Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2005 1 Chapter 3 Social Cognition This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following.

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Social CognitionSocial Cognition

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What is Social Cognition?What is Social Cognition?

Social cognition –the process of thinking about and making sense of oneself and others

Social cognition –the process of thinking about and making sense of oneself and others


Four Core Processes ofSocial Cognition


Attention

Interpretation

Judgment

Memory

Attention

Interpretation

Judgment

Memory




Attention –the process of consciously focusing on features of the environment or oneself

Attention is limited, and different people may focus on different features of the same situation.

Attention –the process of consciously focusing on features of the environment or oneself

Attention is limited, and different people may focus on different features of the same situation.




Interpretation –the process through which we give meaning to the events we experience

Many social situations can be interpreted in more than one way.

Interpretation –the process through which we give meaning to the events we experience

Many social situations can be interpreted in more than one way.


Is Media Bias in the Eye of the Beholder? Is Media Bias in the Eye of the Beholder?

In one study, students with pro-Israel or pro-Palestine views watched identical news broadcasts of a conflict between Israelis and Palestinians.

In one study, students with pro-Israel or pro-Palestine views watched identical news broadcasts of a conflict between Israelis and Palestinians.

esearchesearch


5 5

44

33

22

11

0 0 Pro-

IsraeliPro-

IsraeliNeutralNeutral

Pro-Palestinian

Pro-Palestinian

Anti-IsraeliAnti-Israeli

Anti-PalestinianAnti-Palestinian

Interpretation

Perceived bias in media presentations


Compared to neutral students, pro-Israeli students thought the presentations were biased against Israelis.

Compared to neutral students, pro-Israeli students thought the presentations were biased against Israelis.


5 5

44

33

22

11

0 0 Pro-

IsraeliPro-

IsraeliNeutralNeutral

Pro-Palestinian

Pro-Palestinian

Interpretation

But pro-Palestinian students thought the opposite – that the reports were biased against Palestinians.

But pro-Palestinian students thought the opposite – that the reports were biased against Palestinians.

Anti-IsraeliAnti-Israeli

Anti-PalestinianAnti-Palestinian






Judgment –the process of using information to form impressions and make decisions

Because we often have limited information, many social judgments are “best guesses.”

Judgment –the process of using information to form impressions and make decisions

Because we often have limited information, many social judgments are “best guesses.”




Memory –storing and retrieving information for future use

Memory can influence our decisions by affecting what we pay attention to, and how we interpret it.

Memory –storing and retrieving information for future use

Memory can influence our decisions by affecting what we pay attention to, and how we interpret it.


The Goals of Social CognitionThe Goals of Social Cognition

Conserving Mental Effort

Managing Self-Image

Seeking Accuracy

Conserving Mental Effort

Managing Self-Image

Seeking Accuracy


The Complex, Information-Rich

Social World

GOAL: Conserving Mental Effort

Simplification Strategies:ExpectationsDispositional InferencesOther Cognitive Shortcuts

The Limited Human Attentional Capacity


Conserving Mental EffortConserving Mental Effort

We often think in ways that tend to preserve our expectations

We pay attention to behaviors relevant to our expectations.

We interpret ambiguous events/behaviors in ways that support our expectations.

We remember people and events consistent with our expectations.

We often think in ways that tend to preserve our expectations

We pay attention to behaviors relevant to our expectations.

We interpret ambiguous events/behaviors in ways that support our expectations.

We remember people and events consistent with our expectations.



Self-fulfilling prophecy –when an initially inaccurate expectation leads to actions that cause the expectation to come true

Self-fulfilling prophecy –when an initially inaccurate expectation leads to actions that cause the expectation to come true


Avoiding a Negative Self-fulfilling ProphecyAvoiding a Negative

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

Before participating in a mock interview, students were given one of the following instructions:

“Go with the flow”

“Make sure you make the impression you want to make.”

Before participating in a mock interview, students were given one of the following instructions:

“Go with the flow”

“Make sure you make the impression you want to make.”

