Clause as Exchange

TugasIndividu

Dosen :Prof.Dr.HakimYassi, Dipl.TESL.MA

Clause as exchange &Clause as representation

Nurlaela

(P0500213415)

LINGUISTIK

PROGRAM PASCASARJANA

UNIVERSITAS HASANUDDIN

2014

4Clause as exchange

4.1 The nature of dialogueThe most fundamental types of speech role, which lie behind all the more specific types

that we may eventually be able to recognize, are just two: (i) giving and (ii) demanding. Either the speaker is giving something to the listener (a piece of information, for example) or he is demanding something from him. Even these elementary categories already involve complex nations: giving means ‘inviting to receive’, and demanding means ‘inviting to give’. The speaker is not only doing something himself; he is also requiring something of the listener. Typically, therefore, an ‘act’ of speaking is something that might more appropriately be called an ‘interact’: it is an exchange, in which giving implies receiving and demanding implies giving in response.

Cutting across this basic distinction between giving and demanding is another distinction, equally fundamental that relates to the nature of the commodity being exchanged. This may be either (a) goods-&-services, or (b) information. If you say something to me with the aim of getting me to do something for you, this is an exchange of good-&-services but if you say something to me with the aim of getting me to tell you something. This is an exchange of information. These two variables when taken together, define the four primary speech functions of OFFER, COMMAND, STATEMENT, and QUESTION. These in turn are matched by a set

Commodity exchange

Role in exchange

(a) Good and service (b) information

(i) giving ‘ofter’Would you like this teapot?

‘statement’He’s giving her the teapot

(ii) demanding ‘command’Give me that teapot

‘quetions’What is he giving her?

Figure 4-1 giving or demanding. Good and service or information

Of desired response: accepting and offer, carrying out a command, acknowledging a statement and answering a question. See table 4(1).

Table 4(1) speech functions and responsesinitiation Expected response Discretionary

alternativeGive good and serviceDemandGive informationDemand

OfferCommandStatementQuestions

AcceptanceUndertakingAcknowledgmentanswer

RejectionRefusalContradictionDisclaimer

When language is used to exchange information, the clause takes on the form of a proposition. The semantic function of a clause in the exchange of information is a proposition and the semantic function of a clause in the exchange of goods and services is a proposal.4.2 The mood element

When we come to look closely at statements and questions, and at the various responses to which these naturally give rise, we find that in English they are typically expressed by means of a particular kind of grammatical variation; variation which extends over just one part of the clause, leaving the remainder unaffected.

Consider the traditional rhyme:He loves me.He don’t.He’ll have me.He won’t.But he can’t, so he don’t

Compare this with a typically piece of information-exchanging dialogue:The duke’s given away that teapot, hasn’t he?- Oh, has he?- Yes, he has.- No he hasn’t!- I wish he had.- He hasn’t; but he will.- Will he?- He might.The mood consists of two parts: (1) the subject, which is a nominal group, and (2)the

finite element, which is part of a verbal group. The subject when it first appear, may be a nominal group, and the finite elements is one of a small number of verbal operators expressing tense (e.g. is, has) or modality (e.g. can, must). However, that in some instance the finite element and the lexical verb are ‘fused’ into a single word e.g. loves. This happen when the verb is in simple past or simple present (tense), active (voice), positive (polarity) and neutral (contrast). Subject and finite are closely linked together and combine to form one constituent which we call the Mood. The mood is the element that realizes the selection of mood in the clause. It has sometimes been called the ‘modal’ element; but the difficulty with this is that the term modal is ambiguous since it corresponds both to mood and to modality.The remainder of the clause we shall call residue.

The presences of the mood element, consisting of subject plus finite, realize the feature is indicative. Within the indicative, what is significant is order of subject and finite. The order subject before finite realizes ‘declarative’, the order finite before subject realizes ‘yes/no interrogative’; in ‘WH-interrogative’ the order is subject before finite if the WH-element is the subject and finite before subject otherwise.

Primary tense mans past, present, or future at the moment of speaking; it is time relative to now. Modality means the speaker’s judgment of the probabilities, or the obligations, involved in what he is saying.

4.3 Structure of the ResidueThe residue consists of functional elements of three kinds; predicator, complement and

adjunct. There can be only one predicator, one or two complements, and an indefinite number of adjuncts up to, in principle, about seven. .

An example is given in figure 4-6Sister susie ‘s sewing shirts For soldierSubject finite predicator complement adjunctMood residue

Predicator, the predicator is present in all non-elliptical major clauses, apart from certain clauses wit verbs be and have. The function of predicator is fourfold (i) it specifies time reference other than reference to the time of the speech event, i.e. ‘secondary’ tense; past, present and future relative to the primary tense, (ii) it specifies various other aspects and phases like seeming, trying, hoping, (iii) it specifies the voice: active or passive, (iv) it specifies the process (action, event, mental process, relation) that is predicated of the subject.

