Chemistry a molecular approach 5th edition Nivaldo Tro solutions manual pdf

Community College of Philadelphia Particular Solutions, Inc.
Chemistry A MoleculAr ApproAch
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Solution Manual for Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, Fifth Edition by Nivaldo J. Tro. Published by Pearson. Copyright © 2020 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Contents
Chapter 2 Atoms and Elements ....................................................................................................38
Chapter 3 Molecules and Compounds ..........................................................................................69
Chapter 4 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Quantities ..........................................................115
Chapter 5 Introduction to Solutions and Aqueous Reactions ....................................................147
Chapter 6 Gases ..........................................................................................................................170
Chapter 7 Thermochemistry .......................................................................................................216
Chapter 9 Periodic Properties of the Elements ..........................................................................286
Chapter 10 Chemical Bonding I: The Lewis Theory ...................................................................311
Chapter 11 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Shapes, Valence Bond Theory, and Molecular Orbital Theory ...................................................................................384
Chapter 12 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces ...............................................................436
Chapter 13 Crystalline Solids and Modern Materials ..................................................................459
Chapter 14 Solutions ....................................................................................................................475
Chapter 19 Free Energy and Thermodynamics ............................................................................753
Chapter 20 Electrochemistry ........................................................................................................810
Chapter 22 Organic Chemistry .....................................................................................................890
Chapter 25 Metals and Metallurgy ...............................................................................................972
Chapter 26 Transition Metals and Coordination Compounds ......................................................985
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Student Guide to Using This Solutions Manual
The vision of this solutions manual is to provide guidance that is useful for both the struggling student and the advanced student.
An important feature of this solutions manual is that answers for the review questions are given. This will help in the review of the major concepts in the chapter.
The format of the solutions very closely follows the format in the textbook. Each mathematical problem includes Given, Find, Conceptual Plan, Solution, and Check sections.
Solution: The Solution section walks you through solving the problem after the conceptual plan. Equations are rearranged to solve for the appropriate quantity. Intermediate results are shown with additional digits to mini- mize round-off error. The units are canceled in each appropriate step.
Check: The Check section confirms that the units in the answer are correct. This section also challenges the student to think about whether the magnitude of the answer makes sense. Thinking about what is a reasonable answer can help uncover errors such as calculation errors.
Given and Find: Many students struggle with tak- ing the written problem, parsing the information into categories, and determining the goal of the problem. It is also important to know which pieces of information in the problem are not necessary to solve the problem and if additional information needs to be gathered from sources such as tables in the textbook.
Conceptual Plan: The conceptual plan shows a step-by-step method to solve the problem. In many cases, the given quantities need to be converted to a different unit. Under each of the arrows is the equation, constant, or conversion factor needed to complete this portion of the problem. In the “Problems by Topic” section of the end-of-chapter exercises, the odd- numbered and even-numbered problems are paired. This allows you to use a conceptual plan from an odd-numbered problem in this manual as a starting point to solve the following even-numbered problem. Students should keep in mind that the examples shown are one way to solve the problems. Other mathematically equivalent solutions may be possible.
6.45 Given: m 1CO22 = 28.8 g, P = 742 mmHg, and T = 22 °C Find: V
Conceptual Plan: °C u K and mmHg u atm and g u mol then n, P, T u V
K = °C + 273.15 1 atm
760 mmHg
1 mol
44.01 g PV = nRT
Solution: T1 = 22 °C + 273.15 = 295 K, P = 742 mmHg * 1 atm
760 mmHg = 0.976316 atm
n = 28.8 g * 1 mol
44.01 g = 0.654397 mol PV = nRT Rearrange to solve for V.
V = nRT
mol # K * 295 K
0.976316 atm = 16.2 L
Check: The units (L) are correct. The magnitude of the answer (16 L) makes sense because one mole of an ideal gas under standard conditions (273 K and 1 atm) occupies 22.4 L. Although these are not standard conditions, they are close enough for a ballpark check of the answer. Because this gas sample contains 0.65 mol, a volume of 16 L is reasonable.
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Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving
Review Questions
1.1 “The properties of the substances around us depend on the atoms, ions, or molecules that compose them” means that the specific types of atoms and molecules that compose something tell us a great deal about which properties to expect from a substance. A material composed of only sodium and chloride ions will have the properties of table salt. A material composed of molecules with one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms will have the properties of the gas carbon dioxide. If the atoms and molecules change, so do the properties that we expect the material to have.
1.2 The main goal of chemistry is to seek to understand the behavior of matter by studying the behavior of atoms and molecules.