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Applicants instructed to “make the impression you want to make” were able to overcome the interviewer’s negative expectations. Page 79

Applicants instructed to “make the impression you want to make” were able to overcome the interviewer’s negative expectations. Page 79

Interviewer holds negative expectation for applicantInterviewer holds negative expectation for applicant

Interviewer holds positive expectation for applicantInterviewer holds positive expectation for applicant

6.0

5.0

4.0

Per

form

ance

Go withthe flow

Present yourdesired image



Self-fulfilling prophecy is most likely to occur when:

1. Those holding the erroneous expectations control the social encounter

2. The target of the expectation defers to this control

Self-fulfilling prophecy is most likely to occur when:

1. Those holding the erroneous expectations control the social encounter

2. The target of the expectation defers to this control



Dispositional inferences –judgments that a person’s behavior was caused by his or her personality

Dispositional inferences –judgments that a person’s behavior was caused by his or her personality



Correspondence bias (fundamental attribution error) –the tendency for observers to overestimate the causal influence of personality factors on behavior and to underestimate the causal role of situational influences

Correspondence bias (fundamental attribution error) –the tendency for observers to overestimate the causal influence of personality factors on behavior and to underestimate the causal role of situational influences



Actor-observer difference –the tendency for individuals to judge their own behaviors as caused by situational forces but the behavior of another as caused by his or her personality

Actor-observer difference –the tendency for individuals to judge their own behaviors as caused by situational forces but the behavior of another as caused by his or her personality



Cognitive heuristics –mental shortcuts used to make judgments

Cognitive heuristics –mental shortcuts used to make judgments



Representativeness heuristic–a mental shortcut – classifying something as belonging to a certain category to the extent that it is similar to a typical case from that category

e.g., judging a student to be a fraternity member because he drinks beer, reads sports magazines, and has many friends

Representativeness heuristic–a mental shortcut – classifying something as belonging to a certain category to the extent that it is similar to a typical case from that category

e.g., judging a student to be a fraternity member because he drinks beer, reads sports magazines, and has many friends


Rival-schemata ambiguityRival-schemata ambiguity


My wife and my mother in lawMy wife and my mother in law


Which blue rectangle is larger?Which blue rectangle is larger?


Muller-Lyer IllusionMuller-Lyer Illusion


Paradoxical PictureParadoxical Picture


What is it?What is it?


Recognize it now?Recognize it now?


Availability heuristicAvailability heuristic


Availability HeuristicAvailability Heuristic

Availability heuristic –a mental shortcut – estimating the likelihood of an event by the ease with which instances of that event come to mind

Availability heuristic –a mental shortcut – estimating the likelihood of an event by the ease with which instances of that event come to mind


Availability HeuristicAvailability Heuristic

Availability heuristic –Examples:

1, 2, 3, ……..?

A, B, C,…….?

Red, Blue, Green,…..?

A man is wearing a heavy jacket, therefore it is cold?

A woman is playing with small children, they must be their mother.

Availability heuristic –Examples:

1, 2, 3, ……..?

A, B, C,…….?

Red, Blue, Green,…..?

A man is wearing a heavy jacket, therefore it is cold?

A woman is playing with small children, they must be their mother.


False ConsensusFalse Consensus


False ConsensusFalse Consensus

False consensus –the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others agree with us

False consensus –the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others agree with us


Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic

Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic

Anchoring and adjustment heuristic –a mental shortcut – using a rough estimation as a starting point, and then adjusting this estimate to take into account unique characteristics of the current situation

Anchoring and adjustment heuristic –a mental shortcut – using a rough estimation as a starting point, and then adjusting this estimate to take into account unique characteristics of the current situation



Factors in the Person and the Situation

Arousal and Circadian Rhythms

Need For Structure

Complex Situations and Time Pressure

When the World Doesn’t Fit Our Expectations

Factors in the Person and the Situation

Arousal and Circadian Rhythms

Need For Structure

Complex Situations and Time Pressure

When the World Doesn’t Fit Our Expectations


Arousal and Circadian RhythmsArousal and Circadian Rhythms

When we are physiologically aroused (e.g., from watching a horror movie) we are more likely to use cognitive short-cuts.