There are two verbs in English which in simple past and simple present tenses appear as finite only, without being fused with a distinct element as predicator. These arebe and have (have in the sense of ‘posses’, not have in the sense of ‘take’).

Complement, a complement is an element within the residue that has the potential of being subject but is not. It is typically realized by a nominal group.

Adjunct (circumstantial), is an element that has not got the potential of being subject. It is typically realized by an adverbial group or prepositional phrase. Prepositional phrase has its own internal structure, containing a complementwithin it.

Conjunctive adjunct, tend to occur at points in the clause which are significant for textual organization, which means at some boundary or other: (clause initial, as the part of textual theme; (ii) clause final as afterthought; (iii) between theme and rheme; (iv) between mood and residue.

Modal adjunct, from the point of view of their place in the mood structure, modal adjunct fall into two groups: (i) mood adjunct, these relate specifically to the meaning of the finite verbal operators, expressing probability, usuality, obligation, inclination or time. They therefore typically occur next to the finite, either before or after it. (ii)Comment adjunct, as far as position in the clause is concerned, these are like conjunctive adjunct; they tend to occur thematically, finally, between theme and rheme, or between mood and residue; and when medial, they are typically associated with a boundary between information units.

4.4 WH- Interrogative, exclamative, and imperative clauses(1) WH- interrogative, the WH- element is a distinct element in the interpersonal

structure of the clause. Its function is to specify the entity that the questioner wishes to have supplied. The WH- element is always conflated with one or another of the three function subject, complement or adjunct. If it is conflated with the subject, it is the part of the mood element, and the order within the mood element must therefore be subject. If on other hand the WH- element is conflated with a complement or adjunct, it is part of residue; and in that case the typical interrogative ordering within the mood element reassert itself and have finite preceding subject. Finite, as shown in figure 4-12

Who killed Cock RobinSubject/WH (past)

finiteKillpredicator

complement

residue

(2) Exclamatives, these clauses have the WH-element what or how, in nominal or adverbial group. But since the finite subject sequence became specifically associated with interrogative mood, the normal order in exclamatives has become subject finite.

(3) Imperatives, it is may have a mood element consisting of finite plus subject; or one

consisting of finite only, or of subject only; or no mood element at all. Whether or not there is a mood element, and whatever its structure, an imperative clause may also have a mood tag.4.5 Polarity and modality

Polarity is the choice between positive and negative, as in is/isn’t, do/don’t. Typically, in English, polarity is expressed in the finite element; each finite verbal operator has two forms, one positive is, was, has, can etc. the other negative isn’t, wasn’t, hasn’t, can’t, that is this is the reason why the finite element is thematic in a yes/no interrogative clause: such a clause is precisely a request for information regarding polarity.

Proposition, in a proposition the meaning of positive and negative poles is asserting and denying: positive ‘it is so’, negative ‘it isn’t so’.

Proposal, in proposal the meaning of the positive and negative poles is prescribing and proscribing: positive ‘do it’, negative ‘don’t do it’.4.6 Absence of elements of the modal structure

For any clause, there is one choice of subject that is ‘unmarked’-that is assumed, in the absence of evidence to the contrary. In a giving clause (offer or statement), the unmarked subject is ‘I’; while in demanding clause (question or command), the unmarked subject is ‘you’. This means that if a clause that on other grounds can be interpreted as offer or statement occurs without a subject, the listener will understand the subject ‘I’- that is, subject equals speaker. The principle that the subject to be supplied in a case of ellipsis is always the modally unmarked one, I or you according to the mood, can also be over ridden by the context.4.7 Clause as subject

Up to this point our discussion of the clauses as exchanges, we have been illustrating the subject with fairly simple, straightforward nominal group. Depending on the register we will regularly find examples of clause as subjects; they are nominal group complex (consisting of two nominal groups in paratactic relation). The post modifier in the nominal group functioning as subject is called defining relative clause.

5Clause as representation

5.1 process, participant and circumstanceThe basic semantic framework for the representation of processes is very simple. A

process consist potentially of three components :(i) The process it self;(ii) Participants in the process;(iii) Circumstances associated with the processThese provide the frame of reference for interpreting our experience of what goes on.In the following sections we shall explore the different types of process that are built in

to the semantics of English, and the particular kinds of participant role that are systematically associated with each.5.2 Material process: process of doing

A logical element (in this sense) is a function in transitivity structure. The traditional view of transitivity in western linguistic is as follows. (1) Every process has an actor. (2) Some process, but not all also have second participant, which we call a goal. An example is given in figure 5-2.(a)

The lion sprangactor process

(b)The lion caught The

touristactor process goal

Figure 5-2 one participant and two participant clauses

The term goal implies ‘directed at’ another term that has been used for this function is patient, meaning one that ‘suffer’ or ‘undergoes’ the process. There is a large class of clause in English which can be interpreted in this way, as consisting of a process with these particular participants- an obligatory actor and optionally also a goal. This is the class that we shall refer to as a material process.

