindsets, or knowledge that brings about change. It is particularly true of international organizations where they expect host-national employees to adjust to the organizational culture. Not all Japanese people like the changes that foreigners introduce, but Japanese who decided to work for an international organizations and knew that the organizational culture was different from most Japanese companies, are more likely to adjust relative to the corporate values. Consequently, there are less IC problems in international companies even when they have a very different organizational culture from Japanese culture.

Nevertheless, the differences in Japanese’ attitude for foreigners to adapt to the host-culture put expatriates in a dilemma as to whether they should adapt and also to what extent they must adapt. This dilemma mostly has to do with the decision making processes and communication styles. In Japan, as a HC society, decisions are often made from top-down. Seniority culture is important in Japanese society and also in most companies. The lower level often need to obey the rules and follow the decisions made by their superiors or the ones who have worked for the company longer. They tend not to say no to others and try to maintain social harmony by using indirect expression. However, Dutch, as a LC culture, highly value equality and use more direct-face negotiation. They prefer to have equal and open discussions regardless of who the interlocutor is. The Dutch participants maintain these preferences, even they are working in a country with HC culture. Some Japanese do not prefer these two characteristics relative to Japanese culture. They appreciate the chance to have open and equal conversations on the workfloor as well as being able to express their opinions in a direct way.

On the other hand, there is also a dilemma from a Japanese perspective. Those Japanese who are experienced in dealing with foreign cultures are often expected to be the bridge between expatriates and other Japanese. Being Japanese, and being influenced by other cultures, it is not easy for them to find a balance in terms of how they should act and react as middlemen between two cultures.

Furthermore, when there is a serious cultural conflict, individuals are more unwilling to adapt to the host-culture. Gender inequality is the most reported value in Japanese culture for Dutch participants to accept. Where gender equality is a common value in Dutch culture, there is a high-distanced social expectation between genders and inequality for women in Japan. The findings of this research showed that it is common to see gender discrimination in Japanese society. There are also fixed role divisions for different genders in social rituals in Japanese culture. Individuals can automatically lose some social power simply by virtue of being a female in Japanese society. These discriminating behaviours and role divisions are accepted, tolerated, or seen as ‘normal’ by most people in Japanese society. Some Japanese women have no alternative but to accept it. This is because Japan is a collective society where it may be more important for Japanese women to prioritize social harmony instead of trying to break this norm. Most Japanese people do not like to stand out in being different. However for some of the Dutch, although they are aware that it is a part of Japanese culture, it is still unacceptable and inappropriate for them to follow this culture.

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Moreover, when the Japanese culture disable them to reach their goals in working in Japan, the Dutch expatriates are less willing to fully adapt. This mainly relates to the work pace and long-term relationship building in Japan. Some expatriates go to Japan for a limited contract period and has set goals to reach within that time. If given the choice between adapting and reaching their goals, they would prioritize the latter. The time limitation also negatively impacts the motivation for expatriates to adapt to the host-culture. When they already know that they will leave in a period of time, they could be less motivated to learn the host language and would rather invest time in developing skills that will be useful for them in the long term. Also, Dutch participants are less willing give up the work-life balance that they value in life. They prefer to separate business and private domain clearly and maintain a good balance in both domains. Although this is mostly not the case in Japan, the Dutch participants found that when they choose to work for an organization that aligned with their values, they experienced no difficulties when they do not adapt this part of Japanese culture.

Besides, it may be difficult for Japanese to express their real feelings without the assistance of alcohol. They often have social drinks to communicate work-related things after work hours. Where the Dutch attempt to look for personal connections with colleagues at work, some Japanese do not consider people they know from work as ‘friends’ even when they go out for drinks after work. This might be incomprehensible to the Dutch since off-work time is considered to be a private domain. For some Dutch people ‘hanging out’ together after work implies some kind of friendship. Furthermore, in off-work time and personal space such as Facebook, they do not discuss work-related issues, making it more difficult for them to understand the Japanese attitude to work.

