Chapter 4. Typology of Mixed Crop-Livestock Systems: Sri Lanka chp4.pdf · Sri Lanka to the south, and is the largest zone (with 9 districts), and falls under the low country, dry

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Chapter 4. Typology of Mixed Crop-Livestock Systems: Sri Lanka

Mixed Crop-Livestock Systems Typology

As in other South Asian countries, mixed crop-livestock farming system is the dominantproduction system in Sri Lanka. Animals are an integral component in these systems, andperform a variety of roles, either supplying products for the household, for sale, or providinginputs for crop production. The common feature is the rearing of one or a few species togetherwith the crops. In this context, animals have a multi-purpose function and are extremelyimportant for the existence of smallholder farmers. Large ruminants are used for draft power,milk and meat. And the manure produced is used for croplands. Keeping goat and pig is mainlyto supplement the income. However, livestock remains a sub-sector in the crop-dominatedagriculture. Of the total farming population of 10–11 million people, an estimated 3.5 millionare involved with work concerning livestock (Kodituawakku 1999).

Land use is dependent on rainfall, elevation, and native vegetation, and these criteria havedetermined the three major agroclimatic zones: the wet, dry and intermediate zones. In recentyears, the zones have been further sub-divided based on elevation and the pattern of land use:hill country, mid-country, low country wet zone, low country dry zone, coconut triangle, andJafna peninsula.

Dividing the country into crop-livestock systems/zones based on the district-level datamay not be ideal since there is variation in agroclimatic characteristics, particularlytopography, elevation, etc. within a district due to the large size of the districts. There is alsoconsiderable diversity in crop-livestock systems practised. However, despite this limitation, acrop-livestock typology has been constructed for Sri Lanka using the methodology describedearlier.

What emerges is a six-zone crop-livestock typology of agriculture. The zones in thetypology, by and large, follow the agro-ecological classification with a few exceptions (Map 4.1and Table 4.1). Paddy is the dominant activity in two zones, (Zones 1 and 21), plantations inthree zones (Zones 3, 4, 5), and fruits and vegetables in Zone 6. Fruits and vegetables are thesecond-most important activity in a majority of zones. Large ruminant activities are importantin all zones, and along with large ruminants, ovine — particularly goat activity — is importantin Zones 1, 2, and 4.

Characterization of Crop-Livestock Zones/Systems

Geographical dispersion and economic importance of zones

The zones are contiguously distributed geographically. Zone 1 extends from the north ofSri Lanka to the south, and is the largest zone (with 9 districts), and falls under the low country,dry zone system. Zone 1 accounts for 42% of the total geographical area, 38% of the grazingland and 36% of cropped area. However, it accounts for only 21% of the population, indicatinglow population density (Table 4.2). Average annual rainfall is 1522 mm, and is lowest inrelation to other zones. Zone 6 also falls under the low country dry zone, and accounts for 15%1 Coconut is the dominant crop activity in this zone. However, in this study area under coconut was not included. Hence paddy

emerged as the dominant crop in this zone.

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Table 4.1. Agricultural activity-based zones in crop-livestock typology: Sri Lanka, 1998.

Zone No. of Location (province) Agro-ecological Major crop1 anddistricts zone livestock activities2

1 9 Southern province(1)3 Dry zone (South) (1) 3, Paddy(83), vegetablesNorthern province(4) Dry zone (North) (4), and fruits (6), cattle,North Central province(2) Dry zone (Central) (2) buffalo,ovineEastern province(2) Dry zone (East) (2)

2 3 Western province(1) Wet low country and Paddy (44), vegetablesNorth western province(2) coconut triangle (3) and fruits (33),cattle,

buffalo, ovine, (Coconut )4

3 5 Western province(2) Wet low country (5) Plantation (48),Southern province(2) paddy (28)Sabaragamuwa province (1) vegetables and

fruits (11),cattle

4 3 Uva province (1) Up country (3) Plantation (60),Sabaragamuwa province (1) vegetablesCentral province (1) and fruits (18), paddy (9),

cattle, ovine

5 2 Central province (2) Mid-country (2) Plantation (36),vegetables and fruits(29), spices (20), cattle,buffalo

6 2 Uva province (1) Dry low country (2) Vegetables and fruits(39), Eastern province (1)paddy (27), minor cereals(11), cattle, buffalo

1. Percentage to gross cropped area2. Based on livestock density3. Figures in parentheses are no. of districts4. Coconut is a dominant activity in this zone, however its area was not included in clustering districts.