1.3 The scientific approach to knowledge is based on observation and experimentation. Scientists observe and perform experiments on the physical world to learn about it. Observations often lead scientists to formulate a hypothesis, a tentative interpretation or explanation of their observations. Hypotheses are tested by experiments: highly controlled procedures designed to generate such observations. The results of an experiment may support a hypothesis or prove it wrong—in which case the hypothesis must be modified or discarded. A series of similar observations can lead to the development of a scientific law: a brief statement that summarizes past observations and predicts future ones. One or more well- established hypotheses may form the basis for a scientific theory. A scientific theory is a model for the way nature is and tries to explain not merely what nature does, but why.
The Greek philosopher Plato (427–347 b.c.) took an opposite approach. He thought that the best way to learn about reality was not through the senses, but through reason. He believed that the physical world was an imperfect representation of a perfect and transcendent world (a world beyond space and time). For him, true knowledge came not through observing the real physical world, but through reasoning and thinking about the ideal one.
1.4 A hypothesis is a tentative interpretation or explanation of the observed phenomena. A law is a concise statement that summarizes observed behaviors and observations and predicts future observations. A theory attempts to explain why the observed behavior is happening.
1.5 Antoine Lavoisier studied combustion and carefully measured the mass of objects before and after burning them in closed containers. He noticed that there was no change in the total mass of material within the container during combustion. Lavoisier summarized his observations on combustion with the law of conservation of mass, which states, “In a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed.”
1.6 John Dalton formulated the atomic theory of matter. Dalton explained the law of conservation of mass, as well as other laws and observations of the time, by proposing that matter was composed of small, indestructible particles called atoms. Because these particles were merely rearranged in chemical changes (and not created or destroyed), the total amount of mass would remain the same.
1.7 The statement “that is just a theory” is generally taken to mean that there is no scientific proof behind the statement. This statement is the opposite of the meaning in the context of the scientific theory, where theories are tested again and again.
1
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1.8 Matter can be classified according to its state—solid, liquid, or gas—and according to its composition.
1.9 In solid matter, atoms or molecules pack close to each other in fixed locations. Although the atoms and molecules in a solid vibrate, they do not move around or past each other. Consequently, a solid has a fixed volume and a rigid shape.
In liquid matter, atoms or molecules pack about as closely as they do in solid matter, but they are free to move relative to each other, giving liquids a fixed volume but not a fixed shape. Liquids assume the shape of their container.
In gaseous matter, atoms or molecules have a lot of space between them and are free to move relative to one another, making gases compressible. Gases always assume the shape and volume of their container.
1.10 Solid matter may be crystalline, in which case its atoms or molecules are arranged in patterns with long-range, repeating order; or it may be amorphous, in which case its atoms or molecules do not have any long-range order.
1.11 A pure substance is composed of only one type of atom or molecule. In contrast, a mixture is a substance composed of two or more different types of atoms or molecules that can be combined in variable proportions.
1.12 An element is a pure substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances. A compound is composed of two or more elements in fixed proportions.
1.13 A homogeneous mixture has the same composition throughout, while a heterogeneous mixture has different composi- tions in different regions.
1.14 If a mixture is composed of an insoluble solid and a liquid, the two can be separated by filtration, in which the mixture is poured through filter paper (usually held in a funnel).
1.15 Mixtures of miscible liquids (substances that easily mix in all proportions) can usually be separated by distillation, a process in which the mixture is heated to boil off the more volatile (easily vaporizable) liquid. The volatile liquid is then recondensed in a condenser and collected in a separate flask.
1.16 A physical property is one that a substance displays without changing its composition, whereas a chemical property is one that a substance displays only by changing its composition via a chemical change.
1.17 Changes that alter only state or appearance, but not composition, are called physical changes. The atoms or molecules that compose a substance do not change their identity during a physical change. For example, when water boils, it changes its state from a liquid to a gas, but the gas remains composed of water molecules; so this is a physical change. When sugar dissolves in water, the sugar molecules are separated from each other, but the molecules of sugar and water remain intact.
In contrast, changes that alter the composition of matter are called chemical changes. During a chemical change, atoms rearrange, transforming the original substances into different substances. For example, the rusting of iron, the combustion of natural gas to form carbon dioxide and water, and the denaturing of proteins when an egg is cooked are examples of chemical changes.
1.18 In chemical and physical changes, matter often exchanges energy with its surroundings. In these exchanges, the total energy is always conserved; energy is neither created nor destroyed. Systems with high potential energy tend to change in the direction of lower potential energy, releasing energy into the surroundings.
1.19 Chemical energy is potential energy. It is the energy that is contained in the bonds that hold the molecules together. This energy arises primarily from electrostatic forces between the electrically charged particles (protons and electrons) that compose atoms and molecules. Some of these arrangements—such as the one within the molecules that compose gasoline—have a much higher potential energy than others. When gasoline undergoes combustion, the arrangement of these particles changes, creating molecules with much lower potential energy and transferring a great deal of energy (mostly in the form of heat) to the surroundings. A raised weight has a certain amount of potential energy (dependent on how high the weight is raised) that can be converted to kinetic energy when the weight is released.