The need for Dutch expatriates to fully adapt to the Japanese culture is also questioned. Most Japanese people tend to make exceptions for them as foreigners, especially western foreigners. This is because Japanese know that they come from a different culture hence it is acceptable for them not knowing the social rules. However, when they know the language better, Japanese would expect them to know Japanese culture well and follow the unwritten social rules more strictly. Learning and adapting to the host language and culture indeed helps foreigner to communicate more successfully. Nevertheless, even if the adaptation is better there is still a wall that a foreigner can never cross when they are not ‘real’ Japanese. Japanese assume foreigners would never understand some things in the Japanese culture without being a Japanese in nationality. Accordingly, without having fully adapted, they have the advantage of the exceptions that Japanese make for them and maintain some of the aspects that they value in their own culture. Yet, not adapting at all will surely lead to dire situations.

The findings shows that not all Japanese are willing to make the needed adaptation. Some Japanese expect foreigners to adapt when they are in Japan and not expect them to make the effort. Japanese tend to share less information or block communication when expatriates are not adapting to their way. This is what frustrates expatriates when they try to find a balance between the two cultures and also interferes with their efforts to communicate.

What are the factors that lead to the failure in adaptation to language and cultural

differences for both Dutch expatriates and host-country nationals even when they are willing to make the necessary adjustments? How does this influence their communication?

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Although some of the Dutch participants already have previous experiences of living in a foreign country, they are not sure how to adapt to Japanese culture. Whilst Dutch expatriates might have sufficient cultural knowledge, they do not necessarily know how to put the knowledge and skills they had learnt into practice. In terms of the former, time and experience is of the essence in practical application. Therefore, at the initial stages, expatriates are less equipped to adapt.

Time and experience is also needed for the Japanese to adapt since it is not easy for Japanese to get used to Dutch directness right away as it may cause them to feel embarrassed or humiliated. When they are not able to deal with negative feelings and to adapt, both communicating parties will suffer and relent from continuing a conversation.

5.1.2. Intercultural competences (ICC) What are the most reported intercultural incompetencies of Dutch expatriates and

host-country nationals? How does this influence their communication? In Deardorff’s (2006) ICC model, attitudes, including openness, curiosity, discovery and respect, are essential as the first step in ICC. These attitudes were expressed by all the participants. They emphasized the importance of a continued learning process as well as respect for each other’s culture. For the Dutch expatriates, this was particularly important because they found Japanese culture interesting and this prompted them work in the country. The next stage in ICC is knowledge and skills. All the participants indicated that they had either cross-cultural training or searched for books and internet information. Their views about Japanese culture were similar to the views of the Japanese participants. Hence, they at least have the basic culture-specific knowledge. In addition, they also have cultural awareness and thorough cultural knowledge since they are able to explain how Dutch and Japanese cultures influence the way people think and act. The sociolinguistic awareness is apparent in this research. The fact that all Dutch participants have started to learn Japanese language shows that they were fully aware of the language gap. They also had knowledge about self-awareness and deep cultural knowledge, from their past experiences. Japanese participants’ recognition of Dutch culture characteristics are similar to the Dutch view. This shows that they have sufficient culture-specific knowledge. Although not all Japanese participants speak Dutch, they are fully aware of the language gap. This knowledge enables participants to become skilled in understanding the thoughts and perspectives of their counterparts relative to their daily interaction at work.

Through the former their flexibility, adaptability, an ethnorelative perspective and empathy developed in stage three. All participants in this research are open to change and a different approach to a new culture. Examples are that several Dutch participants expressed their preferences in working efficiency yet they indicate that they see the positive side of long-term relationships and reflected on that as well. Some Japanese also indicate that in Dutch culture, differences are valued and that they are more flexible to deal with differences. All Japanese participants expressed their preference and willingness to adapt to the Dutch way of doing things in terms of certain aspects.

