Chapter 2 Reactive Power Compensation of Transmission Line Index 2.1 General Introduction 2.2 Power control in Transmission line 2.2.1 Convectional Control Mechanism 2.2.1.1 Automatic Generation Control (AGC) 2.2.1.2 Excitation Control 2.2.1.3 Phase-Shifting Transformers 2.2.14 2.3 Uncompensated Transmission lines 2.3.1 Load Compensation. 2.3.2 System compensation. 2.3.3 Lossless Distributed Parameter of Lines. 2.4 Basic principal of power compensation in transmission system 2.4.1 Shunt Compensation. 2.4.2 Series Compensation. 2.4.3 Stability. 2.4.4 Transmission line Parameters. 2.4.4.1 Efficiency and regulation of lines. 2.4. 4.2 Length of transmission lines. 2.4.4.3 Surge impedance. 2.4.4.4 Ferranti-effect. 2.5 Experimental Transmission Line model 2.5.1 Transmission Line model of 750km (λ/8) transmission line. 2.5.2 Design of scale down Artificial Transmission line. 2.5.3 Design of reactor for artificial line. 2.5.4 Design of capacitor for shunt compensator. 2.6 Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) Controllers 2.6.1Introduction 1 | Page
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Transcript
Chapter 2
Reactive Power Compensation of Transmission LineIndex
2.1 General Introduction 2.2 Power control in Transmission line
2.2.1 Convectional Control Mechanism2.2.1.1 Automatic Generation Control (AGC)2.2.1.2 Excitation Control 2.2.1.3 Phase-Shifting Transformers2.2.14
2.3 Uncompensated Transmission lines2.3.1 Load Compensation.2.3.2 System compensation.2.3.3 Lossless Distributed Parameter of Lines.
2.4 Basic principal of power compensation in transmission system2.4.1 Shunt Compensation.2.4.2 Series Compensation.2.4.3 Stability. 2.4.4 Transmission line Parameters.
2.4.4.1 Efficiency and regulation of lines. 2.4. 4.2 Length of transmission lines.
2.4.4.3 Surge impedance.2.4.4.4 Ferranti-effect.
2.5 Experimental Transmission Line model2.5.1 Transmission Line model of 750km (λ/8) transmission line.2.5.2 Design of scale down Artificial Transmission line. 2.5.3 Design of reactor for artificial line.2.5.4 Design of capacitor for shunt compensator.
2.6 Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) Controllers2.6.1Introduction 2.6.2 Shunt-connected controllers
2.6.21 Static Var Compensator (SVC) 2.6.1.2 Converter-based STATCOM Compensator
2.6.5 Combined Series-Shunt Controllers2.6.6 Various other Types of FACTS Controllers
2.7 Conclusion
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Chapter 2 Reactive Power Compensation of Transmission Lines
2.1 General Introduction
Modern civilization depends heavily on the consumption of electrical energy for
industrial, agriculture, domestics, commercial and social purposes. The demand for low
cost electrical energy has lead to the development of generation sites remotely located
from the load centers. Remote generating stations include hydroelectric stations, fossil
fuel stations, geothermal stations and tidal-power plants, wind power plant which are site
bound; and nuclear Power plants built at distant from urban centers. Hence generation of
bulk power at remote locations necessitates the use of transmission lines to connect
generation sites to distant distribution network. Furthermore, to increase system
reliability, multiple lines that connect load centers to several sources, led to the
development of complex interconnected electrical transmission networks. An electrical
power transmission network comprises mostly 3-phase alternating-current (ac)
transmission lines operating at different transmission voltages (generally at 230 kV and
higher). The choice of transmission voltage basically depends on distance of transmission
(V= 1KV per km ) With increasing requirement of power-transmission capacity and/ or
longer transmission distances, the transmission voltages continue to increase( as P α V2);
indeed, increases in transmission voltages are linked closely to decreasing transmission
losses. For a system comprising multiple sources and numerous loads, line impedance
and the voltages at its terminals determine the flow of active and reactive powers. The
long-distance separation of a generating station from a load center requiring long
transmission lines of high capacity and, active- and reactive-power control in ac
transmission networks was exercised by carefully adjusting transmission line
impedances, as well as regulating terminal voltages by generator excitation control and
by transformer tap changers.