Table 4.2. Relative importance of selected variables in crop-livestock typology zones:Sri Lanka, 1998.

Zone Geographical Grazing NCA(incl NCA(excl Totalarea land tea+rubber)1 tea+rubber)2 population

––———–—––––––––––––––––% to all zones total———–—––––––––––––––––––

1 42.0 38.2 36.3 48.4 21.1

2 14.1 5.0 11.0 13.8 20.4

3 10.6 2.3 22.9 14.7 31.3

4 12.0 23.0 15.6 7.3 12.6

5 6.0 12.7 7.9 7.5 9.7

6 15.3 18.8 6.3 8.2 5.0

All zones 65613 913 13903 10423 187744

1. Net cropped area including area under tea and rubber.2. Net cropped area excluding area under tea and rubber.3. Geographical area, grazing land and net cropped area (NCA) in 000 ha.4. Population in 000 nos.

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Map 4.1. Crop livestock typology: Sri Lanka, 1998.

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of the area, but has a smaller share of cropped area (6%) and population (5%). Thus, Zones 1and 6, which fall under the low country dry zone system, account for 68% of the geographicalarea, 44% of cropped area and 26% of the population.

Zone 2 accounts for 14% of geographical area, but supports 20% of total population.Zone 3 accounts for only 11% of the area, but accounts for 23% of the cropped area and 31%of total population. Both these zones fall under the wet low country and coconut triangle agro-ecology. Rainfall is high, and above the country average in Zone 3.

Zones 4 and 5 have elevations greater than 450 m (up-country and mid-country), Zone 4has the highest rainfall (2522 mm/annum) and accounts for 16% of the cropped area. Zone 5is relatively smaller than Zone 4.

Crop and livestock activities

In Sri Lanka, paddy is the main crop occupying 0.84 million ha, followed by coconut,plantations, and fruits and vegetables. Zones 1 and 6 account for 75% of the total paddy area,72% of minor cereals, 71% of pulses, and 31% of fruits and vegetables area in Sri Lanka. Underirrigation, paddy is grown in both rainy seasons (maha and yala), while under rainfedconditions, paddy is grown only in the maha (north-east rainy season). Cash crops such aschillies and vegetables are cultivated in the off-season. Thus, for field crops, these two zonesaccount for the bulk of the share. Spices and plantation crops are important in Zones 3, 4 and5. Zone 2 accounts for 60% of the area under coconut (Table 4.3).

In 1998, Sri Lanka had 1.57 million cattle, 0.73 million buffalo, 0.5 million goat and 9.5million poultry. Zones 1 and 6 account for 52% of cattle, 50% buffalo, 44% goat, and only asmall proportion of non-ruminant population such as poultry and pigs (Table 4.4). Themajority of cattle and buffalo in these two zones are of the indigenous type. The animals grazemost of the year on paddy fields after harvest, and are moved to scrub land during thecultivation season. Due to large livestock numbers, the two zones account for 48% of domesticmilk production, and 36% of meat production.

Zones 2 and 3 account for the bulk of the non-ruminant population, and about a third ofother livestock species. The demand for non-ruminant meat from the large urban population isthe main driving force. This area also forms the peri-urban dairy system with large numbers ofboth crossbred cattle and improved buffalo. Cattle and buffalo generally graze or are tetheredon harvested rice fields or coconut plantations. Owing to large poultry and pig populations,these zones together account for 45% of the total meat production. Zone 4 accounts for onlyone tenth of the cattle population but accounts for 21% of milk production due to large shareof European breeds and their crosses.

Growth in crop and livestock sector

Between 1980 and 1998, area under field crops declined in all zones except paddy in the dryZone 1 where the share of paddy in GCA increased from 72% in 1980 to 83% in 1998 implyingspecialization in paddy production (Map 4.2 and Table 4.5 and Appendix Table 4.1). Overall,across all zones, the area under paddy remained stagnant. Increasing trend in the import ofpulses, oilseeds and coarse grains has made their production less attractive despite a big gapbetween domestic supply and demand. In contrast, area under fruits and vegetables increased

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Table 4.3. Relative importance of crop activities in crop-livestock typology zones:Sri Lanka, 1998.