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The last stage is the external outcome. Although all the participants in this research were equipped with the characteristics of the previous three stages, the communicative outcomes are not so fulfilling. The reason for this is that to achieve competence, all the interactants’ satisfactions must be fulfilled and all of them have the responsibility to actively participate in the process to achieve successful communication. It furthermore shows that the Japanese can be categorized into two groups: a group with frequent foreign contact and who have the ability to speak English and another group with rare foreign contact and has no confidence or ability in speaking English. All the Japanese participants fall in the former group yet the majority of Japanese people fall in the latter group which has less ICC. This fact creates many communication difficulties for Dutch expatriates.

5.1.3. Communication barriers What are the most reported intercultural communication barriers, including nonverbal

communication barriers, language barriers, and cognition barriers, in local-expatriates communication? How does this influence their communication?

There are several types of miscommunication examples from the results. The first one is the barrier created by nonverbal behavior. Dutch and Japanese culture differs distinctly in how they express themselves. Dutch tend to use direct verbal messages and Japanese depends more on context. The results of this paper suggest that it is difficult for Dutch participants to recognize all the nonverbal cues and they sometimes consider the way in which Japanese deliver their messages as vague. While Japanese intended to convey nonverbal cues in their messages expecting the communication counterpart to receive it, it is highly possible that the Dutch person is unable to read it correctly. This happens when Dutch people do not know Japanese culture very well. Also, when these intended nonverbal cues are not recognized by the receivers, Japanese may consider them to be rude. This can lead to miscommunication because there is a gap between the delivered and received messages, hence there is no mutual understanding. Moreover, and as discussed before, in Japanese culture the timing of a speaking turn in a conversation is slower than in western culture and silences are considered to be speech acts that convey messages. It is possible that the Japanese have not spoken yet, or that they are using the silence to deliver the message. This could be misconstrued by the Dutch recipient.

Language barriers bring many challenges in communication. Firstly, there is the lack of a common language between message sender and receiver. Without a common language, communication can hardly be carried out. The results suggest that it is rare for Dutch expatriates to speak Japanese at business level. ELF is needed in most international companies or international teams, which currently applies to all the participants. However, the overall English proficiency rate at business level in Japan remains low. It is also reported that interpretation often falls short. In such a situation, messages might be delivered in the way they were intended. Written English as the communication tool is proposed to be the solution since Japanese are better and more confident in writing. However, it is nearly impossible to use this as the sole medium. The low English proficiency level in Japan not only makes Japanese

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unable to receive messages correctly. It also makes it difficult for Dutch participants to deliver their messages in an understandable way for Japanese. Another barrier caused by language is that when Japanese do not feel confident enough in speaking English, they may choose to block the conversation. This happens more often with the older Japanese generation.

Secondly, the lack of corresponding words and grammar in different languages also create challenges. In the Japanese language there are many polite forms and words used. But many of these words do not have English equivalents. When Japanese can not find a way to make their sentences sound polite, either due to the limitation of their language skills or because of no corresponding words in English, they can be surprised by the Dutch’s direct responses. This would also lead to uncomfortableness and therefore present a barrier in communication. Lastly, in different cultures the same expression, word, or sentence in English can be interpreted differently. Ekman (1972) suggested that Japanese tend to mask negative feelings or opinions and sometimes use smiling or laughter instead, especially when dealing with outgroup members. The Japanese participants also claimed that direct and negative expressions are mostly avoided by Japanese. These negative verbal expressions are usually replaced by a more polite form, such as ‘we will think about it’, ‘it’s difficult’, ‘I will take that into consideration’. These commonly used polite form are clear for Japanese to understand as refusal. However people from a different culture may not understand this and the process of communication could be distorted.

