chronica_tacuinum sanitatis

ChronicaHORTICULTURAE

A PUBLICATION OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR HORTICULTURAL SCIENCE

Volume 49 - Number 3 - 2009

50yearsISHS

1959-2009Anniversary Issue

CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE VOL 49 NUMBER 3 2009

HISTORY

Tacuinum Sanitatis: Horticulture andHealth in the Late Middle Ages

Lavishly illustrated manuscripts known as theTacuinum Sanitatis were first commissioned bynorthern Italian nobility during the last decadesof the 14th century. These manuscripts werebased on an 11th century Arabic manuscriptknown as the Taqwim al-Sihha bi al-Ashab al-Sitta (Rectifying Health by Six Causes), whichwas a guide for healthy living written by theChristian physician and philosopher Abu al-Hasan al-Mukhtar ibn al-Hasan ibn Abdun ibnSadun Ibn Butlan (d. 1063), who was born andeducated in Baghdad and whose travels tookhim to localities that are today in Iraq, Syria,Egypt, Israel, and Turkey. The Taqwim was aguide for healthy living, based on ancient philo-sophical concepts of Greek sciences. It summa-rized in tabular form information on some 280health-related items, in particular food andespecially vegetables and fruits. A Latin transla-tion of the Taqwim was commissioned by theCourt of Sicily towards the middle of the 13thcentury, and was to become known asTacuinum Sanitatis. One hundred years later thefirst illuminated copies of the TacuinumSanitatis were commissioned of artists bynorthern Italian nobility (Cogliati Arano, 1976;Segre Rutz, 2002; Hoeniger, 2006). The illus-trated Tacuinum Sanitatis manuscripts portrayan utopian feudal society in which nobles areengaged in play and romance whilst feudallaborers work the estate (Cogliati Arano, 1976;Witthoft, 1978; Opsomer-Halleux, 1991; SegreRutz, 2002; Bertiz, 2003; Bovey, 2005;Hoeniger, 2006; Mane, 2006). Rich in horticul-tural imagery, they include vivid scenes of theharvest of vegetables, fruits, flowers, and culi-nary and medicinal herbs. Each scene is accom-panied by a brief summary of the healthaspects of the subject. These documents con-nect vegetables and fruits as well as the gardenitself with human health (Bertiz, 2003).

Six Tacuinum Sanitatis recensions with full pageillustrations have survived and are located inlibraries in Austria, Belgium, France, Italy, andSpain (Table 1). Four of them can be viewed on-line (http://mandragore.bnf.fr/html/accueil.html, http://bibliotheque.rouen.fr and http://www.casanatense.it) and a number of facsimi-le editions have been published. These sixcopies are a rich source of information on culti-vated plants of the late medieval period as thevivid, large images depict plants growing andbeing harvested in situ. Half a dozen of relatedmanuscripts also exist, but their illustrations arenot as large or as informative horticulturally.

Marie-Christine Daunay, Jules Janick and Harry S. Paris

THE HIPPOCRATIC CONCEPTOF MEDICINE

The Taqwim was the synthesis of ancient med-ical tradition, lore, philosophy, superstition, andscience that traces back to the philosophical

system of Empedocle (ca. 490-435 BCE) in whichfour elements water, air, fire and earth werethe principal components of matter.Hippocrates (ca. 460-370 BCE), now consideredthe Father of Medicine, indicated that diet influ-enced health and recommended moderation.

Figure 1. Cosmology of ancient medicine based on Hippocrates and Galen (Source: Bovey,2005).

Table 1. The Tacuinum Sanitatis manuscripts discussed in this paper.

1 Dates are according to Cogliati Arano (1976), Opsomer-Halleux (1991), Segre Rutz (2002), Bovey (2005),and/or Hoeniger (2006), and/or respective depository catalogues.

2 The Rouen 3054 and Liechtenstein manuscripts are actually two parts of the same Tacuinum manuscript,separated from one another in the 19th century (Bertiz, 2003; Bovey, 2005).

Text reference Catalog no. Depository Date1

Paris 1673 Nouv. Acq. Lat. 1673 Bibliothque Nationale de France, Paris 1380-1390

Lige 1041 Ms. 1041 Bibliothque de lUniversit de Lige 1380-1400

Vienna 2644 Cod. Ser. N. 2644 Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna 1390-1400

Rome 4182 Ms. 4182 Biblioteca Casanatense, Rome 1390-1400

Paris 9333 Latin 9333 Bibliothque Nationale de France, Paris 1445-1451

Rouen 3054 and Ms. 3054 [Leber 1088] Bibliothque municipale, Rouen, 1450Liechtenstein2 and private collection2

ISHS

His concept was that health was based on abalance of humors three observable enti-ties, phlegm, blood, and yellow bile, and a the-oretical entity, black bile. It was the balancebetween the four humors that determinedhealth; their disequilibrium resulted in pain ordisease. Each of the four humors was associat-ed with a particular temperament or complexio,the phlegmatic, the sanguine, the choleric, andthe melancholic. The humors also correspondedto four qualities (warm, cold, dry, moist) - eachvarying in four degrees of intensity - as well asto the four seasons and the four ages of man:infancy, youth, adulthood and old age (Fig. 1).