Zone Paddy Minor Pulses Oilseeds Vegetables Spices Plantation Coconutcereals and fruits

————————————————— % to all zones total ————––———————————

1 71.7 38.9 52.0 55.1 16.2 3.8 0.2 12.72 10.2 5.6 18.2 15.0 24.5 6.6 3.1 59.63 11.5 0.0 0.1 3.5 15.1 44.5 45.7 16.34 2.5 17.1 6.7 7.4 16.5 10.1 38.8 4.35 0.8 6.2 2.2 6.4 12.8 34.4 11.4 4.86 3.3 32.2 20.8 12.6 14.8 0.5 0.8 2.3

All zones 1 846 36 42 45 266 67 370 444

1. Area under crops in 000 ha.

Table 4.4. Relative importance of livestock activities in crop-livestock typology zones:Sri Lanka, 1998.

Zone Cattle Buffalo Goat Sheep Poultry Pig Total LU

% to all zones total

1 42.6 42.5 40.3 67.0 16.7 13.5 42.2

2 21.5 26.4 24.6 30.4 40.9 62.1 23.6

3 9.5 11.6 10.4 0.0 23.3 16.6 10.0

4 10.4 4.1 12.8 2.6 6.1 4.5 8.4

5 6.4 6.5 8.4 0.0 9.2 3.0 6.5

6 9.6 8.8 3.4 0.0 3.9 0.3 9.3

All zones 1 1579 733 519 12 9566 76 3851

1. Livestock population in 000 nos.

Table 4.5. Growth in area for selected crop groups 1980–98 (%/annum) in crop typologyzones, Sri Lanka.

Zones Paddy Minor Pulses Oilseeds Root Vegetable Spices Plantation Coconutcereals crops and fruits

1 3.18 0.88 0.41 -2.81 -1.50 1.09 1.85 5.57 0.70

2 -2.93 -3.54 -4.60 -5.13 -3.37 3.52 7.49 1.80 -0.02

3 -2.03 -16.90 -26.05 -3.30 -3.87 1.95 2.02 -1.18 0.10

4 -5.23 -3.18 -2.98 -3.06 -1.70 1.19 3.49 -0.39 1.70

5 -10.71 -6.51 -2.90 -5.21 -2.90 0.77 4.72 -4.84 1.02

6 -5.58 1.74 3.06 -2.78 -2.27 3.94 7.96 14.32 1.37

All zones 0.10 -1.04 -1.80 -3.44 -2.55 2.07 3.24 -1.40 0.23

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dramatically in all zones with an overall growth of > 2% per annum. In Zone 6, the share offruits and vegetables nearly tripled (Map 4.3). Area under spices also increased in all zonesfrom a low base as also in Zone 5, an important spice-growing zone. The increase in area underfruits and vegetables is attributed to the growing export market. In 2002, they earned Rs. 1000million through exports (Wickramasinghe 2003). For spices too, attractive export marketprices, and government incentives for expansion were the main reasons for growth area(Herath 2002). Plantation area in the three plantation dominant zones — 3, 4 and 5 —declined marginally. This is largely attributed to decline in area under rubber due to decline inits profitability. Thus, the trend in the food crops implies a move towards greater specializationwith area under minor crops declining further. On the other hand, there is a diversificationaway from food grains towards fruits and vegetables driven by income growth andurbanization.

In all zones, the population of adult female cattle is growing by 2–4% per annum while thepopulation of adult male cattle is stagnant. Adult female cattle account for 80% of the totaladult cattle population (average for all zones) and the proportion is similar across zones.Buffaloes account for about one half of cattle population and like for cattle, adult femalebuffalo account for 70% of the total adult buffalo population, and the proportions are similar inzones where buffaloes are important (Zones 1, 2 and 3). Between 1982 and 1998, adult femalebuffalo population increased significantly in all zones with an overall growth of 3.7% perannum. The fastest growth was however, in goat population in all zones with an overall growthof 10% per annum. Poultry population also increased in all zones with an overall growth of 5%per annum (Table 4.6 and Appendix Table 4.2).