The last recognized barrier is the cognition barrier. When people who identify closely with one another communicate with outgroup members, they tend to build a social boundaries and this corresponds to concept of Uchi-soto in Japanese culture. Japanese people tend to be more accessible to those who are closer to them and block those who are strangers to them. Due to the fact that foreigners are mostly considered to be outsiders, the ‘soto’, it is more difficult for the foreigner to get in the ‘uchi’ where Japanese share their thoughts freely. Moreover, sometimes Japanese can also feel negative when the Dutch is trying to be indirect to them. This is because there is a mismatch between the subscribed and ascribed identity. Whilst a Japanese person sees him or herself as a professional personal, the counterparts may only see them as a Japanese person, and treat them accordingly. Another example from the finding is that when a Dutch person is considered by his colleagues to be a short-time visitor to Japan, they are less willing to build a relationship with him, whereas the Dutch participant sees himself as part of the team and is eager to engage and connect with his colleagues. The relationship is more difficult to be built because of the gap between identities. Nevertheless, the consensus is that relationship is recognized as vital in communication in Japan. According to the results, communication problems are caused by a mixture of factors, and it is not always easy to identify the key reasons for miscommunication at root level.

5.1.4. Miscommunication

Which factors lead to: (i) cultural misunderstanding and cultural misinterpretation in communication between Dutch expatriates in Japan and host-nationals, and (ii) communication breakdown based on the cultural differences between them?

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The conclusions of the sub questions lead to the answer of the main research question of this research. All the factors found in the literature reviewed in Chapter 2, appear to be influential to cultural misunderstanding and misinterpretation as well as communication breakdown. Knowing and understanding their culture, is crucial when communicating with Japanese. Communication involves shared meanings. Without cultural learning and adaptation, individuals cannot comprehend how others from different cultural background perceive messages and why they think and perform in a certain manner. It is therefore difficult to react in an appropriate way or to deliver the desired response. The effect and difficulties of cultural adaptation appeared to be significant due to the definite and clear distinction between the two cultures in this research. Moreover, committed adaptation appeared not to be the most ideal way when taking the expatriates’ personal goals into consideration. Participants are challenged in finding a healthy balance between two cultures that would be beneficial for them in their situation.

Additionally, individual ICC enable an individual to have the correct attitude towards differences, understanding the need to respect, to be open-minded, and to explore possibilities. With the correct attitude, individuals gain cultural knowledge and awareness, and therefore develop the skills to listen, to observe, to interpret, to analyze, to evaluate, and to relate. With the necessary knowledge and skills, an individual is empowered to deal with differences in practice. This in turn, leads to fruitful communicative outcomes. By contrast, if an individual is not interculturally competent, he or she do not know the proper way to deal with differences. Consequently, in such a situation cultural misunderstanding and misinterpretation as well as communication breakdown can occur.

Several barriers in communication proved to be related to the success of communication. Without having a common linguistic background and a commonality in nonverbal cues, many problems can occur. Individuals can not get their messages delivered, recognized, or received in the way intended, which can lead to cultural misunderstanding, misinterpretation, and communication breakdown. Lastly, the issue of cognition barrier is also salient. It mainly relates to the issue of identity. The sense of sameness in social identity is important for Japanese to be more willing in having open conversation. By contrast, when the expatriate is seen as an outsider, which happens commonly to foreigners in Japan, open discussion is less likely to happen. Furthermore, when an individual approaches the communication counterpart in the wrong way because there is a mismatch between the subscribed identity and the ascribed identity, negative emotions are triggered. This may also have a negative effect on open and transparent communication.

5.2. Discussion

The findings of this research identified several issues and have some theoretical implications. Firstly, the findings suggest that total adaptation might not necessarily be the most beneficial way for expatriates to reach their communicative and personal goals in Japan. Some participants from both cultures expressed positive attitudes in maintaining some part of the home culture of expatriates. Also, the attempts to achieve full adaptation can bring about negative feelings. This can have a negative effect or even bring about a refusal relative to

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adaptation in other aspects. Every expatriate in Japan has a different goal to reach and everyone also has different personal and social circumstances. There is no single standard for expatriates to know to what degree and in which aspects they should or should not adapt.

