Communicating - GBV · 2010. 2. 23. · Communicating FOR SUCCESS CHERYL HAMILTON Tarrant County College, Northeast Campus BONNIE CREEL Tarrant County College, Northeast Campus Allyn

CommunicatingFOR SUCCESS

CHERYL HAMILTONTarrant County College, Northeast Campus

BONNIE CREELTarrant County College, Northeast Campus

Allyn & BaconBoston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River

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Contents

Preface xvi

About the Author xxix

UNIT I

BUILDING COMMUNICATION FOUNDATIONS

1 Getting Started in Communication 3LEARNING OBJECTIVES 3

SCENARIO 4

Communication Defined 5Communication Is a Transactional Process 5Communication Occurs in a Context 6Communication Involves Negotiated Meanings of Symbols 8Communication Involves Shared Understanding 9DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Determine Your Anxiety/Confidence

Level 10

Basic Communication Process nCommunication Models:'A Brief Overview 11Elements of the Transaction Communication Model 13MAKING THEORY PRACTICAL: Coordinated Management of

Meaning Theory 20

Exploring the Communication Model:Frames of Reference 21

Communication and Culture 2 /Communication and Gender 23Communication and Technology 24Communication and Ethics 25

A Practical Look at Communication: Competenciesand Benefits 27

Competent Communicators 28Benefits of Studying Communication 29

COMMUNICATION AND YOUK CMEER 30Chapter Summary 32 • Summary of Skills 32 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 33 • Solve It Now! 34 • Key Terms 34 • Skill Builders 34 •Explore Some More . . . 35

A Using Perception to Understand Selfand Others 37

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 37 ^

SCENARIO 38

Perception: Definitions and Steps 39Step 1: Selecting Available Data 39Step 2: Organizing Data into a Usable Form 41Step 3: Interpreting the Data by Adding Meaning and Making Predictions 44

Factors That Lead to Differences in Perception 45Physiological Factors in Perceptual Errors 45Psychological Factors in Perceptual Errors 46Cultural Factors in Perceptual Errors 46

Perception and Self 47Self-Concept Defined 47DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Determine Your Personality Type 48

Barnlund's "6-Person" Concept: A "Self" Orientation 50Plus-2 Concept: An "Other" Orientation 50Barriers to an Accurate Self-Concept 51

Perception and Others 54First Impressions 54Stereotyping 54Perceptual Constancy 55Fundamental Attribution Error 55Projection 55MAKING THEORY PRACTICAL: Attribution Theory 56

Developing Perceptual Skills 57Using Perceptual Skills to Improve Self-Concept 57Using Perceptual Skills to Improve Your Perception

with Others 58

PERCEPTION AND YOUR CAKEER 60Chapter Summary 63 • Summary of Skills 63 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 63 • Solve It Now! 64 • Key Terms 64 • Skill Builders 64 •Explore Some More ... 65

3 Listening 67

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 67

SCENARIO 68

What Is Listening? 69"Listening" Defined 69Stages of Listening 70

Importance of Listening 71Listening Helps Us Develop and Maintain Relationships 71

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DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Improve Your Memory 72

Listening Helps Us in Our Careers 73Listening Helps Us Become Better Citizens 73Listening Helps Us Develop and Maintain Our Mental Health 73

Barriers to Listening 74Noise 74Information Processing 75Cultural Differences 75Gender Orientation 76Poor Listening Habits 76

Informational Listening 78MAKING THEORY PRACTICAL: Listening Styles Profile 79

Prepare to Listen 80Avoid Prejudging 80Mentally Organize, Summarize, and Link Information 80Personalize Information While Listening 81Take Skillful Notes 81Ask Questions and Paraphrase 81

Critical Listening 82Listening Critically to Speaker Ethos 82Listening Critically to Speaker Logos 83Listening Critically to Speaker Pathos 85Using Critical Listening Skills 85

Empathic Listening 86Use Supporting Responses 86Use Interpreting Responses 87Use Questioning Responses and Paraphrasing Responses 87Avoid Judging and Advising Responses 88

LISTENING AND YOUR CAREER 90Chapter Summary 92 • Summary of Skills 92 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 92 • Solve It Now! 93 • Key Terms 93 • Skill Builders 93

Verbal Communication 95

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 95

SCENARIO 96

The Nature of Language 97Language and Verbal Communication Defined 97Language and the Human Ability to Think 98Language Is Rule-Governed 98Language Is Symbolic 99Language and Culture 100Language and Gender 101