During the past two decades, the increase in electrical energy demand has
presented higher requirements from the power industry. More power plants, substations,
and transmission lines need to be constructed. However, the most commonly used
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devices in present power grid are the mechanically-controlled circuit breakers. The long
switching periods and discrete operation make them difficult to handle the frequently
changed loads smoothly and damp out the transient oscillations quickly. In order to
compensate these drawbacks, large operational margins and redundancies are maintained
to protect the system from dynamic variation and recover from faults. This not only
increases the cost and lowers the efficiency, but also increases the complexity of the
system and augments the difficulty of operation and control. Severe black-outs happened
recently in power grids worldwide and these have revealed that conventional transmission
systems are unable to manage the control requirements of the complicated interconnections
and variable power flow.
Therefore, investment is necessary for the studies into the security and stability of
the power grid, as well as the improved control schemes of the transmission system.
Different approaches such as reactive power compensation and phase shifting have been
applied to increase the stability and the security of the power systems. The demands of
lower power losses, faster response to system parameter change, and higher stability of
system have stimulated the development of the Flexible AC Transmission systems
(FACTS) [1]. Based on the success of research in power electronics switching devices
and advanced control technology, FACTS has become the technology of choice in
voltage control, reactive/active power flow control, transient and steady-state
stabilization that improves the operation and functionality of existing power transmission
and distribution system [2], [3]. The achievement of these studies enlarge the efficiency
of the existing generator units, reduce the overall generation capacity and fuel
consumption, and minimize the operation cost.
2.11 CONVENTIONAL CONTROL MECHANISMS
In the foregoing discussion, a lack of control on active- and reactive-power flow on a
given line, embedded in an interconnected ac transmission network, was stated. Also, to
maintain steady-state voltages and, in selected cases, to alter the power-transmission
capacity of lines, traditional use of shunt and series impedances was hinted. In a
conventional ac power system, however, most of the controllability exists at generating
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stations. For example, generators called spinning reserves maintain an instantaneous
balance between power demand and power supply. These generators, in fact, are
purposely operated at reduced power. Also, to regulate the system frequency and for
maintaining the system at the rated voltage, controls are exercised on selected generators.
2.1.2 Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
The megawatt (MW) output of a generator is regulated by controlling the driving
torque, Tm, provided by a prime-mover turbine. In a conventional electromechanical
system, it could be a steam or a hydraulic turbine. The needed change in the turbine-
output torque is achieved by controlling the steam/ water input into the turbine.
Therefore, in situations where the output exceeds or falls below the input, a speed-
governing system senses the deviation in the generator speed because of the load-
generation mismatch, adjusts the mechanical driving torque to restore the power balance,
and returns the operating speed to its rated value. The speed-governor output is invariably
taken through several stages of mechanical amplification for controlling the inlet (steam/
water) valve/ gate of the driving turbine. Figure 1.1 shows the basic speed-governing
system of a generator supplying an isolated load. The operation of this basic feedback-
control system is enhanced by adding further control inputs to help control the frequency
of a large interconnection. In that role, the control system becomes an automatic
generation control (AGC) with supplementary signals.
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Figure A speed-governor system.
2.1.3 Excitation ControlThe basic function of an exciter is to provide a dc source for field
excitation of a synchronous generator. A control on exciter voltage results in controlling the field current, which, in turn, controls the generated voltage. When a synchronous generator is connected to a large system where the operating frequency and the terminal voltages are largely unaffected by a generator, its excitation control causes its reactive power output to change. In older power plants, a dc generator, also called an exciter, was mounted on the main generator shaft. A control of the field excitation of the dc generator provided a controlled excitation source for the main generator. In contrast, modern stations employ either a brushless exciter (an inverted 3-phase alternator with a solid-state rectifier connecting the resulting dc source directly through the shaft to the field windings of the main generator) or a static exciter (the use of a station supply with static rectifiers). An excitation-control system employs a voltage controller to control the excitation voltage. This operation is typically recognized as an automatic voltage regulator (AVR). However, because an excitation control operates quickly, several stabilizing and protective signals are invariably added to the basic voltage regulator. A power-system stabilizer (PSS) is implemented by adding auxiliary damping signals derived from the shaft speed, or the terminal frequency, or the power—an effective and frequently used technique for enhancing small-signal stability of the connected system. Figure 1.3 shows the functionality of an excitation-control system.
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Figure A conceptual block diagram of a modern excitation controller.
2.1.4 Transformer Tap-Changer Control
In addition to increasing and decreasing nominal voltages, many transformers are
equipped with tap-changers to realize a limited range of voltage control. This tap control
can be carried out manually or automatically. Two types of tap changers are usually
available: offload tap changers, which perform adjustments when deenergized, and on-
load tap changers, which are equipped with current-commutation capacity and are
operated under load. Tap changers may be provided on one of the two transformer
windings as well as on autotransformers. Because tap-changing transformers vary
voltages and, therefore, the reactivepower flow, these transformers may be used as
reactive-power-control devices. On-load tap-changing transformers are usually employed
to correct voltage profiles on an hourly or daily basis to accommodate load variations.