Furthermore, Tokyo still appears to be an attractive talent hub because of its unique culture, safe environment, high-quality infrastructure, leading role in the world markets, and existing mass of expertise. However, in terms of talent retention, it has certain problems which stem from the frustrations that employees face not only at work but also in their personal lives. Expatriates have to deal with distinct cultural and linguistic differences, feelings of loneliness and isolation, not being accepted as equals, and not being able to connect with the host-nationals. All these life-related issues may lead to the intention to leave.

Taylor and Napier’s (1997) research presented the experiences of American female expatriates in Japan. Some of these experiences are also reflected in this study by male and female Dutch participant expatriates. These experiences include: perception of being less accepted in Japan because that they are simply ‘just foreign’, the difficulty in accepting the culture of power distance, frustration because of the social life customs in non-work domains. This also shows that the communication issue is not the only problem for expatriates but also in many other aspects. Moreover, Taylor and Napier’s (1997) research reported that most of the participants had experienced sexual harassment. Although no participant in this research reported to have personal experience, it had been noticed by the participants. This shows that gender inequality remains a key problem in Japanese society today. A recent news clip also substantiated this in reporting that Tokyo Medical University admitted restricting the number of female students by manipulating female students’ entrance exam results in order to ensure that more men become doctors. There is still a long way to go to improve the social status of women in Japan.

Lastly, it emerged that all the participants who had cross-cultural training were more inclined to a self-reflective approach but were also taught about fixed cultural patterns. The training was aimed at raising the awareness of and at increasing sensitivity to cultural difference, as well as how they should behave in a specific culture. However, the result proved that not all people in one culture think and act similarly. Culture is much more dynamic and complex than set patterns. However, basic etiquette is also necessary when entering a new culture. Etiquette and manners are highly valued in Japanese culture. Japanese appreciate it when foreigners are willing to follow those manners. Therefore, when designing cross-cultural training it is important to take such aspects into consideration.

5.3. Limitations and future research The main limitation of this study has been participant diversity. Many of the initial-intended interviewees were not able to participate because of work-related compliance issues. And this mostly happened relative to the Japanese companies. This limited the possibilities of finding sufficient and diversified participants. There is no participant currently working for a traditional Japanese company or in a Japanese team. Only one participant works for an international team in a Japanese start-up. Although this also reflects the distribution of Dutch expatriates in Tokyo

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it is still not sufficient to make generalizations regarding the cultural and linguistic encounters between the Dutch and the Japanese.

Another limitation in participant diversity is that there was no female Dutch person working in a lower position that participated. It is commonly known that Japan has high levels of gender inequality. Yet, gender issue only appear in the value conflict between two cultures in this research. Its influence in miscommunication is not particularly salient. This mirrors the literature that there are fewer problems with female expatriates with higher or senior positions in Japan. One Dutch female participant in this research is in a managerial position and the other one is self-employed. Also, as indicated before, international companies mostly maintain a healthy balance and all the female interviewees are working for one such company. This may also be the reason for the limitation in findings in this area. Furthermore, there were no male Japanese participants in this research, hence it is difficult to come up with generalizations about the Japanese opinions.

This research has sought to synthesize the common elements that lead to miscommunication. Miscommunication has been identified as a factor that increases the intention of expatriates to leave the country. Future research can further investigate talent retention in Japan. Gender inequality is another important issue in Japanese society. From the experiences of the participants in this study, it is clear that there is still strong gender discrimination towards females and role division in social rituals in Japan. Although a substantial amount of literature discuss related topics, there were no researches that focused on female expatriates in the past two decades. Moreover, in-depth focus on Japanese perspective on cultural adaptation for both themselves and foreigners in Japan can also be useful to deepen our understanding of desired or undesired change in Japanese culture. This research is about miscommunication between guest and host nationals in Japan but it focuses on the guest-national’s side to highlight the problems that they face in the new country. Nevertheless host-nationals also face challenges when dealing with a new culture, even they are staying in their own country. Future research can focus on the adaptation of host-nationals. Lastly this research only looks at working individuals specifically, yet other types of sojourner can provide different views on the topic and is worth further investigation.