Changes in composition of livestock population

Between 1982 and 1998, the composition of livestock population has undergone some changesdue to technological and socio-economic factors. The ratio of adult female bovine to malebovine has increased in all zones, indicating a shift towards milch animals and a decrease indraft animals due to mechanization. The all-zones average ratio increased from 2.14 in 1982 to3.28 in 1998 (Table 4.7 and Map. 4.4). There has been a decline in the ratio of cow to she-buffalo (average for all zones), however, the decrease is less dramatic, and the ratio actuallyincreased in Zones 4 and 5. A significant decline in the ratio of bovine to ovine in all zones isdue to faster growth in ovine population. Overall, due to growth in livestock population of allspecies, the density of livestock units to cropped area increased in all the zones (from 2 to 2.8LU/ha between 1980 and 1998) as also the density of goats to grazing lands (3 to 5.8 goats/hagrazing land). The density of all species (cattle, buffalo) to total cropped area also increased inall the zones (Maps 4.5 and 4.6). There is limited data on share of purebred and cross breedcattle in different zones. Household surveys by Ibrahim et al. 1999 indicate a high proportionof crossbred cattle (40–60%) were in mid- and up-country and wet low country near Colombo.The study also found an increase in improved buffalo population due to growing importance ofbuffaloes for milk production compared with their traditional role as draft animals. Forbuffaloes, studs are the most appropriate for upgrading because AI is constrained due toseveral factors.

The above changes point to a growing importance of female bovine to meet the demandfor milk, increased pressure on limited land resources due to increase in livestock density,

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Table 4.6. Growth in livestock population 1982–1998(%/annum) in crop-livestock typologyzones, Sri Lanka.

Zones Adult Adult Total Adult Adult Total Ovines Poultrymale female cattle male female buffalocattle cattle buffalo buffalo

1 1.40 2.75 1.38 1.19 5.89 3.77 8.77 3.63

2 -1.62 1.41 -0.51 -2.52 1.05 -0.59 10.86 4.98

3 0.72 2.82 1.47 0.40 4.56 3.05 11.59 7.56

4 2.37 2.07 0.81 -2.41 1.67 -0.54 9.48 3.64

5 2.91 2.54 1.02 -1.05 1.22 -0.24 8.60 5.03

6 2.36 4.91 2.68 1.31 7.62 5.43 20.93 2.92

All zones 0.71 2.51 0.95 -0.67 3.72 1.83 10.03 5.04

Table 4.7. Density of livestock species and change in composition between 1980 and 1998,in crop-livestock typology zones: Sri Lanka.

Adult Adultfemale female

bovine / cattle / Ovines /adult adult grazing Cattle/ Buffalo/ Ovines/ Cattle/ Buffalo/ Ovines/male female Bovines / land LU/NCA1 NCA1 NCA1 NCA1 NCA2 NCA2 NCA2

Zones bovine buffalo ovines (no./ha) (no./ha) (no./ha) (no./ha) (no./ha) (no./ha) (no./ha) (no./ha)

1998

1 3.7 2.4 4.5 6.2 3.2 1.3 0.6 0.4 1.3 0.6 0.4

2 2.8 2.0 4.1 28.8 6.0 2.2 1.3 0.9 2.4 1.3 0.9

3 3.7 1.8 4.3 25.9 1.2 0.5 0.3 0.2 1.0 0.6 0.4

4 3.0 5.7 2.9 3.2 1.5 0.8 0.1 0.3 2.2 0.4 0.9

5 3.6 2.5 3.4 3.8 2.3 0.9 0.4 0.4 1.3 0.6 0.6

6 2.7 2.3 12.2 1.0 4.1 1.7 0.7 0.2 1.8 0.8 0.2

All zones 3.3 2.3 4.4 5.8 2.8 1.1 0.5 0.4 1.5 0.7 0.5

1980

1 2.6 3.8 4.8 4.3 2.9 1.5 0.5 0.4 1.5 0.5 0.4

2 1.6 1.9 10.9 11.6 4.9 2.0 1.2 0.3 2.1 1.2 0.3

3 2.4 2.4 7.7 10.6 0.7 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.8 0.4 0.2

4 2.5 5.4 5.6 1.5 1.0 0.6 0.1 0.1 1.5 0.3 0.3

5 2.8 2.0 5.7 2.1 1.0 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.9 0.5 0.3

6 1.6 3.4 22.8 0.3 2.1 1.1 0.3 0.1 1.1 0.3 0.1

All zones 2.1 2.8 6.7 3.1 2.0 0.9 0.4 0.2 1.4 0.6 0.3

1. Net cropped area including area under tea and rubber.2. Net cropped area excluding area under tea and rubber.

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growing importance of goat particularly for the poor and smallholders, and a decline in the useof animals for draft purposes. Although there is wide spatial distribution of animals, there is atendency towards regional specialization. Pigs and poultry are concentrated in Zones 2 and 3with large urban populations. Indigenous cattle and buffalo are mainly in the dry Zones 1 and 6.Goats are concentrated in the dry areas of Zones 1, 2 and 6. Dairy farming is important inZones 3, 4 and 5, i.e., in the low country wet zone, and mid- and hill country systems.