We lose attentional resources during certain phases of our daily cycle (e.g., “morning people” use cognitive short-cuts later in the day; “evening people” use short-cuts in the morning).

When we are physiologically aroused (e.g., from watching a horror movie) we are more likely to use cognitive short-cuts.

We lose attentional resources during certain phases of our daily cycle (e.g., “morning people” use cognitive short-cuts later in the day; “evening people” use short-cuts in the morning).


Need For StructureNeed For Structure

People high in the need for structure agree with items like: “I don’t like situations that are uncertain.”

These people are more likely to use cognitive short-cuts.

People high in the need for structure agree with items like: “I don’t like situations that are uncertain.”

These people are more likely to use cognitive short-cuts.


Complex Situations andTime Pressure

Complex Situations andTime Pressure

Complex situations use up more attention, thus leading us to rely on cognitive short-cuts.

Because it takes time to fully interpret a social situation, we are more likely to use cognitive short-cuts when we are racing against the clock.

Complex situations use up more attention, thus leading us to rely on cognitive short-cuts.

Because it takes time to fully interpret a social situation, we are more likely to use cognitive short-cuts when we are racing against the clock.


When the World Doesn’t FitOur Expectations

When the World Doesn’t FitOur Expectations

When something happens that we don’t expect, we are less likely to use cognitive short-cuts, and more likely to think carefully about our situation.

When something happens that we don’t expect, we are less likely to use cognitive short-cuts, and more likely to think carefully about our situation.


Desire to See Self as Having Good Relationships

GOAL: Managing Self-Image

Self-Enhancement & Protection Strategies:Social Comparison

Self-Serving Attributions

Desire to See Self as Effective


Cognitive Strategies for Enhancing and Protecting the Self


Downward social comparison –the process of comparing ourselves with those who are less well off

Example: Breast cancer patients compared themselves to those who had more serious surgery

Downward social comparison –the process of comparing ourselves with those who are less well off

Example: Breast cancer patients compared themselves to those who had more serious surgery




Upward social comparison –the process of comparing ourselves with those who are better off than ourselves

Example: Comparing yourself to an “A” student in order to inspire yourself to study more.

Upward social comparison –the process of comparing ourselves with those who are better off than ourselves

Example: Comparing yourself to an “A” student in order to inspire yourself to study more.


Self-Serving AttributionsSelf-Serving Attributions

If you get a great grade on your next exam, why will that be?

Because you’re smart?

Because you studied hard?

What if you get a lousy grade? Will that be because the exam was too hard? Because I’m a lousy teacher?

If you get a great grade on your next exam, why will that be?

Because you’re smart?

Because you studied hard?

What if you get a lousy grade? Will that be because the exam was too hard? Because I’m a lousy teacher?


Self-Serving AttributionsSelf-Serving Attributions

Self-serving bias –the tendency to take credit for our successes and to blame external factors for our failures

Self-serving bias –the tendency to take credit for our successes and to blame external factors for our failures


Self-Serving BiasSelf-Serving Bias

In a systematic analysis of newspaper articles describing 33 major baseball and football games in the fall of 1977, quotations from both players and coaches differed considerably depending on whether their teams won or lost.

In a systematic analysis of newspaper articles describing 33 major baseball and football games in the fall of 1977, quotations from both players and coaches differed considerably depending on whether their teams won or lost.


100% 100%

80%80%

60%60%

40%40%

20%20%

0% 0% VictoryVictory DefeatDefeat VictoryVictory DefeatDefeat

Internal Explanations

Internal Explanations

External Explanations

External Explanations

Lau and Russell (1980) Lau and Russell (1980)

Internal explanations were most likely after

victories.External explanations

were most likely after defeats.

Self-Serving BiasSelf-Serving Bias


Managing Self-ImageManaging Self-Image

Self-Esteem

Threats to Self-Esteem

When Self-Esteem is Fragile

Self-Esteem

Threats to Self-Esteem

When Self-Esteem is Fragile


Self EsteemSelf Esteem

People with high self esteem are more likely to inflate their self-importance and exaggerate their sense of control.