5.4. Recommendations This research has made clear the importance of knowing the culture of the communication counterpart. Many people learn about cultures from theories, books, and mostly internet sites. However, it is difficult to know whether the information is sufficiently up-to-date or whether it is correct. Too much information can also reinforce the stereotypes of a culture. Therefore, it is important to view the information with discernment. In addition, it is impossible to learn everything about a culture, there is always something new. The most important is to stay aware and learn to respect and see the beauty and positive side of a different culture.

Building a social circle is also important for expatriates, with both foreign and host-nationals. Some expatriates reported that they did not expect and were not prepared for the loneliness they experienced in the host country. Therefore, mental preparation is also needed. As suggested by Gullahorn and Gullahorn (1963), it is easier to go through the mental

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isolation stage with some person to share feelings with. Having a social circle is helpful in terms of both physical and mental support. Sojourners understand more about the difficulties and feelings that another sojourner may or will face. Having more local contacts, helps expatriates to feel more connected to the host-nationals and allow them to understand and appreciate the host culture in a deeper sense. Gudykunst and Kim (as cited in Imahori and Lanigan, 1989) also draw attention to the importance of building connection for an intercultural relationship to develop into intimacy, as it is beneficial for developing ICC. Therefore, community building and organizing activities on a regular basis can be useful for adaptation.

It is important to note that every expatriates’ situation should be seen in context. There is no single solution for all the problems. It is important to find a healthy balance between host and home culture, and it is not necessarily a bad thing to use your gaijin card to reach the goals that

1

you intend for yourself. However, since each individual is different, it is not only the gap between cultures that should dictate, but contextual factors should also be considered.

Lastly, time and patience is pivotal in dealing with cultural differences. Change in mindset and behavior need time for both guest and host nationals. Although many of the challenges and frustrations occur in the beginning, it is important to remain positive and flexible in dealing with changes and challenges as they occur.

1 The resident permit in Japan, which commonly refers to taking the advantage of the exception Japanese made for foreigners

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Appendices

Appendix A. Figures Figure 1. Culturemap: High and low context culture (Meyer, 2014)

Figure 2. Hall (1990) High and Low context culture

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Figure 3. W-curve function of adaptation (Gudykunst, 2005)

Figure 4. Intercultural communication competence process (Deardorff, 2006; 2009)

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Figure 5. Sample of social media post.

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Appendix B. The interview guide.

Basic personal informations (example questions )

Can you tell something about yourself ? (How old are you? Where are you from? What is your current occupation? How many years have you been staying in Japan?)

Why decided to move to Japan?

Do you bring your family to Japan?

Do overseas experiences other than Japan?

How do you define yourself (as an expatriate)?

As a woman expatriate in Japan, do it find any differences with your male colleague?

Where do you see yourself in five years? Still in Tokyo? Still in Japan?

Regarding culture (example questions )

How do you think of Japanese culture?

Have you ever experienced any culture shocks in Japan? If so, what is that and how long did that take you to get used to it?

Do you like (enjoy living in) Japan now? What do you like the most about Japan ?

Do you find it difficult to live in Japan? What negatives, if any, are there to live in Japan?

What has been the hardest aspect to your expatriate experience (experiences working with Dutch) so far?

Do you have Japanese (expatriate) friends in private life?

Regarding language (example questions )

How many languages do you speak? Do you speak Japanese?

Why do you want to (not want to) learn Japanese

Do you find Japanese difficult to learn? What is the most difficult part to learn Japanese

Regarding communication (example questions )

Do you think you can communicate with Japanese (Dutch) efficiently? Why? (examples)

How do you think about Japanese (Dutch) communication style?

What obstacles, if there is any, you have encountered when communicating with Japanese (Dutch)? How you solved it? Is it effective?

From your opinion, how can you better communicate Japanese (Dutch)?

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