Their speed of operation is generally slow, and frequent operations result in electrical and
mechanical wear and tear.
2.1.5 Phase-Shifting Transformers
A special form of a 3-phase–regulating transformer is realized by combining a
transformer that is connected in series with a line to a voltage transformer equipped with
a tap changer. The windings of the voltage transformer are so connected that on its
secondary side, phase-quadrature voltages are generated and fed into the secondary
windings of the series transformer. Thus the addition of small, phase-quadrature voltage
components to the phase voltages of the line creates phase-shifted output voltages
without any appreciable change in magnitude. A phase-shifting transformer is therefore
able to introduce a phase shift in a line. Figure 1.4 shows such an arrangement together
with a phasor diagram. The phasor diagram shows the phase shift realized without an
appreciable change in magnitude by the injection of phase-quadrature voltage
components in a 3-phase system.
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Figure A phase-shifting transformer: (a) a schematic diagram and (b) a phasor diagram.
When a phase-shifting transformer employs an on-load tap changer, controllable phase-shifting is achieved. The interesting aspect of such phase shifters is that despite their low MVA capacity, by controlling the phase shift they exercise a significant real-power control. Therefore, they are used to mitigate circulating power flows in interconnected utilities. A promising application of these devices is in creating active-power regulation on selected lines and securing active-power damping through the incorporation of auxiliary signals in their feedback controllers. From this description, it is easy to visualize that an incremental in-phase component can also be added in lines to alter only their voltage magnitudes, not their phase.
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It is found that reactive power Qr- is directly proportional to the magnitude of voltage
drop. So, voltage and reactive power control are analogous to each other and their control
is interrelated. For a good quality of power supply voltage at the consumer end must be
kept constant irrespective of the type or magnitude of load. The maintenance of voltage is
a complicated problem as system is supplied from various sources and is supplied to
various consumers at various voltage levels. In order to maintain the voltage under
prescribed limits, it is necessary to maintain the balance of reactive power in the system
that is reactive power generation should be equal to reactive power consumption. Any
discrepancy in these two quantities leads to voltage exceeding prescribed limits thereby
damaging various appliances connected to the system. Also the presence of reactive
power in the system leads to undesirable heating and lowering of the system stability. So,
compensation of transmission lines is necessary. For this, various compensating
techniques are adopted.es is necessary. For this, various compensating techniques are
adopted.
2.1.6 Fixed or mechanically switched capacitors
Shunt capacitors were first employed for power factor correction in the year 1914 [16]. The leading current drawn by the shunt capacitors compensates the lagging current drawn by the load. The selection of shunt capacitors depends on many factors, the most important of which is the amount of lagging reactive power taken by the load. In the case of widely fluctuating loads, the reactive power also varies over a wide range. Thus, a fixed capacitor bank may often lead to either over-compensation or under-compensation. Variable VAR compensation is achieved using switched capacitors [17]. Depending on the total VAR requirement, capacitor banks are switched into or switched out of the system. The smoothness of control is solely dependent on the number of capacitors switching units used. The switching is usually accomplished using relays and circuit breakers. However, these methods based on mechanical switches and relays have the disadvantage of being
sluggish and unreliable. Also they generate high inrush currents, and require frequent
maintenance [16].
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2.1.7 Synchronous Condensers
Synchronous condensers have played a major role in voltage and reactive power control
for more than 50 years. Functionally, a synchronous condenser is simply a synchronous
machine connected to the power system. After the unit is synchronized, the field current
is adjusted to either generate or absorb reactive power as required by the ac system. The
machine can provide continuous reactive
power control when used with the proper automatic exciter circuit. Synchronous
condensers have been used at both distribution and transmission voltage levels to
improve stability and to maintain voltages within desired limits under varying load
conditions and contingency situations.