The therapeutic use of plants was a key part ofancient medicine. In the first century,Dioscorides (20-70 CE) assembled a treatise, DeMateria Medica, that compiled the health giv-ing properties of hundreds of herbs includingmany plants that were to become horticulturalfoods (Beck, 2005). The medical concept ofHippocrates was further developed by Galen(129-200 CE) who proposed six causes (callednon-naturals in the Latin translations) thatinfluence health: food and drinks, ambient air,movement and rest, sleep and wakefulness,elimination and retention, and psychologicalstates. This conceptual corpus, adopted, elabo-rated upon, and further developed by Byzantineand Arab physicians, was later translated fromGreek and Arabic into Latin, and dominatedmedicine until the 18th century. For a sickpatient, the physicians role was to diagnose theelements responsible for the loss of balance anddesign a treatment with elements having oppo-site characteristics to those of the defectinghumor, according to the compensation princi-ple contraria contrariis (Ullmann, 1978).

The medical treatise of Ibn Butlan emphasizedthat a balanced regimen was the prerequisite toprevent disorders and diseases. He coordinatedthe doctrine of the six non-naturals by detail-ing 280 health-related items, their name, theirnature according to the four elements, theirdegree, the best type, the usefulness, the nox-ious effects, the remedies to the noxiousness,the effects, the proper temperaments, the age,the season, the country, the authorities cited,and additional notes. These properties of the280 items were arranged in 40 tables of 15columns by Ibn Butlan so as to provide the gen-eral population with a direct, easy guide to pre-ventive medicine.

HORTICULTURAL CROPS INTHE TACUINUM SANITATIS

Numerous horticultural crops are listed in thetables of the Taqwim (Elkhadem, 1990). TheTacuinum Sanitatis recensions illustrate a largesample of these, but also present some otherplants, those grown in northern Italy during thelate 14th century. The images in the sixTacuinum Sanitatis manuscripts depict harvest,when the horticultural product has reached theproper stage for consumption, and there are no

scenes of plowing, sowing, grafting, or plant-ing. The Vienna 2644 Tacuinum (Table 1), whichcontains the most accurate depictions, includessome 26 vegetables, 33 fruits, 3 flowers, 21culinary and medicinal herbs, and 1 mushroom(truffles) in addition to 9 cereals. Taxonomicidentification of some plants illustrated is diffi-cult and sometimes changes among the sixrecensions. Moreover, there are a number ofmistranslations from Arabic to Latin, misla-belling, and mismatching between plant namesand images, suggesting that some crops werenot clearly distinguished from one another orthat common names were not used consistent-ly (Paris et al., 2009). In addition, the resultinguncertainty about the identity of some plants isexacerbated by mistranslations in some recentpublications.

In the Taquinum Sanitatis manuscripts, thecrops often are idealized, the production andsize being exaggerated, with insufficient atten-tion paid to correct proportional and spatialrelationships among the plant parts (Hoeniger,2006). Polymorphism is shown for several cropsbut the market types illustrated do not alwaysmatch the descriptions found in the Taqwim.Although botanical inaccuracies and lack ofdetail obscure precise identification in somecases, the images are, overall, of far better qual-ity than those of most medieval manuscripts.Our objective is to present and interpretmedieval horticultural crops and practices basedon a sampling of 34 images out of the approx-imately 100 plant images that adorn each of

these six manuscripts. We will consider, as well,the health information provided in the Latinshort text derived from the Taqwim and thataccompanies each illustration, more preciselythe modern translation from the paleographicLatin script as provided by Cogliati Arano(1976), Pazzini and Pirani (1980), and Opsomer-Halleux (1991). When modern translations ofthe Tacuinum text were not found, we used thecorresponding text provided by the Taqwimtables (Elkhadem, 1990). We have selected theimages on the basis of their informative valueas regards to horticultural crop history and theirpictorial quality. In the concluding section wewill compare medieval and present-day atti-tudes toward horticulture and health.

