Cognition: Thinking & Language Chapter 8 Copyright 2003 Allyn & Bacon This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: •Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; •Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; •Any rental, lease, or lending of the program Slide authors: Larry D. Thomas Landon O. Thomas Book authors: R. H. Ettinger
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Cognition: Thinking & Language
Chapter 8
Copyright 2003 Allyn & Bacon
This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:
•Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network;
•Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images;
Additive and elimination by aspects strategies– Additive strategy
A decision-making approach in which each alternative is rated on each important factor affecting the decision and the alternative rated highest overall is chosen
– Elimination by aspects A variation on the additive strategy The factors on which the alternatives are to be evaluated
are ordered from most important to least important Any alternative that does not satisfy the most important
factor is automatically eliminated The process of elimination continues as each factor is
considered in order The alternative that survives is the one chosen
Approaches to problem solving (continued)– Algorithm
A systematic, step-by-step procedure, such as a mathematical formula, that guarantees a solution to a problem of a certain type if the algorithm is appropriate and is executed properly
– Heuristics Working backwards
– A heuristic strategy in which a person discovers the steps needed to solve a problem by defining the desired goal and working backwards to the current condition
– The tendency to apply a familiar strategy to the solution of a problem without carefully considering the special requirements of that problem
– Recent research indicates that our problem-solving abilities may remain relatively undiminished over our lifetimes, even though our pace may slow down a little with age
– Haught and others Reported that older problem solvers performed as well as
Artificial Neural Networks– Computer systems hat are intended to mimic the
human brain– Using neural networks, psychologists can also learn
more about how the brain works– Alex Waibel and colleagues
Used a neural network in their research on speech recognition
They developed a system “programmed to modify itself according to whatever signals come into the system . . . The speech recognizer actually learns how to identify sounds and words”
Language and the brain (continued)– Paulesu and colleagues
Uncovered that the brain activity in three regions varied according to the speaker’s native language
– Brain-imaging studies have identified one area in the lower rear section of the left temporal lobe that plays a major role in processing information about both syntax and semantics
– Two brain areas that are important for processing language are Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area
– Taught another chimp, Sarah, to use an artificial language he developed
– Sarah mastered the concepts of similarities and differences, and eventually she could signal whether two objects were the same or different with nearly perfect accuracy
Herbert Terrace– Taught sign language to a chimp they called Nim
Chimpsky and reported Nim’s progress from the age of 2 weeks to 4 years
– Nim learned 125 symbols, which is respectable, but does not amount to language
Animal language (continued)– Communication in other animals
Most animal species studied by language researchers are limited to motor responses, such as sign language, gestures, using magnetic symbols, or pressing keys on symbol boards
Research with sea mammals such as whales and dolphins has established that they apparently use complicated systems of grunts, whistles, clicks, and other sounds to communicate within their species
Bilingualism (continued)– Kenji Hakuta and his colleagues
Used census data to examine relationships among English-language, age at entry into the United States, and educational attainment among Chinese- and Spanish-speaking immigrants
Even when immigrants entered the United States in middle and late adulthood, their ability to learn English was predicted by their educational backgrounds
– Other studies have shown that the more you know about your first language the easier time you will have learning another one
Suggests that bilinguals who learned a second language early (younger than age 10 or 11) rely on the same patch of tissue in Broca’s area for both of the languages they speak
But in those who were older when they learned a second language, two different sections of Broca’s area are active while they are performing language tasks-one section for the native language and another for the second language