Chapter 91 Radiotherapy of Nonmalignant Diseases Karen M. Winkfield, MD, PhD; Jose Bazan, MD; Iris C. Gibbs, MD; Tony Y. Eng, MD; Charles R. Thomas, MD Karen M. Winkfield, MD, PhD Harvard Medical School Department of Radiation Oncology Massachusetts General Hospital 100 Blossom Street, Cox 3 Boston, MA 02114 Email: [email protected]Ph: 617-724-1159 Fax: 617-726-3603 Jose G. Bazan, MD, MS Department of Radiation Oncology Stanford University 875 Blake Wilbur Drive Stanford, CA 94305-5847 Email: [email protected]Ph: 650-725-4021 Fax: 650-725-8231 Iris C. Gibbs, MD Associate Professor Stanford University 875 Blake Wilbur Drive MC:5847 Stanford, CA 94305-5847 Email: [email protected]Ph: 650-725-4021 Fax: 650-725-8231
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Chapter 91
Radiotherapy of Nonmalignant Diseases
Karen M. Winkfield, MD, PhD; Jose Bazan, MD; Iris C. Gibbs, MD; Tony Y. Eng, MD; Charles R. Thomas, MD
Karen M. Winkfield, MD, PhDHarvard Medical SchoolDepartment of Radiation OncologyMassachusetts General Hospital100 Blossom Street, Cox 3Boston, MA 02114Email: [email protected]: 617-724-1159Fax: 617-726-3603
Jose G. Bazan, MD, MSDepartment of Radiation OncologyStanford University875 Blake Wilbur DriveStanford, CA 94305-5847Email: [email protected]: 650-725-4021Fax: 650-725-8231
Iris C. Gibbs, MDAssociate ProfessorStanford University875 Blake Wilbur Drive MC:5847Stanford, CA 94305-5847Email: [email protected]: 650-725-4021Fax: 650-725-8231
Tony Y. Eng, MDProfessor and Vice ChairThe University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio& Cancer Therapy and Research CenterRadiation Oncology Department7979 Wurzbach RoadSan Antonio, TX 78229Email: [email protected]
Charles R. Thomas, Jr., MD**Professor and ChairDepartment of Radiation MedicineOHSU Knight Cancer InstituteMail Code KPV43181 SW Sam Jackson Park RoadPortland, Oregon, USA 97239-3098Email: [email protected] 503-494-8758 Fax 503-346-0237
**Corresponding Author; will review proofs.
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Benign diseases generally include a class of localized tumors or growths that have a low
potential for progression, and do not invade surrounding tissue or metastasize to distant sites.
Pathologically, they are composed of well differentiated cells that are considered non-malignant
and usually do not require any treatment. However, clinically, not all benign diseases have
benign consequences. Some untreated benign diseases can produce bothersome mass or secretory
effects. Others can be locally aggressive and cause secondary debilitating symptoms.
For example, Grave’s ophthalmopathy can lead to local pain and visual impairment without
therapeutic intervention;1 a hormonally active pituitary adenoma may cause growth abnormality
in addition to blindness;2 desmoid tumors, can be locally persistent even after surgical resection
and some desmoids therefore are managed aggressively, similar to their malignant counterparts
and may require adjuvant radiation therapy after radical resection.3
Documented empirical use of radiation in imaging and the treatment of benign diseases
or conditions occurred soon after the discovery of x-rays by Wilhelm Röntgen in 1895.4 An
estimate of over a million Americans, mostly young adults and children, received x-ray
treatments to the head and neck region for benign conditions between 1920 and 1960. The
painless x-ray treatment and its visible efficacy led to many benign conditions being treated with
radiation, such as acne, body hair, scalp ringworm, enlarged tonsils, enlarged thymus, enlarged
lymph neck nodes, whooping cough, and others. Radiation therapy was used in some instances
due to a lack of effective alternative therapies.7
Over the past decades, advances in medical and surgical therapies have provided new
treatment options for many diseases. With improved awareness of late radiation sequelae on
normal tissue, particularly radiation carcinogenesis, there has been a gradual decline in the use of
radiation therapy for treatment of benign conditions. However, with modern radiation therapy
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techniques and better understanding of radiobiology, judicial use of radiation still provides good
local control in and relief of associated symptoms from a variety of benign diseases.
Radiobiological effects on benign diseases
The precise radiobiological mechanisms of radiation effects on benign diseases are not
well defined. Radiation is believed to work through a complex of multicellular interactions that
affect different cell types in our body system.8 Specific cellular and functional mechanisms
depend on the specific disease and site. While most benign lesions have no known stimuli or
causes, some benign lesions may be triggered by trauma as seen in keloid formation after body
piercing, or heteroptopic bone formation after surgery. In conditions that arise following trauma,
local inflammation and repair occur, which is often characterized by stimulation of growth
factors and accelerated cellular proliferation. For example, in the development of keloids,
fibroblast proliferation is responsible for most of the hyperproliferative process. Even with the
lower doses commonly used in benign diseases, radiotherapy is clinically effective in inhibiting
cell proliferation and suppressing cell differentiation without inducing cell death as is typically
seen with tumoricidal doses of radiation. Yet, radiation can induce apoptosis in selected target
cells by influencing the expression of cytokines in macrophages, leukocytes, endothelial, and
other cells, and thereby modulating the inflammatory cascade.