Root Vegetables

Radish. In a neat medieval garden enclosed bya wattle fence in which trees are planted, akneeling woman harvests evenly spaced smallwhite-rooted plants, probably radishes,Raphanus sativus, from a straight row mound-ed to increase drainage (Fig. 2A). In anotherimage labeled Rafani (Fig. 2B) a gardener har-vests white radish (or possibly horseradish,Armoracia rusticana) while a lady washes theroots in a stream. Two harvested bunches showroots slightly longer than a persons head andfoliage about the same length. In Fig. 2C,labeled napones, a peddler with a large basketstrapped to his back overflowing with heart-shaped, black roots, probably radishes, offers abunch to an elegantly gowned lady.

Figure 2. Root vegetables: (A) radish (Raphanus sativus) from Liechtenstein Ms folio 32r; (B)radish from Paris 9333 folio 49r; (C) black radish from Vienna 2644 folio 51r; (D) turnips(Brassica rapa) from Lige 1041 folio 23v; (E) parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) from Vienna 2644folio 28r; (F) carrot (Daucus carota) from Roma 4182 folio 49r.

CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE VOL 49 NUMBER 3 2009

Interestingly all Tacuinum Sanitatis manuscriptsallocate the name rafani to white roots, andnapones to black roots of plants we identify asR. sativus suggesting that both radish typeswere distinguished as different crops. The textsassociated to Fig. 2C indicate that fresh sweetroots from the garden are best, provide goodnourishment to people of all ages, and help uri-nation but provoke flatulence and swellings.

Turnip. An image, labeled rappe, displays aharvest of white turnips being packed in a bas-ket by a woman while her male companion car-ries off a full basket (Fig. 2D). Their shape isglobular although the images of this crop in theother manuscripts show more elongate types.The text indicates that the best ones are domes-tic and although difficult to digest, improveeyesight and stimulate coitus.

Parsnip. In Fig. 2E, labeled pastinace, a garden-er harvests very long and narrow, pale yellowroots of a species identified as parsnip,Pastinaca sativa, on the basis of the color of theroots and the shape of the leaves. In medievalLatin, pastinace designated both parsnip andcarrot, but both species were sometimes distin-guished as in the late 8th century list of gardenplants of Charlemagne (www.oldcook.com/en/capitulary_charlemagne.htm).

Carrot. In a similar scene to the above and alsolabeled pastinace (Fig. 2F), a gardener is busyharvesting a root crop, the foliage of which iscomprised of many small, slightly dentateleaflets. The long, thin roots, either purple orlight yellow, intermingled in the foregroundrow and in the harvested pile clearly representcarrot, Daucus carota, segregating for rootcolor. Purple and yellow carrots were known inEurope from late medieval times, while thedeep orange ones were reported to appeararound 1600 (Banga, 1963). The Latin text ofFig. 2F reports that pastinace stimulates sexualintercourse but slows down digestion, and thatthe purple type, ripe in winter, is the best.

Alliums

Onion. Red and white onions (Allium cepa),labelled cepe, are depicted planted in separategarden rows (Fig. 3A) indicating that they wererecognized as separate cultivars by the end ofthe 14th century. Purple onions are oftenreferred to as red, hence the red color usedby the artist who probably never saw the realonions. The text informs that onions were con-sidered to be a diuretic, sharpen eyesight, pro-mote coitus, generate milk in nursing mothersand semen in men, but cause headaches.

Leek. A woman bunches freshly harvestedleeks, Allium porum, labeled pori, laid out on atable for a peddler who carries a basket tied tohis back and a bunch in each hand (Fig. 3B).The text recommends pungent-smelling leeksfrom the mountains. Leeks were asserted to be

a diuretic, favor coitus, and dissipate lunginflammation (catarrh).

Garlic. Fig. 3C, labeled alea, portrays garlic,Allium sativum, planted in straight rows anddisplaying long, erect leaves, being harvested ina field, bunched by one worker and carriedaway by a second. The best kind was consid-ered to be one that does not have a too pun-gent smell. Garlic is described as effectiveagainst poisons but potentially damaging to thebrain.

Leafy Vegetables

Kale. Fig. 4A, labeled caules onati, showsplants growing in an enclosed garden and aman carrying on his head a basket full of plantsapparently cut at the base of the stem. The cropresembles kale (Brassica oleraceae AcephalaGroup), a non-heading crucifer much like cole-worts and collards. Although B. oleraceae isrepresented in the Tacuinum only as kale, othersources, such as the Mesnagier de Paris (14thcentury), indicate that other cultivar-groups ofthis species were grown in late-medieval Europe(Mane, 2006). The caules onati, described asbest when fresh and fleshy, were consideredeffective against constipation but could bedamaging to the intestines.

Lettuce. Labeled lactuce, Fig. 4B depicts asmartly dressed couple placing bunches ofleaves harvested from erect, rosette plants withnarrow leaves, quite reminiscent of cos lettuce,Lactuca sativa. The text indicates that the bestlettuce has large yellow leaves and was extolledas alleviating insomnia and gonorrhea butharmful to eyesight and sexual vigor.