Socio-economic indicators and livestock infrastructure

Share in total population and population density is highest in Zone 3 (848 persons /sq.km) dueto large urban population (Table 4.8). Population density is lowest in Zones 1 and 6, the dryzones (144 and 93 per sq km respectively). Due to the large share of bovines, Zone 1 accountsfor almost 40% of milk production. Zones 4, 3 and 2 contribute another 40%. Between 1970,and 1998, domestic milk production grew by 2.5% per annum (average for all zones). Zones 4,6, 2, and 1 had significant growth rates in milk production2. The only exception was Zone 3where milk production was stagnant. Due to large urban population, the scope for expansionof dairy activities may be limited in this zone and consequently importing milk fromneighboring districts to meet the growing demand.

Due to low population density, per capita milk production was highest in Zone 1, followedby Zone 6. Zone 4 is an exception with high per capita consumption despite above-averagepopulation density. The growth in milk production and consequently per capita milkproduction was fastest in this zone, largely driven by adoption of improved European breeds.Except Zone 4, in all other zones, per capita milk production remained stagnant. Laborconstraints (high opportunity cost of labor) and low milk prices are the major socio-economicconstraints facing small-scale farmers, almost rendering dairying a non-profitable enterprise.Ibrahim et al. 1999 found that in Sri Lanka the ratio of milk price (in formal markets) to wagerate (for unskilled labor) was 1–13, compared with 1–4 in India. Due to high opportunity costof labor, hired labor is not economical to use in milk production. Despite liberalization ofmarket policies, smallholders are compelled to sell milk to processing plants at governmentfixed prices. Imports of dairy products increased due to liberal trade policies furtherweakening the domestic markets (Devendra et al. 2000).

Road density is high in Zones 2, 3, 4, 5, and is low in the dry Zones 1 and 6. The density ofdairy centers and veterinary institutions is high in Zones 3, 4, 5. (Table 4.9 and Maps 4.7 and4.8). Dairy cooperatives provide wide-ranging services including credit for the purchase ofconcentrate feeds, and extension services. Generally, the densities for these indicators are lowin the dry zones, although these zones make significant contribution to milk and meatproduction.

Factors influencing productivity

Detailed data for analysis of factors driving productivity of milk and meat are notavailable. Based on available data, simple correlation between key selected factors and milkyield is shown in Table 4.10. There is a positive and significant correlation between cattle milk2 The data on livestock numbers, milk production, etc. need to be interpreted cautiously. Different studies have reported a decline

in livestock numbers and an increase in milk production between 1985 and 1995. Between 1980 and 1998, we find thatlivestock numbers have increased. Since data on milk production during 1980 were fraught with problems, growth rates in milkproduction were calculated between 1970 and 1998. A part of the problem in getting accurate data is the long civil strife thecountry has been going through.

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Table 4.10. Correlation between milk yield and selected variables: Sri Lanka, 1998.

Variables Cow milk yield1 Buffalo milk yield1

Population density (no./sq km of geographical area) 0.11 0.10

Urban population (% to total) -0.07 0.45

Road density (km/ 000’ sq km of geographical area) 0.44 -0.31

Veterinary institutes (no./000' livestock unit) 0.43 -0.38

Dairy cooperatives (no./000' livestock unit) 0.44 -0.47

Rainfall (mm) 0.10 -0.16

1. Yield refers to all milch animals i.e., dry and in milk (kg/animal).

Table 4.8. Socio-economic indicators in crop-livestock typology, Sri Lanka.

Pop. Urban Milk Per capita Milk Growth Growthdensity pop. production milk production in milk in per

no/sq km (% to (000 t) (l/annum) density per production capita milktotal) sq km of (%) production

geog. area (%)

Zones 1998 1998 1970 1998 1970 1998 1998 (1970-98)

1 144 19.4 63.7 111.2 28.8 28.1 4.0 3.0 -0.1

2 413 15.9 14.2 28.5 10.1 12.9 4.1 3.7 1.3

3 848 37.1 47.3 39.8 8.8 5.3 4.4 -0.9 -2.6

4 300 7.6 23.3 59.4 13.5 25.1 7.5 5.1 3.3

5 462 12.5 19.4 22.7 12.9 12.5 5.8 0.8 -0.2

6 93 8.9 9.5 22.9 20.5 24.4 2.3 4.7 0.9

All zones 286 21.5 177.5 284.5 14.0 15.6 4.3 2.5 0.4

Table 4.9. Selected infrastructural and agro-climatic variables in crop-llivestock zones, SriLanka.