People with low self esteem are more cautious, and focus on protecting rather than inflating their self-images.

People with high self esteem are more likely to inflate their self-importance and exaggerate their sense of control.

People with low self esteem are more cautious, and focus on protecting rather than inflating their self-images.


Threats to Self EsteemThreats to Self Esteem

People rate standardized tests (like the SAT) as less valid when they perform poorly.

Mortality salience (thinking about death) causes people to derogate others who challenge their values.

(page 92)

People rate standardized tests (like the SAT) as less valid when they perform poorly.

Mortality salience (thinking about death) causes people to derogate others who challenge their values.

(page 92)


When Self Esteem is FragileWhen Self Esteem is Fragile

Compared to people with stable self-esteem, those with unstable self-esteem are more likely to generate excuses for poor performances.

Compared to people with stable self-esteem, those with unstable self-esteem are more likely to generate excuses for poor performances.


How Universal is the Need for Positive Self-Regard?

How Universal is the Need for Positive Self-Regard?

Research contrasting Japanese with North Americans suggests that members of collectivistic cultures are less likely to demonstrate biases like the ones we’ve been exploring.

Research contrasting Japanese with North Americans suggests that members of collectivistic cultures are less likely to demonstrate biases like the ones we’ve been exploring.


Desire to Avoid Mistakes

GOAL: Seeking Accuracy

Accuracy Strategies:Unbiased Information GatheringConsidering AlternativesAttributional Logic

Desire to Control Outcomes in Life


Unbiased Information GatheringUnbiased Information Gathering

Desire for accuracy leads people to pay special attention to new information (that may go against what they previously suspected).

Desire for accuracy leads people to pay special attention to new information (that may go against what they previously suspected).


Considering AlternativesConsidering Alternatives

With difficult decisions, it is often helpful to play the Devil’s Advocate – i.e., to consider the opposite side of the argument.

With difficult decisions, it is often helpful to play the Devil’s Advocate – i.e., to consider the opposite side of the argument.


Lord, C. G., Lepper, M. R., & Preston, E. (1984)Lord, C. G., Lepper, M. R., & Preston, E. (1984)

“Consider the opposite” “Consider the opposite”

120 Stanford students who favored or opposed capital punishment each read two research results –

One result showed the death penalty to be effective.

The other showed it to be ineffective.

120 Stanford students who favored or opposed capital punishment each read two research results –

One result showed the death penalty to be effective.

The other showed it to be ineffective.


Mixed info onlyMixed info only

Control students simply read the mixed information.

Control students simply read the mixed information.



“Be unbiased” “Be unbiased”

A second group was told:

“Be as objective and unbiased as possible… weigh all of the evidence in a fair and impartial manner.”

A second group was told:

“Be as objective and unbiased as possible… weigh all of the evidence in a fair and impartial manner.”



“Consider the opposite” “Consider the opposite”

A third group was told:

“Ask yourself at each step whether you would have made the same evaluations had exactly the same study produced results on the other side of the issue.”

A third group was told:

“Ask yourself at each step whether you would have made the same evaluations had exactly the same study produced results on the other side of the issue.”



+2 +2

+1+1

-1-1

-2-2

-3 -3

Control group

Control group

Pro Death PenaltyPro Death PenaltyMore ProMore Pro

More AntiMore Anti

Anti Death PenaltyAnti Death Penalty

Initial opinions:Initial opinions:

No changeNo change

Changes in opinionChanges in opinion

After exposure to mixed info, proponents in the control group became even more pro, opponents even more anti.

After exposure to mixed info, proponents in the control group became even more pro, opponents even more anti.


+2 +2

+1+1

-1-1

-2-2

-3 -3

Be UnbiasedBe UnbiasedControl group

Control group

More ProMore Pro

More AntiMore Anti

No changeNo change


Instructions to “Be Unbiased” did not significantly reduce this bias.