Spinach. Fig. 4C shows rosette plants ofspinachie, Spinacea oleracea, with spade-shaped leaves, regularly planted and weeded ina neatly tended garden. A woman is about toexit the garden with a basket full of freshly har-vested leaves on her head. Spinach wasdescribed as moderately nourishing, good forcoughs, but spoiling digestion.

Cucurbits

Cucumber. In an image labeled cucumeres etcitruli, a couple examines viney plants bearingyellow, short cylindrical fruits (Fig. 5A). As thesefruits are clearly tuberculate, they can be identi-fied as cucumbers, Cucumis sativus. In anotherTacuinum manuscript, the image labelled iden-tically depicts chate melons, Cucumis melo,instead of cucumber (Paris et al., 2009). Thebipartite label can be traced back to Table 10,line 66 of the Taqwim, the Arabic being al-qitha

Figure 3. Allium: (A) onion (Allium cepa) from Roma 4182 folio 44r; (B) leek (Allium ampelo-prassum) from Vienna 2644 folio 25r; (C) garlic (Allium sativum) from Paris 9333 folio 23r.

Figure 4. Leafy vegetables: (A) kale (Brassica oleracea Acephala Group) from Paris 9333 folio20r; (B) lettuce (Lactuca sativa) from Paris 9333 folio 26r; (C) spinach (Spinacia oleracea) fromVienna 2644 folio 27r.

ISHS

wa al-khiyar (Elkhadem, 1990) for the chatemelon and the cucumber. This indicates thatthe Latin translation as cucumeres et citrulimeant melons and cucumbers. The qitha(chate melon) and the khiyar (cucumber) wereto be used similarly, marinated in vinegar orpickled (Elkhadem, 1990). Although Fig. 5Ashows mature fruits that have turned yellow,the text advises green ones as best to consume.They were considered to reduce burning feversthanks to their cold moist nature, to be diuret-ic, produce watery blood, but cause stomachaches.

Melon. In Fig. 5B, a courtier in a red tunic anda blue-gowned lady examine round, yellowmelons labeled melones indi et palestini. Theman is smelling the fruit indicating its fra-grance. The text advises that they should belemon-colored, large, sweet, and watery. Theywere good against warm, acute illnesses andsuited to those with hot temperaments. Thetext indicates, though, that they can hinderdigestion, but this can be remedied with sugar.Hence, these melons could not have beensweet like modern melons, and possibly wereof the Adana Group (Pitrat et al., 2000). Other

depictions of melons in the various Tacuinummanuscripts include chate melon (discussedabove), casaba melon, which is also labelledcucumeres et cetruli, and snake melon, labeledLangurie (Paris et al., 2009).

Watermelon. A gardener with a knife in hishand detaches a striped watermelon, Citrulluslanatus (melones dulces) from vines, which are

illustrated as growing erect to better show thefruits within the plant canopy (Fig. 5C). Thefruits are being harvested at the peak ofripeness as indicated by the split ones on theplants and in the basket and that display theirred flesh. The flowers are appropriately yellow.The text advises that the best Melones dulcesare from Samarqand (modern Uzbekistan).Beneficial properties include splitting kidneyand bladder stones, cleansing the skin, and cur-ing fever, hepatitis, cough, and inflammation ofurinary tracts. A noxious effect is the provokingof diarrhea. Illustrations of citron watermelons,labeled melones insipidi, are also found in theTacuinum manuscripts (Paris et al., 2009).

Bottle Gourd. Two gowned ladies are dis-played under an arbor from which dangle long,narrow bottle gourds, Lagenaria siceraria,labeled cucurbite, correctly shown as bearingwhite flowers (Fig. 5D). Long, narrow bottlegourds are the ones best suited for culinarypreparation. The text indicates that the bestones are fresh and green. Nourishment is mod-est, but they quench thirst and are a swift laxa-tive. In the other copies of the Tacuinum, bothlong, narrow and bottle-shaped forms aredepicted, the latter for use when mature anddry, as vessels.

Other Vegetables

Asparagus. Labeled sparagus, the depiction(Fig. 6A) shows the harvest of green asparagus(Asparagus officinalis). A man snaps off byhand a green stalk while another man with twoyoked baskets on his shoulders carries off theharvest. The asparagus does not appear to beplanted in rows and is not mounded; it grows ina field or perhaps in the wild. The best ones aresaid to be fresh with tips bending towards thesoil. Asparagus opens up occlusions and spurscoitus.