However, synchronous condensers are rarely used today because they require substantial
foundations and a significant amount of starting and protective equipment. They also
contribute to the short circuit current and they cannot be controlled fast enough to
compensate for rapid load changes. Moreover, their losses are much higher than those
associated with static compensators, and the cost is much higher compared with static
compensators. Their advantage lies in their high temporary overload capability
2.3 Uncompensated transmission lines
To develop a good, qualitative understanding of the need for reactive-power
control, let us consider a simple case of a lossless short-transmission line connecting a
source Vs to a load (For simplicity, the line is represented only by its inductive
reactance XL) Figure 2.2 shows such a network with its parameters, as well as a phasor
diagram showing the relationship between voltages and currents. From Fig. 2.2(b), it is
clear that between the sending- and the receiving-end voltages, a magnitude variation, as
well as a phase difference, is created. The most significant part of the voltage drop in the
line reactance (DV1 c j IxXl) is due to the reactive component of the load current, Ix. To
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keep the voltages in the network at nearly the rated value, two control actions seem
possible:
1. load compensation, and
2. system compensation.
2.3.1 Load Compensation
It is possible to compensate for the reactive current Ix of the load by adding a parallel
capacitive load so that Ic c − Ix. Doing so causes the effective power factor of the
combination to become unity. The absence of Ix eliminates the voltage drop DV1,
bringing Vr closer in magnitude to Vs; this condition is called load compensation.
Actually, by charging extra for
Figure 2.2 A short, lossless transmission line feeding a load.
Figure 2.3 The reactive-power control for voltage regulations.
supplying the reactive power, a power utility company makes it advantageous for
customers to use load compensation on their premises. Loads compensated to the unity
power factor reduce the line drop but do not eliminate it; they still experience a drop of
∆V2 from jIrXL .
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2.3.1.2 System Compensation
To regulate the receiving-end voltage at the rated value, a power utility may install a
reactive-power compensator as shown in Fig. 2.3. This compensator draws a reactive
current to overcome both components of the voltage drop ∆V1 and ∆V2 as a consequence
of the load current Il through the line reactance XL. To compensate for ∆V2, an
additional capacitive current, ∆Ic, over and above Ic that compensates for Ix, is drawn by
the compensator. When ∆IcXlc ∆V2, the receiving-end voltage, VR, equals the sending-
end voltage, VS. Such compensators are employed by power utilities to ensure the quality
of supply to their customers [1].
2.3.1.3 Lossless Distributed Parameter of Lines
Most power-transmission lines are characterized by distributed parameters:
series resistance, R ; series inductance, L; shunt conductance, G; and shunt capacitance,
C- all per-unit (pu) length. These parameters all depend on the conductors’ size, spacing,
clearance above the ground, and frequency and temperature of operation. In addition,
these parameters depend on the bundling arrangement of the line conductors and the
nearness to other parallel lines. The characteristic behavior of a transmission line is
dominated by its L and C parameters. Parameters R and G account for the transmission
losses. The fundamental equations governing the propagation of energy along a line are
the following wave equations:
Where zy = (R + jQL) (G + jQC).
For a lossless line, the general solutions are given as
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These equations are used to calculate voltage and current anywhere on line, at a distance
x from the sending end, in terms of the sending-end voltage and current and the line
parameters. In Eqs. (2.4) and (2.5),
Ω = the surge impedance or characteristic impedance
rad/km = the wave number
rad = the electrical length of an a-km line
where L is the line inductance in henries per kilometer (H/ km), C is the line shunt
capacitance in farads per kilometer (F/ km), and is the propagation velocity of
electromagnetic effects on the transmission line. (It is less than the velocity of light.)
From Eq. (2.5), we get
If and then
Therefore, the power at the sending end is given as
(7)
Likewise, power at the receiving end is given as
(8)
Comparing Eqs. (2.7) and (2.8) and taking the directional notation of Fig. 2.4
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into account, it is concluded that for a lossless line, PS =PR , as expected.However,
because of the reactive-power absorption/ generation in theline. From Eqs. (2.7)
and (2.8), the power flow from the sending end to the receiving
end is expressed as
In electrically short power lines, where is very small, it is possible to make a
simplifying assumption that , or where
is the total series reactance of a line. This substitution results in the following well-
recognized power equation:
(2.9)
Accordingly, the maximum power transfer is seen to depend on the line length.Then the
power-transfer requirement for a given length of a line increases, higher transmission
voltages of Vs and Vr must be selected. This chapter is not intended to provide a
comprehensive analysis of transmission lines. Rather, its objective is to examine those
aspects that enhance the understanding of the interplay between voltages on the line and
the resulting reactive-power flows.
2.4 Basic principal of power compensation in transmission system.
Figure 2.2.1(a) shows the simplified model of a power transmission system. Two power
grids are connected by a transmission line which is assumed lossless and represented by
the reactance XL. V1 < δ1 and V2 < δ2 represent the voltage phasors of the two power grid
buses with angle δ =δ1-δ2 between the two. The corresponding phasor diagram is shown