The Power of Language 101Language Has Power to Influence Our Perceptions of Others 101

MAKING THEORY PRACTICAL: The Theory of Linguistic Relativity (or the Sapir-WhorfHypothesis) 103

5

Language Has Power to Reflect Attitudes 104Language Has Power to Affect Others' Perceptions of Us 104

Obstacles to Effective Verbal Encoding 106Insufficient Vocabulary 106Jargon 106Euphemisms 107 »Trigger Words 108Abstracting and Allness 108Polarizing Terms 109Imprecise Language and Relative Terms 109

Overcoming Obstacles to Effective Verbal Encoding noExpanding a Poor Vocabulary 110Avoiding Jargon 110Using Euphemisms with Care 110Being Alert to Trigger Words 111Using Dating and Indexing 111DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Read a Journal Article /12

Being Cautious of Extremes 113Defining and Describing with Care 113

LANGUAGE AMD YOUK CAREER 114Chapter Summary 116 • Summary of Skills 116 • Summary ofLearning Outcomes 116 • Solve It Now! 117 • Key Terms 117 •Skill Builders 117

Nonverbal Communication 119

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 119

SCENARIO 120

What Is Nonverbal Communication? 121Key Communication Concepts 121Nonverbal Communication Defined 122

The Nature of Nonverbal Communication 123Nonverbal Communication Aids Meaning 123Nonverbal Communication Is Ambiguous 124

Categories of Nonverbal Communication 125MAKING THEORY PRACTICAL: Expectancy Violations Theory 126

Kinesics '127Proxemics 130Haptics 132Chronemics 133Artifacts 135Paralanguage 136

Functions of Nonverbal Messages 140Nonverbal Messages Can Replace Verbal Messages 140Nonverbal Messages Can Repeat Verbal Messages 140Nonverbal Messages Can Reinforce Verbal Messages 140Nonverbal Messages Can Regulate Verbal Messages 141Nonverbal Messages Can Reveal the Emotions Behind Verbal Messages 141

Nonverbal Messages Can Reverse Verbal Messages 141Nonverbal Messages Can Reflect Unconscious Needs 142

Improving Nonverbal Encoding 142Use Self-Monitoring 143Check for Cultural Meanings 143Check for Context 143DEVELOPING SKILLS: How To Read Others' Nonverbal Messages 144

Check for Personal Differences 145Ask for Feedback 145

NONVERBAL SKILLS AND YOUR CAREER 146Chapter Summary 148 • Summary of Skills 148 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 148 • Solve It Now! 149 • Key Terms 149 • Skill Builders 149

UNIT II

INTERPERSONAL AND SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION

fc) Building InterpersonalRelationships 757

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 151

SCENARIO 152

Interpersonal Communication 153General Definition 153Impersonal versus Interpersonal Communication 153

Interpersonal Relationships: Getting Needs Met 155Personal Needs and Wants 155Inclusion Needs (Extrovert-Introvert) 155DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Determine Your Needs 156Control Needs (Dominant-Submissive) 158Openness Needs (Discloser-Withholder) 159Contradictory Needs (Dialectics) 159

Interpersonal Relationships: Gaining Rewards andMinimizing Costs 160

Gathering Information and Using Effective Conversation 161Gathering Information to Reduce Uncertainty 161Using Effective Conversation 162

Improving Self-Disclosure 164True Self-Disclosure 164Self-Disclosure and Culture/Gender/Technology/Ethics 165MAKING THEORY PRACTICAL: Face Negotiation Theory 766Disclosure and the Model of Social Penetration 168

RELATIONSHIPS AND YOUR CAREER 170Chapter Summary 173 • Summary of Skills 173 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 173 • Solve It Now! 174 • Key Terms 174 • Skill Builders 175Explore Some More . . . 175

8 / Developing and Managing InterpersonalRelationships and Conflict m

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 177 \

SCENARIO 178

Relationships Stages 179Stages of Relationship Development 180Stages of Relationship Deterioration 183

Relationships and Conflict 186Conflict Defined 186Conflict Escalators 187Conflict and Technology 190

Conflict Styles 191The Passive Style 191MAKING THEORY PRAaiCAL: Dispute-Exacerbating Model of E-Mail (DEME) 792

The Aggressive Style 193

Conflict Outcomes 195Win-Win 195Compromise 195DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Communicate Assertively 196