Road length Dairy Dairy centers Veterinary centerskm/sq km of cooperatives no/0000’sq km no/ 0000’ LU

geog. area no/0000’LU geog. area AnnualAnnual rainfall temperature

Zones 1980 1998 1980 1998 1980 1998 1998 (mm) (mean)

1 0.32 0.27 0.13 0.57 0.73 0.36 0.48 1522 26.1

2 0.53 0.53 0.07 0.75 0.00 1.08 0.58 1708 24.6

3 0.71 0.72 0.35 0.39 2.89 5.78 1.21 2328 26.1

4 0.50 0.57 0.31 0.93 3.81 3.81 1.26 2522 21.2

5 0.66 0.69 0.30 1.44 5.09 2.54 1.08 1633 21.5

6 0.23 0.14 0.38 0.79 0.00 0.00 0.44 1879 21.0

All zones 0.38 0.40 0.15 0.70 1.37 1.52 0.68 1843 24.3

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Map 4.7. Density of road: Sri Lanka, 1998.

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yield and infrastructure variables such as road density, density of veterinary institutes and dairycooperatives. Buffalo milk yield on the other hand, is high in areas with a larger proportion ofurban population where perhaps buffaloes are kept mainly for milk purpose. However, sincefemale buffaloes are also used for draft purposes, milk yields alone may not reflect the trueproductivity of buffaloes.

Crop-Livestock Interaction in Production Systems

Zones 1 and 6

Rainfed rice-based system

The northern and southern dry zones encourage a considerable variety of settings, from sub-humid forest to dry scrub to large irrigated rice-growing areas. These zones are typified by theuse of indigenous breeds. These are extensively managed systems. Animals graze for most ofthe year on paddy lands, bunds, tank beds, villus and scrub jungle. There is almost no use ofconcentrates, and little use of crop residues, although buffaloes are fed rice straw. The herd sizeis comparatively large and varied, from 30 to 200 heads of cattle, mainly of indigenous andsome Indian crosses. Milk yield is generally low, 1–3 L per day, length of lactation days isrelatively less and consequently yields per lactation are low. The use of natural tree fodders iscommon in these areas. In the recent past, more and more lands that were used as naturalgrazing lands are being increasingly used for other purposes such as development projects,wildlife sanctuaries, etc. Thus, limitation in natural grazing lands has become a majorconstraint on feed availability. In this system, animals are kept as a live saving, and they are soldthe moment there is need for money. Slaughter of cattle for home consumption is rarelypractised. However, milk is sold mainly to the local market. According to a study (Ibrahim etal. 1999), the average milk production is 2.3 ± 1.3 L, and the lactation length is around 180days with long calving intervals. High calf mortality is a common feature. Keeping goat mainlyfor sale of meat is also a common feature. Buffaloes are used for draft purposes in the northerndry zone, while dairy buffaloes are reared in the southern dry zone for curd (yogurt)production.

The main income source is the rainfed crop farming. Rains from the Southwest monsoonare generally not reliable, and thus most croplands are kept fallow for about 7–8 months. Thesouthern dry zone from February to September is heavily dry, and feed scarcity and lack ofwater is a major problem. It is a common feature that farmers tend to sell the animals forslaughter because of these constraints. Crops, mainly rice, are grown in the lowlands with thesupplemented water under the tanks, while highlands are cultivated with minor grains, pulses,cash crops such as chilies, tobacco, etc. The soil type is reddish brown earth or red yellowlataritic soil and is fertile.

The irrigated rice-based system is similar to rainfed system, but there are a few distinctfeatures. Herd size is small, and keeping buffaloes is less common. Local x Zebu crosses areused for land preparation purposes. Lands are fully occupied for most of the year. Cropresidues are available in plenty, but using them for livestock feeding is not common. Each farmfamily has about 0.81 ha of lowland for rice cultivation and about 0.20 ha for homestead in the

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uplands. However, when the irrigation supply is not reliable, farmers go for various othercombinations of crops. Some of the sub-systems are rice-pulse-coarse grain system, rice-pulsecrop, and rice-highland crop systems.