Cowpea. A blue-gowned lady with an apron isshown harvesting faxioli, i.e. cowpeas, alsoknown as black-eyed peas, Vigna unguiculata(Fig. 6B). The pods are collected in a basket tobe poured into a large sack nearby. Ibn Butlan

Figure 5. Cucurbits: (A) cucumber (Cucumis sativus) from Vienna 2644 folio 23v; (B) melon(Cucumis melo var. melo Adana Group) from Vienna 2644 folio 22r; (C) watermelon (Citrulluslanatus) from Vienna 2644 folio 21r; (D) bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) from Paris 1673folio 36v.

Figure 6. Other vegetables: (A) asparagus (Asparagus offininalis) from Paris 9333 folio 23v;(B) cowpea (Vigna sinensis) from Vienna 2644 folio 50v; (C) eggplant/aubergine (Solanummelongena) from Vienna 2644 folio 31v.

CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE VOL 49 NUMBER 3 2009

Figure 7. Temperate fruits (Vienna 2644): (A) grape (Vitis vinifera) folio 85r; (B) apple (Malusxdomestica) folio 9r; (C) pear (Pyrus communis) folio 6v; (D) peach (Prunus persica) folio 5v;(E) tart cherry (Prunus cerasis) folio 12r.

Figure 8. Tropical fruits (Vienna 2644): (A) lemon (Citrus limon) folio 19r; (B) pomegranate(Punica granatum) folio 7v.

indicates that the best cowpeas are red andwhole; they are very nourishing and stimulateurination (Elkhadem, 1990). Other legumes(broad beans, chickpea, lupine) are depicted inseparate images.

Eggplant. A dramatic scene labeled melon-giana portrays a garden of eggplants, Solanummelongena. A fondling, amorous couple isbeing admonished by a lady (Fig. 6C). Althoughwe have not found any reliable textual sourcementioning the aphrodisiac properties of egg-plant, this assumption must have been persua-sive based on the artist interpretation. Theplants bear prolifically a crop of egg-shaped,purple fruits, a familiar shape and color close tothe present Black Beauty market type.Moreover, the plants, including their undulateleaf laminae, are depicted accurately in thisimage, but the attractive purple flowers areabsent. Ibn Butlan mentioned the young, non-bitter, medium-sized Persian fruits are best, andare beneficial to the blood vessels and for stom-ach weakness (Elkhadem, 1990).

Temperate Fruits

Grape. Grape (Vitis vinifera) is found severaltimes in the Tacuinum manuscripts, either illus-trated for itself as uve, or for the production ofverjuice (juice of immature grapes used inancient and medieval cuisine), or as a symbol offall, the time of wine making. Depending on theimages, the vines grow on trees or are trellised,and bear black, light red, or gold grapes. In Fig.

7A, two men under an arbor constructedbetween trees prepare verjuice; one laborerwashes the grapes, while the other extracts thejuice with a mortar and pestle. Grapes were con-sidered to cause thirst and cleanse the intestines.

Apple. Labeled mala acetosa (sour apple), Fig.7B shows a courtier bringing down largeapples, Malus sp., with a stick while an elegantlady carrying a basket watches in amazement.The best sour apples are very juicy, alleviatefainting and hepatitis but adversely affect jointarticulation. Sweet apple (mala dulcis) shown inanother illustration strengthens the heart.

Pear. The image labelled pira (Fig. 7C) showstwo gowned ladies entranced by their pet mon-key who is climbing on a pear tree, Pyrus com-munis. The tree bears long-necked russet pears.Ripened pears are said to be the best. Pearswere advised for people with weak stomachsbut are diarrheic.

Peach. Labeled persica, Fig. 7D shows acourtier picking a yellow peach, Prunus persica.The tree, which shows the result of pruning atthe basis of the trunk, is realistically depicted ashaving long, narrow leaves. The best peachesare musky and alleviate high fevers and stom-ach aches.

Cherry. Tart cherries (Prunus cerasus), labeledcerosa acetosa, are being harvested by a childwho has climbed into the tree (Fig. 7E). A well-dressed lady opens her gown to catch fallenfruits and another elegant lady carries off twofull baskets balanced on a pole. The very sourones were considered best. The fruits cure bil-ious attack and dry out and settle upset stom-achs. Cerosa dulcia, sweet cherry (Prunusavium), which softens the stomach, is displayedin a separate image.

Subtropical Fruits

Lemon. The image of citra (Fig. 8A) displays alemon tree, Citrus limon, under which a courtiershows a large, yellow fruit to two elegantlydressed ladies. The best lemons are said to belarge and with a strong scent. Lemons stimulatebile flow and syrup prepared from the juicehelps against infectious fevers. A hinderingeffect on digestion is mentioned.