Win-Lose 197

Lose-Lose 197

RELATIONSHIPS AND YQUE CAREER 198Chapter Summary 197 • Summary of Skills 197 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 200 • Solve It Now! 200 • Key Terms 201 • Skill Builders 201 •Explore Some More . . . 201

O Communicating in Problem-SolvingGroups 203

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 203

SCENARIO 204

The Nature of Groups 205What Makes a Group? 205Teams and Virtual Teams 206Groups arid Culture Gender/Ethics/Technology 206Types of Groups 208

Individual versus Group Decisions 208When Individual Decisions Work Best 208DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Organize a Service-Learning Project 209

When Group Decisions Work Best 210

Characteristics of Successful Small Groups 211The Optimum Size 211Decision-Making Methods 212Group Cohesiveness 213Cultural Diversity 214

Absence of Groupthink 215Rules, Norms, and Phases 215MAKING THEORY PRAaiCAL: Croupthink Theory 216

Group Problem-Solving Process 218Group Process Step 1: Identify the Problem 218Group Process Step 2: Analyze the Problem 221Group Process Step 3: Establish and Rank Criteria 222Group Process Step 4: Generate Possible Solutions 224Group Process Step 5: Apply Criteria to Select Best Solution(s) 226Group Process Step 6: Implement and Follow-up 227

GROUP SKILLS AND YOUR CAREER 228Chapter Summary 227 • Summary of Skills 227 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 230 • Solve It Now! 230 • Key Terms 231 • Skill Builders 231

Becoming Effective Group Membersand Leaders 233

} LEARNING OBJECTIVES 233

SCENARIO 234

Characteristics of Effective Group Members 235Keeping an Open Mind 235Preparing and Participating Effectively 236Using the Problem-Solving Procedure Effectively 236Handing Conflicts Effectively 237

Effective Member Roles 237Formal Roles 237Task Roles 238Maintenance Roles 239 ''Dysfunctional Roles 241

Characteristics of Effective Group Leadership 242Using Power Effectively 243Sharing Responsibility 243DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Work with Dysfunctional Members 244

Benefiting from Culture/Gender/Technology/Ethics 245

Becoming an Effective Leader 247Leadership Traits 247Leadership Functions 248Leadership Styles 249Contingency Leadership 250Transformational Leadership 252

Responsibilities of Members and Leaders 252Member Responsibilities 253Leader Responsibilities 253MAKING THEORY PRACTICAL: Transformational Leadership Theory 254

LEADERSHIP AND YOUR CAREER 256Chapter Summary 255 • Summary of Skills 255 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 255 • Solve It Now! 258 • Key Terms 258 • Skill Builders 259Explore Some More . . . 259

oo

UNIT IIIPUBLIC SPEAKING

IU Public Speaking: Getting Started %iLEARNING OBJECTIVES 261

SCENARIO 262

Understanding the Nature of Anxiety 263What Is Speaker Anxiety? 263What Causes Speaker Anxiety? 263

Building Speaker Confidence 265Be Prepared 265Engage in Skills Training 266Use Positive Imagery 266Enjoy Deep Breathing and Relaxation 267Apply Cognitive Restructuring 267MAKING THEORY PRAaiCAL: Uncertainty Reduction Theoiy 269

Become Audience Centered 270Practice Speaking Often 270

An Overview: Five Steps in Preparing a SuccessfulSpeech 271

Step 1: Analyzing Your Audience and the Situation 271Step 2: Developing Your Topic, Purpose, and Thesis 271Step 3: Gathering Materials 272Step 4: Organizing Your Main Points 272Step 5: Practicing Your Speech 272

Audience Analysis: A More Detailed Look 273Demographic Analysis 274Attitude Analysis 275DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Conduct an Audience Analysis 279

SPEAKING SKILLS AMD YOUR CAREER 280Situational Analysis 282Chapter Summary 283 • Summary of Skills 283 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 283 • Solve It Now! 284 • Key Terms 284 • Skill Builders 284Explore Some More . . . 285

11 Selecting a Topic and GatheringSupporting Materials 287

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 287

SCENARIO 288

Developing Your Topic, Purpose, and Thesis 289Topic Selection 289Purpose 292Thesis Statement 294

Gathering Materials: Begin with a Rough Draft Outline 295A Rough Draft Outline Saves Valuable Time 295A Rough Draft Outline Makes Getting Opinions from Others Easier 296