Material processes are processes of ‘doing’. They express the notion that some entity ‘does’ something- which may be done ‘to’ some other entity. Alternatively, the other entity may be one that is brought into being by the process, not pre-existing; as in building a house, writing a letter, or starting an argument. We can thus distinguish between a ‘doing to’ or DISPODITIVE type and a ‘bringing about’ or CERATIVE type of material process. The participant that results from the creative process is still referred to as goal; such clause also have active and passive options. Material process are not necessarily concrete, physical event, they may be abstract doing and happenings.

5.3 Mental processes: process of sensingObviously clauses expressing material and mental process are different in meaning, but

that is not enough to make them constitute grammatical categories; there are indefinitely many ways of drawing lines on purely semantic ground, whereas the question we are concerned with is which of these have semantic repercussion in the grammar. These are set out in the following numbered paragraphs. (1) In a clause of mental process, there is always one participant who is human; this is the one that ‘sense’- feels, thinks or perceives, for example Mary in Mary liked the gift. (2) With regard to the other main element in a clause of mental process, namely that which is felt, thought or perceived, the position is in a sense reserved. In a material process, every participant is a thing. There is no way in which a fact can be a participant in clause of material process. Grammatically speaking, facts, can be sensed- seen, felt or thought; but they cannot do anything, nor can they have anything done to them. (3) A third distinction between material and mental processes is that of tense. In a mental process, the unmarked present tense is the simple present but in material process the unmarked present tense is the present in present. (4) The point was brought out earlier that mental process are represented in the language as two-way processes; that is to say, we can say either Mary liked the gift or the gift pleased Mary. It is not the case that every mental process verb of the like type has an exact semantic equivalent of the please type; but it is a general feature of mental process that they can be realized in either direction- either the senser, or phenomenon that is being sensed, can be the subject, still keeping the clause in the active voice. (5) We also referred above to the fact that material process are ‘doing’ process, which can be probed, and substituted, by the verb do. Mental processes, on the other hand are process of feeling, thinking, and seeing. They are not kinds of doing, and cannot be probed or substituted by do.5.4 Relation processes: processes of being

If material processes are those of doing and mental process those of sensing, the other main category, relational process, are those of being: for example, Sarah is wise, Tom is the leader. The central meaning of clause of this type is that something is. But every language accommodates, in grammar, a number of distinct ways of being, expressed as different types of relational process in the clause. Those of English may be summarized as follows:

(1) Intensive ‘x is a’(2) Circumstantial ‘x is at a’(3) Possessive ‘x has a’

Each of these comes in two models:(i) Attributive ‘a is an attribute of x’(ii) Identifying ‘ a is the identity of x’

5.5 Other process types; summary of process typesIn the last three section we discussed the three principal types of process found in the

English clause: material, mental and relational. In addition to these very large categories we need to recognize three other, subsidiary types: behavioural, verbal and existential. Each of these is close to one of the major grouping but distinct from it in certain respects. 1. Behavioural process, these are processes of physiological and psychological behavior, like breathing, dreaming, smiling, and coughing. Grammatically they are intermediate between material and mental process. The behaver is typically a conscious being, like the senser; but the process functions more like one of ‘doing’. The usual unmarked present tense for behavioural processes in contemporary English is the present in present; but until fairly recent times it was the simple present, and we still find this functioning in its unmarked sense.2. Verbal process, these are process of saying. But ‘saying’ has to be interpreted in a rather broad sense; it covers any kinds of symbolic exchange of meaning. The verbalized clause may be either a proposition, a proposal. Two other participants function regularly in a verbal process. One is the receiver, the one to whom the verbalization is addressed. The other is a name for the verbalization itself.3. Existential process, these represent that something exists or happens, these clause typically have the verb be, or some other verb expressing existence, such as exist, arise, followed by a nominal group functioning as existent. The existent may be a phenomenon of any kind, and is often, in fact, an event, sometimes other verbs function as process in an existential clause. Frequently the existential clause contains a circumstantial element.4. Summary of process types,

Process type Category meaning ParticipantsMaterial Action Event

Behavioural

Mental Perception Affection Cognition

Verbal

Relational Attribution Identification

Existential

‘doing’ ‘doing’ ‘happening’

‘behaving’

‘sensing’ ‘seeing’ ‘feeling’ ‘thinking’

‘saying’

‘being’ ‘attributing’ ‘identifying’

‘existing’

Actor, goal

Behaver

Senser, phenomenon

Sayer, target

Token, valueCarrier, attributeIdentified, identifier

existent

5.6 Other participant functionsThere are other participant functions in English clause also specific each particular

process type. However, it is possible to group these together in to two general functions common to all clauses; the beneficiary, and the the range. Beneficiary and range are the ‘oblique’ or ‘indirect’ participants, which in earlier stages of the languages typically required an oblique case and/or a preposition. Also, unlike the direct participants, they could not conflate with the subject function in the mood system.1. Beneficiary is the one to whom or for whom the process is said to take place. It appears in material and verbal processes, and occasionally in relational.