1.20 The SI base units include the meter (m) for length, the kilogram (kg) for mass, the second (s) for time, and the kelvin (K) for temperature.
1.21 The three different temperature scales are kelvin (K), Celsius (°C), and Fahrenheit (°F). The size of the degree is the same in the kelvin and the Celsius scales; and the degree size is 1.8 times larger than the degree size for the Fahrenheit scale.
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1.22 Prefix multipliers are used with the standard units of measurement to change the value of the unit by powers of 10. For example, the kilometer has the prefix “kilo,” meaning 1000 or 103. Therefore 1 kilometer = 1000 meters = 103 meters Similarly, the millimeter has the prefix “milli,” meaning 0.001 or 10-3. 1 millimeter = 0.001 meters = 10-3 meters
1.23 A derived unit is a combination of other units. Examples of derived units include speed in meters per second (m/s), volume in meters cubed (m3), and density in grams per cubic centimeter (g>cm3).
1.24 The density (d ) of a substance is the ratio of its mass (m) to its volume (V):
Density = Mass
m
V The density of a substance is an example of an intensive property: one that is independent of the amount of the sub-
stance. Mass is one of the properties used to calculate the density of a substance. Mass, in contrast to density, is an extensive property: one that depends on the amount of the substance.
1.25 An intensive property is a property that is independent of the amount of the substance. An extensive property is a property that depends on the amount of the substance.
1.26 Measured quantities are reported so that the number of digits reflects the uncertainty in the measurement. The non-place-holding digits in a reported number are called significant figures.
1.27 In multiplication or division, the result carries the same number of significant figures as the factor with the fewest significant figures.
1.28 In addition or subtraction, the result carries the same number of decimal places as the quantity with the fewest decimal places.
1.29 When rounding to the correct number of significant figures, round down if the last (or leftmost) digit dropped is four or less and round up if the last (or leftmost) digit dropped is five or more.
1.30 Accuracy refers to how close the measured value is to the actual value. Precision refers to how close a series of measurements are to one another or how reproducible they are. A series of measurements can be precise (close to one another in value and reproducible) but not accurate (not close to the true value).
1.31 Random error has equal probability of being too high or too low. Almost all measurements have some degree of random error. Random error can, with enough trials, average itself out. Systematic error tends toward being either too high or too low. Systematic error does not average out with repeated trials.
1.32 Using units as a guide to solving problems is often called dimensional analysis. Units should always be included in calculations; they are multiplied, divided, and canceled like any other algebraic quantity.
Problems by Topic
The Scientific Approach to Knowledge
1.33 (a) This statement is a theory because it attempts to explain why. It is not possible to observe individual atoms. (b) This statement is an observation. (c) This statement is a law because it summarizes many observations and can explain future behavior. (d) This statement is an observation.
1.34 (a) This statement is an observation. (b) This statement is a law because it summarizes many observations and can explain future behavior. (c) This statement is an observation. (d) This statement is a theory because it attempts to explain why.
1.35 (a) If we divide the mass of the oxygen by the mass of the carbon, the result is always 4/3. (b) If we divide the mass of the oxygen by the mass of the hydrogen, the result is always 16. (c) These observations suggest that the masses of elements in molecules are ratios of whole numbers [4:3 and 16:1,
respectively, for parts (a) and (b)]. (d) Atoms combine in small whole number ratios and not as random weight ratios.
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1.36 Many hypotheses may be developed. One hypothesis is that a large explosion generated galaxies with fragments that are still moving away from each other.
The Classification and Properties of Matter
1.37 (a) Sweat is a homogeneous mixture of water, sodium chloride, and other components. (b) Carbon dioxide is a pure substance that is a compound (two or more elements bonded together). (c) Aluminum is a pure substance that is an element (element 13 in the periodic table). (d) Vegetable soup is a heterogeneous mixture of broth, chunks of vegetables, and extracts from the vegetables.
1.38 (a) Wine is a generally homogeneous mixture of water, ethyl alcohol, and other components from the grapes. In some cases, there may be sediment present, so it would be a heterogeneous mixture.
(b) Beef stew is a heterogeneous mixture of thick broth with chunks of beef and vegetables. (c) Iron is a pure substance that is an element (element 26 in the periodic table). (d) Carbon monoxide is a pure substance that is a compound (two or more elements bonded together).
1.39 Substance Pure or Mixture Type (element or compound)
aluminum pure element apple juice mixture neither—mixture hydrogen peroxide pure compound chicken soup mixture neither—mixture
1.40 Substance Pure or Mixture Type (element or compound)
water pure compound coffee mixture neither—mixture ice pure compound carbon pure…

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