Among the major sites of radiation effects are the blood vessels; vascular endothelial
cells respond rapidly to radiation damage by up-regulating the cytokine-mediated cellular
Dec 2001;27(8):701-706.4. Hessenbruch A. A brief history of x-rays. Endeavour. Dec 2002;26(4):137-141.5. Mehta MP, Goetowski PG, Kinsella TJ. Radiation induced thyroid neoplasms 1920 to
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262. Gregoritch SJ, Chadha M, Pelligrini VD, Rubin P, Kantorowitz DA. Randomized trial comparing preoperative versus postoperative irradiation for prevention of heterotopic ossification following prosthetic total hip replacement: preliminary results. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. Aug 30 1994;30(1):55-62.
263. Kienapfel H, Koller M, Wust A, et al. Prevention of heterotopic bone formation after total hip arthroplasty: a prospective randomised study comparing postoperative radiation therapy with indomethacin medication. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. 1999;119(5-6):296-302.
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264. Pakos EE, Ioannidis JP. Radiotherapy vs. nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for the prevention of heterotopic ossification after major hip procedures: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. Nov 1 2004;60(3):888-895.
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266. Vavken P, Dorotka R. Economic evaluation of NSAID and radiation to prevent heterotopic ossification after hip surgery. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg. Sep 2011;131(9):1309-1315.
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Table 1. The estimated absolute lifetime risk for malignancies after radiation therapy for benign diseases
Types Absolute lifetime riskSkin (basal cell carcinoma) 0.1% for 100-cm2 field
Osteosarcoma < 0.0001% for 1 Gyand a 100- cm2 Field
Leukemia 1% for 1 Gy TBI
Brain tumor 0.2% after 20 Gy for endocrine orbitopathy
Thyroid carcinoma 1% per Gy for children < 10 years
Breast Carcinoma 5% for one breast, 1 Gy, age < 35 (< 3% for age 35–45)
Lung carcinoma 1%. within 25 years after a mean lung dose of 1 Gy
Table 2: Simpson grading system for postoperative meningiomas with associated rates of recurrence.Simpson Grade Description Recurrence RateI Complete mascropic tumor
removal with adherent dura as well as the possibly affected part of the cranial calotte
8.9% (8/90 patients)
II Complete mascroscopic tumor removal with adherent dura via diathermia
15.8% (18/114 patients)
III Complete mascrospic tumor removal without adherent dura or possibly additional extradural parts
29.2% (7/24 patients)
IV Partial macroscopic tumor removal while leaving intradural tumor parts
39.2% (20/51 patients)
V Simple decompressive and bioptic removal of tumor
88.9% (8/9 patients)
*Adapted from Simpson23
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Table 3: Clinical outcomes of stereotactic radiosurgery or external beam radiotherapy (with or without surgery) for meningiomas in modern series.Study (year) Patient No. Radiation S+R/R Dose (median
or mean)Local Control (%)
Ganz et al. (2009) 37
97 SRS NA 12 Gy 100% (2 yrs)
Takanisha et al. (2009) 43
101 SRS 24%/76% 13.2 Gy 97% (1 yr)
Han et al. (2008) 38
98 SRS 36%/64% 12.7 Gy 90% (5 yrs)
Iway et al. (2008) 40
108 SRS NA 12 Gy 93% (5 yrs), 83% (10 yrs)
Kondziolka et al. (2008) 42
972 SRS 49%/51% 14 Gy 87% (10 yrs)
Davidson et al. (2007) 35
36 SRS 100%/0% 16 Gy 100% (5 yrs)95% (10 yrs)
Feigl et al. (2007) 36
214 SRS 43%/57% 13.6 Gy 86.3% (4 yrs)
Hasegawa et al. (2007) 39
115 SRS 57%/43% 13 Gy 87% (5 yrs)73% (10 yrs)
Kollova et al. (2007) 41
368 SRS 30%/70% 12.5 Gy 98% (5 yrs)
Zachenhofe et al. (2006) 44
36 SRS 70%/30% 17 Gy 94% (9 yrs)
Goldsmith et al. (1994) 28
117 EBRT 100%/0% 54 Gy 89% (5 yrs)77% (10 yrs)
Mendenhall et al. (2003) 29
101 EBRT 35%/65% 54 Gy 95% (5 yrs)92% (10 yrs)
Nutting et al. (1999) 31
82 EBRT 100%/0% 55-60 Gy 92% (5 yrs)83% (10 yrs)
Vendrely et al. (1999) 32
156 EBRT 51%/49% 50 Gy 79% (5 yrs)
*Adapted from Minniti et al.30 Abbreviations, S=surgery; R=radiation; SRS = stereotactic radiosurgery; EBRT = external beam radiotherapy
Table 4: Chandler staging system for Juvenile Nasopharyngeal Angiofibroma.Stage DescriptionI Confined to nasopharynxII Extension into nasal cavity and/or sphenoid