Pomegranate. An elegantly gowned womanplaces in a basket pomegranates, Punica grana-tum, labelled granata acetosa (Fig. 8B). Someripe fruits are burst open, revealing their redarils on which a bird is pecking, while a rabbitnibbles at a fruit on the ground. Watery fruitsare best and are good for inflamed liver, butharmful to the chest and voice. Sweet pome-

ISHS

Figure 9. Nuts (Vienna 2644): (A) chestnut (Castanea sativa) folio 17r; (B) hazelnut (Corylusavellana) folio 17v.

Figure 10. Flowers: (A) rose (Rosa sp.) from Rome 4182 folio 69r; (B) lily (Lilium grandiflorum)from Vienna 2644 folio 38v; (C) violet (Viola sp.) from Liechtenstein Ms folio 11.

Figure 11. Culinary herbs: (A) sage (Salvia sp.) from Vienna 2644 folio 37v; (B) marjoram(Origanum marjorana) from Paris 9333 folio 30v; (C) dill (Anethum graveolens) from Vienna2644 folio 32r.

granates, labeled granata dulcia, and consid-ered useful for coitus and against coughs, areshown in a different illustration.

Nuts

Chestnut. Labeled castanee, the image showsa man and perhaps his son under the tree,roasting fallen chestnuts, Castanea sativa (Fig.9A). The fully ripe chestnuts of Brianza wereconsidered the best. Nutritious and favorable tocoitus, chestnuts were also described as causingflatulence and headaches.

Hazelnut. The image labeled avelane (Fig. 9B)can be interpreted as a family scene, in whichthe father harvests nuts of Corylus sp., while hisdaughter offers them to her seated mother.Large fresh hazelnuts are best, stimulating thebrain faculties, but weakening the stomach(Elkhadem, 1990).

Flowers

Rose. Labeled roxe, the image portrays twowell-dressed ladies next to a large clump of roseplants, Rosa sp., bearing both white and redflowers (Fig. 10A). A standing lady harvestsflowers while her seated companion with a flo-ral wreath in her hair prepares a floral necklace.

The text indicates that the best roses are fromSuri and Persia and that they are good forinflamed brains although they sometimescause headache and dull the sense of smell.

Lily. The miniature labeled lilia depicts tall whitelilies, Lilium sp., about to be cut with a knife bya gowned lady while her red-gowned malecompanion places some in a large, multicoloredvase, indicating ornamental use (Fig. 10B). Lilies

were supposed to dissolve the superfluities ofthe brain, but the indication of the blue color ofthe best ones suggests some confusionbetween lily and iris.

Violet. A young man harvests violets (viole) inthe countryside (Fig. 10C). The best plants havelapis-lazuli colored flowers and with manyleaves. Smelling the flowers soothe and inducesleep, and when used as a beverage, releasebile.

Culinary Herbs

Sage. Two elegant ladies are shown picking aplant labelled salvia, a Salvia species, growing inan enormous basket (Fig. 11A). Domestic sagewas considered best and was good for paralysisand for the nerves, although slow to be digest-ed.

Marjoram. The image labeled maiorana showsa man and a woman tending marjoram,Origanum marjorana, grown in a large urn on abench; the woman holds an upturned vase andis watering the plant (Fig. 11B). Very small, aro-matic marjoram was considered best, good forcold and moist stomachs, and to purify theblood. No noxious effects are described.

Dill. This image, labeled aneti, shows a womanand a child harvesting dill, Anethum grave-olens, in a wild or weedy setting (Fig. 11C). Theherb was considered best when green, fresh,and tender and was recommended for cold andflatulent stomachs but was harmful to the kid-neys and nausea provoking.

DISCUSSION ANDCONCLUSION

Horticulture is a little-recorded aspect ofmedieval life because textual sources are fewand discontinuous (Bresc, 1972). Detailedmedieval iconography of horticultural plants isquite scarce, widely dispersed, and difficult toobtain, although accessibility is easing. In thislight, the illustrated Tacuinum Sanitatis manu-scripts are an outstanding source of informa-

CHRONICA HORTICULTURAE VOL 49 NUMBER 3 2009

REFERENCESBanga, O. 1963. Origin and distribution of the

western cultivated carrot. Genet. Agrar.17:357-370.

Beck, L.Y. (ed. transl.) 2005. Pedanius Dioscoridesof Anazarbus: De Materia Medica. Olms-Weidmann, Hildesheim, Germany.

Bertiz, A.A. 2003. Picturing health: The gardenand courtiers at play in the late fourteenth-cen-tury illuminated Tacuinum Sanitatis. Ph.D. dis-sertation, University of Southern California,UMI no. 3116666.

Bovey, A. 2005. Tacuinum Sanitatis: An earlyRenaissance guide to health. London: PaulHolberton.