Instructions to “Be Unbiased” did not significantly reduce this bias.

Pro Death PenaltyPro Death Penalty




+2 +2

+1+1

-1-1

-2-2

-3 -3

Be UnbiasedBe UnbiasedConsider the

oppositeConsider the

opposite

More ProMore Pro

More AntiMore AntiControl group

Control group

No changeNo change


Students told to “consider the opposite” became unbiased in their information processing.

Students told to “consider the opposite” became unbiased in their information processing.

Pro Death PenaltyPro Death Penalty




Attributional Logic:Seeking the Causes of Behavior


Attributional theories –theories designed to explain how people determine the causes of behavior

Attributional theories –theories designed to explain how people determine the causes of behavior


Attributional LogicAttributional Logic

Correspondent inference theory –people presume a behavior corresponds to an actor’s internal disposition if

The behavior was intended

The behavior’s consequences were foreseeable

The behavior was freely chosen

The behavior occurred despite countervailing forces

Correspondent inference theory –people presume a behavior corresponds to an actor’s internal disposition if

The behavior was intended

The behavior’s consequences were foreseeable

The behavior was freely chosen

The behavior occurred despite countervailing forces


Attributional ProcessesAttributional Processes

Covariation model –people determine the cause of an actor’s behavior by assessing

Consensus – Does everybody do it?

Distinctiveness – Does it occur only in this situation?

Consistency – Does it occur repeatedly?

Covariation model –people determine the cause of an actor’s behavior by assessing

Consensus – Does everybody do it?

Distinctiveness – Does it occur only in this situation?

Consistency – Does it occur repeatedly?


Why does Jack want to marry Jill?

Why does Jack want to marry Jill?


Internal Internal AttributionAttribution

(Jack is (Jack is Desperate)Desperate)

Distinctiveness is Distinctiveness is Low Low (Jack will marry anyone)(Jack will marry anyone)

Consensus is Consensus is LowLow(Others aren’t interested (Others aren’t interested

in Jill)in Jill)

Consistency is Consistency is High High (Jack’s proposed every (Jack’s proposed every

day this week)day this week)


External External AttributionAttribution

(Jill is (Jill is desirable)desirable)

Distinctiveness is Distinctiveness is HighHigh(Jack wants only Jill)(Jack wants only Jill)

Consensus is Consensus is HighHigh(Everyone wants to (Everyone wants to

marry Jill)marry Jill)

Consistency is Consistency is HighHigh(Jack’s proposed every (Jack’s proposed every



Interaction Interaction AttributionAttribution

(Jack and Jill (Jack and Jill have that have that

special magic)special magic)

Distinctiveness is Distinctiveness is HighHigh(Jack wants only Jill)(Jack wants only Jill)

Consensus is Consensus is LowLow(Others aren’t interested (Others aren’t interested

in Jill)in Jill)

Consistency is Consistency is HighHigh(Jack’s proposed every (Jack’s proposed every





Discounting principle –as the number of possible causes for an event increases, our confidence that any particular cause is the true one decreases

Example: If a student gives an apple to the professor, we are less likely to attribute the gift to altruistic motives if the gift might improve the student’s grade.

Discounting principle –as the number of possible causes for an event increases, our confidence that any particular cause is the true one decreases

Example: If a student gives an apple to the professor, we are less likely to attribute the gift to altruistic motives if the gift might improve the student’s grade.




Augmenting principle –if an event occurs despite the presence of strong opposing forces, we give more weight to factors that lead towards the event

Example: If a girl gives a guy flowers, we are more likely to think she really likes him if she had to walk through a rainstorm to get them.

Augmenting principle –if an event occurs despite the presence of strong opposing forces, we give more weight to factors that lead towards the event

Example: If a girl gives a guy flowers, we are more likely to think she really likes him if she had to walk through a rainstorm to get them.