sinusIII Extension into ≥ 1 of the following: cheeks,
Severe objective symptoms: conjunctival exposition, prominent periorbital edema
P (proptosis) >20-23 mm 24-27 mm >27 mmE (eye muscle Rare diplopia; none in Frequent diplopia; Severe constant
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dysfunction) parimary position moderate mobility impairment
muscular dysfunction
C (corneal involvement)
Slight corneal changes and no symptoms
Prominent corneal changes and moderate symptoms
Keratitis or other severe eye symptoms
S (sight loss) 20/25 – 20/40 20/45 – 20/100 >20/100
Table 8: Clinical guidelines for use of radiotherapy in Graves’ ophthalmopathy (GO)Radiotherapy Goal Precondition/Indications ContraindicationsInduce clinical regression Pretherapeutic diagnostics:
Improve cosmetics/esthetics Subjective/objective findings: evidence of functional deficits and disorders
“Cosmetic” indication alone without functional impairment
Avoid/decrease undesired effects of other measures
Exclusion of risk factors: no other eye disease (i.e. diabetic retinopathy)
No consent to planned therapy
*Adapted from Donaldson et al.166
Table 9. Radiation therapy mechanism of action dose concepts
Mechanisms of Action Single Dose (Gy) Total Dose (Gy)
Cellular gene and protein expression (e.g., eczemas) <2.0 <2
Inhibition of inflammation in lymphocytes (e.g., in
pseudotumororbitae)
0.3–1.0 2–6
Inhibition of fibroblast proliferation (e.g., in keloids) 1.5–3.0 8–12
Inhibition of proliferation in benign tumors (e.g., in
desmoids)
1.8–3,0 45–60
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FIGURE LEGENDS
Figure 1: Radiosurgery treatment plan of a patient with a right optic nerve sheath meningioma treated to a dose of 24 Gy in 3 fractions. The lesion is intensely enhancing on the post-contrast stereotactic MRI sequences. Panel 1 demonstrates the dose-volume histogram for the patient. The maximum dose to the ipsilateral optic nerve was 22.3 Gy. Panels 2-4 demonstrate the isodose curves for the treatment in the axial, sagittal and coronal planes. The 100% (24 Gy) isodose line is green, the 88% (21 Gy) isodoseline is in orange and the 50% (12 Gy) isodose line is blue.
Figure 2: A-B) A recurrent non-functioning pituitary adenoma seven years after surgical resection in the axial (A) and coronal (B) planes. The yellow arrows denote invasion into the left cavernous sinus. C-E) Rapid arc intensity-modulated radiotherapy treatment plan for the same patient in the axial (C), coronal (D) and sagittal (E) planes. The PTV (purple shaded area) was prescribed 50.4 Gy in 28 fractions.
Figure 3: Axial, coronal, and sagittal MRI images of a patient with multicystic (yellow arrows) craniopharyngioma prior to treatment.
Figure 4: A) Stereotactic radiosurgery plan for an AVM (red) in the dorsal pons treated with 22 Gy in 2 fractions. The prominent streak artifacts are present due to embolization one year prior to treatment. B) CT angiogram of the same patient used to assist in defining the AVM nidus (red contour).
Figure 5: Stereotactic MRI sequences (Panel 1) demonstrating the contoured anterior limbs of the internal capsule bilaterally and the corresponding treatment plan for the right internal capsule (Panel 2) for a patient with refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. The right internal capsule was prescribed 70 Gy to the 50% isodose line (140 Gy maximum dose) in a single fraction.
Figure 6: A-B) 50-year old woman with Graves’ ophthalmopathy before (A) and after (B) treatment with corticosteroids and radiotherapy for prominent eyelid edema and strabismus. C) 3D-conformal radiotherapy treatment plan for a patient with Graves’ ophthalmopathy. The isocenter (yellow arrow) is placed a few mm posterior to the lenses (magenta), and the opposing fields are beam split anteriorly (white arrows). The extraocular muscles are contoured in red. The color wash display demonstrates that less than 10% of the dose reaches the lens.
Figure 7: Dupuytren’s contracture of both hands and the left foot [Use figure from previous version of chapter].
Figure 8: Immobilization for treatment of Dupuytren’s contracture with electrons.
Figure 9: A: Keloid behind left earlobe. B: Status of keloid following resection plus 4 × 4 Gy radiotherapy. [Use figures from previous version of chapter].