Bresc, H. 1972. Les jardins de Palerme (1290-1460). MEFRM (Mlanges de lEcole Franaisede Rome) 84(1):55-127.

Cogliati Arano, L. 1976. The medieval healthhandbook Tacuinum sanitatis. New York: G.Braziller.

Daunay, M.-C., Laterrot, H. and Janick, J. 2008.Iconography and history of Solanaceae:Antiquity to the XVIIth century. Hort. Revs.34:1-111 + 8 plates.

Desjardins, Y. 2008. Onion as a nutraceutical andfunctional food. Chronica Hort. 48(2):8-14.

Elkhadem, H. 1990. Le Taqwim al Sihha (TacuiniSanitatis) dIbn Butlan: un trait mdical du XIesicle. Louvain: Peeters.

Flagler, J. 1990. Horticultural therapy.HortScience 25:1175.

Goldman, I.L. 2003. Recognition of fruits andvegetables as healthful: vitamins, minerals,fiber, and phytonutrients. Hort Technology13:1-6.

Hoeniger, C. 2006. The illuminated TacuinumSanitatis manuscripts from northern Italy ca.1380-1400: Sources, patrons, and the creationof a new pictorial genre. p.51-81. In: J.A.Givens, K.M. Reeds and A. Touwaide (eds.),Visualizing medieval medicine and natural his-tory, 12001550, Hants, UK: Ashgate.

Mane, P. 2006. Le travail la campagne auMoyen ge. tude iconographique. Paris:Picard.

Monteiro, A.A. and Rosa, E. 2008. Caldo verde: Astory of Portuguese brassicas. Chronica Hort.48(1):9-11.

Opsomer-Halleux, C. 1991. Lart de vivre ensant, images et recettes du Moyen ge: leTacuinum sanitatis, manuscrit 1041 de laBibliothque de LUniversit de Lige. Lige:Editions Du Perron.

tion on late medieval horticulture in northernItaly and its environs, presented through thelens of courtly life and play on the estates of thenobility (Bertiz, 2003).

The horticultural crops illustrated in theTacuinum manuscripts are familiar to us and,by-and-large, their appearance has changed lit-tle over the centuries. Of the vegetable crops,radish, turnip, onion, leek, kale, spinach,cucumber, watermelon, bottle gourd, aspara-gus, and eggplant, appear identical to someexisting cultivars. The manuscripts were madeprior to the encounter of Columbus with theAmericas and thus New World species such aspotato, tomato, capsicum pepper andCucurbita species are absent. Polymorphism, asexpressed by phenotypic variation in the illus-trations, is evident for carrot, turnip, onion,melon, watermelon, bottle gourd, grape,apple, cherry, pomegranate, roses and othercrops not presented here. Scenes of gardensand fields planted in rows, garden fences andgates, raised beds, container grown plants,trellising, pruning, hand harvest at the peak ofripeness, bunching of produce, wine and juiceproduction, roasting nuts, and retail trade dis-play a medieval version of horticulture that is inmany ways not basically different from tradi-tional horticulture practiced today in manyparts of the world, although much different inscale.

Vegetables are shown harvested mostly in gar-dens and fields, in dense plantings. In contrast,fruit trees are never pictured in orchards,though orchards existed in the Middle Ages(Mane, 2006), and this pictorial choice is prob-ably due to the artists concern of representingplants with as much details as possible.Aromatics are generally depicted in theTacuinum manuscripts as growing in fields oropen environments, though those pictured asgrowing in particularly tended conditions(beds or pots) such as sage and marjoramshown here, indicate that these plants wereprized. Peasants and laborers are frequentlypictured with the root and leafy vegetables,which were their basic food (Mane, 2006).Conversely, courtiers are more frequentlyfound next to fruit vegetables such as cucur-bits and eggplant, which because of theirrecent introduction in Europe (Daunay et al.,2008; Paris et al., 2009) were probably consid-ered as rare curiosities affordable to the eliteonly. The upper class is also pictured next tofruit trees, and this is probably because fruitswere considered a luxury food and thusreserved for the privileged (Mane, 2006). Themedieval idea that the garden was a place forhealing, relaxing, and physical and mentalwell-being was a premonition of horticulturaltherapy, now stressed in schools, hospitals,geriatric and rehabilitation centers, prisons,and community gardens (Flagler, 1990;Waliczek et al., 2005).

Interestingly, all of the horticultural crops pre-sented in the illustrated Tacuinum manuscripts

were allocated physiological effects on thebody and were fully part of the medieval phar-macoepia. Clearly, then as now, the populationwas concerned with general health and bodilyfunctions, including flatulence, bladder andkidney stones, ill-health, and sexuality.Remarkably, the very short text that accompa-nies each illustration in the Tacuinum providesinformation for balancing the beneficial andnoxious effects of each plant.