Seeking AccuracySeeking Accuracy

Mood

Need For Cognition

Unexpected Events

Social Interdependence

Cognitive Resources

Mood

Need For Cognition

Unexpected Events

Social Interdependence

Cognitive Resources


SadnessSadness

People who are mildly depressed are more thorough when thinking about social events. (page 98)

When extra thought is beneficial, being a bit sad makes us more accurate.

When extra thought interferes with effective processing, being a little sad hurts.

People who are mildly depressed are more thorough when thinking about social events. (page 98)

When extra thought is beneficial, being a bit sad makes us more accurate.

When extra thought interferes with effective processing, being a little sad hurts.


Need for CognitionNeed for Cognition

People who are high in the need for cognition view thinking as fun, enjoy solving puzzles, and enjoy analyzing arguments.

These people are less likely to use simplifying heuristics and more likely to carefully assess their social situations.

People who are high in the need for cognition view thinking as fun, enjoy solving puzzles, and enjoy analyzing arguments.

These people are less likely to use simplifying heuristics and more likely to carefully assess their social situations.


Unexpected EventsUnexpected Events

In one experiment, participants read about how a student did in high school, and then in college.

Unexpected outcomes (e.g. a student who did poorly in high school but well in college) led participants to consider many more causal attributions.

In one experiment, participants read about how a student did in high school, and then in college.

Unexpected outcomes (e.g. a student who did poorly in high school but well in college) led participants to consider many more causal attributions.


Social InterdependenceSocial Interdependence

We think carefully about other people when their actions have important implications for us, and when we are accountable to others.

We think carefully about other people when their actions have important implications for us, and when we are accountable to others.


Accuracy Requires Cognitive Resources


In a study by Pendry and Macrae (1994) participants were asked to work on a problem with “Hilda,” a 65-year-old.

In a study by Pendry and Macrae (1994) participants were asked to work on a problem with “Hilda,” a 65-year-old.




Some participants were told they could win money for working interdependently with Hilda.

Others were told their rewards would be based solely on their own independent performance.

Some participants were told they could win money for working interdependently with Hilda.

Others were told their rewards would be based solely on their own independent performance.




Half the subjects in each condition were asked to hold in mind an 8-digit number (e.g., 97856482).

Remembering the number kept the students cognitively busy.

Half the subjects in each condition were asked to hold in mind an 8-digit number (e.g., 97856482).

Remembering the number kept the students cognitively busy.


5.0 5.0

4.04.0

3.03.0

2.02.0

1.01.0

0.0 0.0 Accuracy Motivated

(Interdependent)

Accuracy Motivated

(Interdependent)

Not Accuracy Motivated

(Independent)


(Independent)

Highly Stereotypical


Not at all Stereotypical


Stereotypicality of Impression


Cognitively busy (8-digit number)Cognitively busy (8-digit number)

Not cognitively busyNot cognitively busy

Regardless of whether they were cognitively busy or not, participants rewarded only for working independently relied heavily on stereotypes when describing Hilda.

Regardless of whether they were cognitively busy or not, participants rewarded only for working independently relied heavily on stereotypes when describing Hilda.


The participants who were interdependent with Hilda, and thus motivated to be accurate, also relied heavily on stereotypes if they were busy remembering the number.

The participants who were interdependent with Hilda, and thus motivated to be accurate, also relied heavily on stereotypes if they were busy remembering the number.

5.0 5.0

4.04.0

3.03.0

2.02.0

1.01.0


(Interdependent)

Accuracy Motivated

(Interdependent)


(Independent)


(Independent)










Only the students who were accuracy motivated and non-busy were able to reduce their reliance on elderly stereotypes.

Only the students who were accuracy motivated and non-busy were able to reduce their reliance on elderly stereotypes.

5.0 5.0

4.04.0

3.03.0

2.02.0

1.01.0


(Interdependent)

Accuracy Motivated

(Interdependent)


(Independent)


(Independent)












These results suggest that it is only when a desire for accuracy is combined with sufficient cognitive resources that people can move beyond their tendency to simplify.

These results suggest that it is only when a desire for accuracy is combined with sufficient cognitive resources that people can move beyond their tendency to simplify.

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