Researching for Supporting Materials 296Personal Information 297Print Sources 297DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Avoid Plagiarism 298

Electronic Databases 299Internet Sources 299

Types and Uses of Supporting Materials 302Definitions 303Explanations 304Examples and Illustrations 304Comparisons 305Quotations 306MAKING THEORY PRAQICAL: Fisher's Narrative Paradigm 307

Statistics 308

Quality Supporting Materials and Your Career 309

SPEECH MATERIALS AND YOUR CAREER 310Chapter Summary 312 • Summary of Skills 312 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 312 • Solve It Now! 313 • Key Terms 313 • Skill Builders 313

\A Informative Speaking 315

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 315

SCENARIO 316

Informative Speaking: Characteristics 317

Organizational Patterns for Informative Speeches 318Chronological (Time Order) 319Spatial (Geographical) 319Topical 320Causal (Usually Cause-Effect) 320Problem-Solution 321

Speech Organization: Cultural Differences 322

Speech Introductions 322Catch Audience Attention 323Build Rapport 326Establish Credibility 326Point Out Benefits to Audience 326Clarify Central Idea with Thesis and Preview of Main Points 327When Each Function Should Be Used 327

Speech Conclusions 328Summary of Main Points 328Memorable Ending 328Questions and Answers (Q&A) 329

8

Speech Transitions 330

Speech Outlining 331Why Bother with Outlines? 331

DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Organize Using Storyboards 332

Outlining Principles 334 •»

Types of Outlines 336

ORGANIZATION ANO YOUR CAREER 340Chapter Summary 339 • Summary of Skills 339 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 339 • Solve It Now! 342 • Key Terms 342 • Skill Builders 343Explore Some More . . . 343

1sJ Adding Visuals and Practicing YourPresentation 345

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 345

SCENARIO 346

Preparing Quality Visual Aids 347Types of Visual Aids 347

General Guidelines for Using Visual Aids Successfully 348

MAKING THEORY PRAQICAL: Basic Design Principles 350

Using PowerPoint Successfully 352

Preparing for a Specific Audience 355Identify Audience Type 356Select Best Delivery Method 356

Practice Your Verbal and NonverbalDelivery 358

Pick Words Carefully 359Use Direct Eye Contact 359Use Effective Facial Expressions 360Monitor Posture, Gestures, and Movements 360Monitor Clothing and Grooming 361

Practice Your Vocal Delivery (Paralanguage) 362Pitch 362Rate 363Volume 363Emphasis 363Vocal Quality 363Articulation 364Pronunciation 364Vocal Dysfluencies 365

Practice Citing Your Sources 366DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Orally Cite Your Sources During Your

Presentation 367

Final Preparations before Your Speech 368

DELIVERY AND YOUR CAREER 370Chapter Summary 368 • Summary of Skills 369 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 369 • Solve It Now! 372 • Key Terms 372 • Skill Builders 373Explore Some More . . . 373

Persuasive Speaking 375

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 375

SCENARIO 376

Understanding Persuasion 377Differences between Persuasive and Informative Speeches 377Factors That Affect Persuasion 379MAKING THEORY PRAaiCAL: Social Judgment Theory 380

Types of Persuasive Speeches 383Speech to Convince 383Speech to Actuate 383

Persuasive Appeals That Really Persuade 384Speaker Credibility (Ethos) 384Evidence and Reasoning (Logos) 385Emotional Appeal (Pathos) 386

Persuasive Organizational Patterns 388Persuasive Pattern for Arguments: Statement of Logical Reasons 388Persuasive Patterns for Problems and Solutions 389Persuasive Pattern for Policy and Action: The Motivated Sequence 393DEVELOPING SKILLS: How to Use Inoculation Theory 395

Adapting Organizational Patterns to Audiences 396When Audience Favors YourPosition 396When Audience Opposes Your Position 396When Audience Is Neutral toward Your Position 397When Audience Opinions Vary Widely 397Sample Student Speech 398Final Thoughts from the Authors 401

PERSUASION AND YOUR CAREER 402Chapter Summary 401 • Summary of Skills 401 • Summary of LearningOutcomes 404 • Solve It Now! 405 • Key Terms 405 • Skill Builders 405

APPENDIX Communicating Successfully in the Interviewing Context 406

References 419

Glossary 433

Photo Credits 449

Name Index 451

Subject Index 454