Although the basis of medicine has completelychanged from the ancient philosophical con-cepts that date to the Greeks, the results areamazingly the same. All cultures, ancient,medieval, and modern have come to the sameconclusion: horticulture is basic to a healthylife. Although, modern knowledge of medicineand nutrition has changed our understandingof food through advances in biology, chemistry,and genetics, and as we now view foods interms of calories, vitamins, antioxidants,polyphenols, polysaccharides, proteins, andlipids (Goldman, 2003), it does appear as if allthe analyses, ancient and modern, come to thesame result: the horticultural crops we eat aresustaining, nutritious, healthy, and delicious.Although we no longer evaluate them on thebasis of hot, cold, wet, or dry, or the effect onthe humors, yet some of the ancient feelingsstill persist. We still say colloquially cool as acucumber, we refer to pungent chili peppersas hot, we associate spicy foods with pas-sionate temperaments, and consider aromaand fragrance to affect our well-being. Attimes it may seem, as we investigate thehealthful attributes of our food through chem-istry, that we merely seek accreditation for ourpreferences. While we smile indulgently at theextravagant claims of the ancients, it appearsthat in a number of cases their experience wasprescient. Thus, it turns out that horseradishdoes have a factor that affects urinary health(Shehata et al., 2008), and we have confirmedthe health giving properties of the alliums(Desjardins, 2008) and crucifers (Monteiro andRosa, 2008). We have also found that horticul-tural crops need to be considered carefully fordetrimental effects as in the case of allergies(5% of the population is allergic to apples),excessive soluble fibers (such as persimmon),and toxic substances such as solanine in pota-to.

It is clear that the present-day emphasis on theconnection between horticulture and health isan extension of ancient and medieval con-cerns. We suggest that our present under-standing of nutrition will probably be consid-ered nave in the coming centuries and in thefuture the approach for attributing health ben-efits to horticultural crops will likely be very dif-ferent from the present one. We predict how-ever that the conclusions will be similar: horti-cultural crops are essential to good health!

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSWe thank Anna Whipkey for help with the figures.

We also thank Albert Bonnet, Franois Boulineau,Richard Brand, Mark Farnham, Richard Fery,Brigitte Maisonneuve, Charles-Marie Messiaen,Antonio Monteiro, Phillipp Simon and AlanWalters, for help in identification concerningsome of the illustrations. However, any errors inidentification and interpretation of these imagesare solely our responsibility. We acknowledgefinancial support of the Lillian GoldmanCharitable Trust (New York).

ISHS

Dr. Marie-Christine Daunay, scientist, INRA (Gntique et Amlioration des Fruits et Lgumes), Montfavet,France, is involved in the coordination of French and European networks devoted to the managementof genetic resources of solanaceous crops. Her research is focused on eggplant genetics and solanace-ous crop history. Email: [email protected].

Dr. Jules Janick is James Troop Distinguished Professor of Horticulture at Purdue University, USA, andDirector of the Indiana Center for New Crops and Plant Products. Email: [email protected]

Dr. Harry S. Paris is a Senior Research Scientist in the Department of Vegetable Crops and Plant Geneticsof the Agricultural Research Organization, Newe Yaar Research Center, Ramat Yishay, Israel. Hisresearch is devoted to the genetics, breeding, development, and crop history of cucurbits. Email:[email protected]

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Marie-ChristineDaunay

Jules Janick Harry S. Paris

Paris, H.S., Daunay, M.C. and Janick, J. 2009.The Cucurbitaceae and Solanaceae illustratedin medieval manuscripts known as theTacuinum Sanitatis. Ann. Bot. 103:1187-1205.

Pazzini, A. and Pirani, A. 1980. Herbarium.Weber, Genve.

Pitrat, M., Hanelt, P. and Hammer, K. 2000.Some comments on infraspecific classificationof cultivars of melon. Acta Hort. 510:29-36.

Segre Rutz, V. 2002. Historia plantarum, erbe,oro e medicina nei codici medievali, volume dicommento. Modena: Franco Cosimo Panini.p.123-170.

Shehata, A., Mujlwa, R.M.S., Babadoost, M.,Uchanski, M., Norton, M.A., Skirvin, R. andWalters, S.A. 2008. Horseradish, botany, horti-culture, breeding. Hort. Rev. 35:221-261.

Ullmann, M. 1978. Islamic Medicine (IslamicSurveys II), Edinburgh.

Waliczek, T.M., Zajicek, J.M. and Lineberger, R.D.2005. The influence of gardening activities onconsumer perceptions of life satisfaction.HortScience 40:1360-1365.

Witthoft, B. 1978. The Tacuinum Sanitatis: aLombard panorama. Gesta 17:49-60.