(a) In a material process the beneficiary is either recipients or clients. The recipient is the one that goods are given to; the client is one that services are done for. Either may appear with or without preposition, depending on its position in the clause.(b) In a verbal process the beneficiary is the one who is being addressed. The receiver is usually present in verbal process clauses where the sense is that of causative mental process, e.g. convince ‘make believe’, tell’ make know’, explain ‘make understand’, show ‘make see’.(c) There are also a few relational (attributive) processes containing a beneficiary, the beneficiary regularly functions as subject in the clause; in that case the verb is in the passive voice.

2. Range, the range is the element that specifies the range or scope of the process. Most range element in English are not cognate to the verb even if they are as close in meaning as. Range may occur in material, behavioural, mental and verbal process.a. In a material process, the range either express the domain over which the process take place or express the process itself, either in general or in specific terms.b. In mental process the range is not an additional element, but provides a way of interpreting an element we have already met, so as to explain the existence of two parallel types of structure, and also the difference between them.c. In verbal process the range is the element expressing the class, quality or quantity of what is said. We refer to the range in a verbal process as the verbiage (noting that this is not in origin a derogatory term).

5.7 Circumstantial elements The principal types of circumstantial element in English are as follows: extent and

location in time and space, including abstract space; manner (means, quality and comparison); cause (reason, purpose and behalf); accompaniment; matter, role.(1) Extent and location. The circumstantial of extent and location form a four-term set as shown

in table.Spatial Temporal

Extent DistanceWalk (for) seven miles

Duration/frequencyStay (for) two hours

Location PlaceWork in the kitchen

TimeGet up

There is not very sharp line separating (circumstantial)expressing of extent from (participant)expression of range; but there is distinction between them: extent is expressed

terms of some unit of measurement like yard, laps, rounds, years, whereas range is expressed in terms other than measure unit.

(2) Manner. The circumstantial element of manner comprises three subcategories: means, quality, comparison. Means refers to the means whereby a process takes place; it is typically expressed by a prepositional phrase with the preposition by or with. The interrogative forms are how? And what with?. Quality is typically expressed by an adverbial group, with -lyadverb as head; the interrogative is how? orhow…? plus appropriate adverb. Comparison is typically expressed by a prepositional phrase with like or unlike, or an adverbial group of similarity or difference.

(3) Cause. The circumstantial element of cause also comprises three subcategories: reason, purpose, and behalf. Reason represents the reason for which a process take place- what cause it. It is typically expressed by a prepositional phrase with through or complex preposition such as because of, as a result of, thanks to. Purpose represents the purpose for which an action takes place- the intention behind it. They are typically expressed by prepositional phrase with for or with a complex preposition such as in the hope of, for the purpose of. The entity typically a person, on whose behalf or for who sake the action is undertaken- who it is for. They are expressed by a prepositional phrase with for or with a complex preposition such as for the sake of, on behalf of.

(4) Accompaniment. This element represents the meanings ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘not’ as circumstantial; it correspondents to interrogatives and who/ what else?, but not who/what?. It expressed by prepositional phrase with preposition such as with, without, besides, instead of. We can distinguish who subcategories, comitative and additive; each has a positive and a negative aspect. The comitative represents the process as a single instance of process, although one in which two entities are involved. The additive represents the process as two instances; here both entities clearly share the same participants function, but one of them is presented circumstantially for purposes of contrast.

(5) Matter. This element corresponds to the interrogative what about? and is expressed by prepositional phrase with prepositions such as about, concerning, with reference to and sometimes simply of.

(6) Role. This element corresponds to the interrogative what as? And represents the meaning of ‘be’ (attribute or identity) in the term of circumstance. The usual preposition is as; other complex preposition with this function isby way of, in the role/ shape/ guise/ form of.

5.8 Transitivity and voice: another interpretationThe same tendency away from a purely transitive type of semantic organization can be

seen in the system of voice. In a transitive pattern the participants are obligatory actor and optional goal; if there is actor only, the verb is intransitive and active in voice, while if both are present the verb is transitive and may be either active or passive. This is still the basis of the English system; but there is little trace of transitivity left in the verb, and voice is now more a feature of the clause.