Vegetable-based intensive ‘Jaffna peninsula system’. Intensive crop farming throughoutthe year using ground well water is the common feature. Organic manure from livestock ismainly used for own croplands. Different kinds of cropping systems are practised. Vegetables,onion and chilies, tobacco, and fruit crops are common in all the cropping systems. Crop-livestock integration is clearly seen.

Zones 4 and 5

Tea estate system in the uplands and mid-country

The up country (Hill country) zone lies 1200 m above mean sea level (amsl). The estateworkers keep dairy cattle, mainly of improved European breeds, under stall-fed conditions,tethered grazing and feed moderate amounts of concentrates. Milk yields can range from 6 to15 L per day or 2500 L per cow per lactation, with long length of lactation. They have no landsof their own. For forage requirements, they have to depend on natural grasses growing on thecanal bunds, waste from uncultivated lands are cut and fed to the cattle, together withconcentrate feeds. Surplus animals are sold to maintain the herd size at about less than 4–6animals. Manure is also a good income source. The potential for further development islimited.

Vegetable-based or off-farm based cattle farming systems

In the village-based system, the farmers own a piece of land and their farming is mainly crop-livestock mixed farming. They are engaged in commercial-oriented intensive vegetablecultivation. Dairy cattle are kept mainly to get manure and the milk is often a secondaryactivity.

Zone 5

Kandian home garden system in mid-country

This is a very complicated, but sustainable system, with limited potential for furtherdevelopment. The land size is less than 0.40 ha. Taller trees such as forest trees, plantationcrops such as coconut, arecanut, kithul, jak, spices and cut flowers are the main crops. Dairycattle and goat are kept either in semi- intensive systems or tethered to the trees. Forages arecollected off-farm and concentrate feeds are fed to milking animals. Generally, the herd size islimited to two cows in production and their offspring. Small-scale rice production in the low-lying areas using buffaloes is a common feature.

Zones 2 and 3

Coconut-based cattle farming system

The cattle- and buffalo rearing in the coconut triangle districts and wet lowlands form anintegral part of the farming systems. The animals are mainly Indian cross breeds andindigenous zebu type. Milk yields vary from 4 to 6 L per day. Semi-extensive system of

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management is practised. Two to ten animals are maintained per unit, and help in controllingweeds, and providing manure for the plantation. The bulls and buffaloes are commonly used inland preparation works and in processing the harvest. Indigenous buffaloes are also milkedalthough yields are less than 2 L per day. The milk is converted to curd, which is a delicacy.Animals are allowed to graze in the coconut gardens and fallow paddy fields. The land holdingsize is comparatively large (2–4 ha).

Generally landowners reside away from the coconut garden and hired workers managethe plantation. Since these zones form part of the peri-urban dairy system around Colombo,informal markets for milk fetch higher prices.

Zones 1, 2 and 3

Goat farming systems

In the rainfed highland crop-based goat farming and in the low country and intermediate zones,goats are reared mainly under the extensive system. Breeds are mostly indigenous and a crossof Indian breeds. The herd size varies from 10 to 90, and feed mainly includes forages in thescrub jungles and thorn shrubs. Milking is practised rarely and the main purpose is for meatproduction.

In the coconut-based goat farming in the low-country wet and intermediate zones, goatsare reared as small herds of 4–12 under semi-intensive management. The animals are allowedfor free grazing mainly to control weeds under coconut trees. A shed is provided for them torest during night and when there is bad weather. Investment on goat is very low.

Feed Resources

Livestock is an integral component in the sustainable crop-livestock farming systems in SriLanka. It remains under the crop-dominated agriculture, as a sub-sector. The government hadgiven high priority to uplift the dairy industry in the past, but the resultant achievements havenot been up to the expected level. Moreover, an island-wide survey conducted by the AgrarianResearch and Training Institute (ARTI) has shown that most dairy farmers in Sri Lanka feedcoconut poonac (coconut cake obtained after removing the oil from the coconut), rice bran ora home-made mixture of the two to their cows. The proportion of farmers feeding commercialcompounded feeds to cows is less than 10%. Therefore, the involvement of feed millingindustry, for producing compound feeds, is very low. The feeding practices are varieddepending on the agro-ecology and the particular farming system. Lack of good quality feedthroughout the year, is a major constraint for profitable smallholder dairy production. This isprimarily a result of pressure on land and competing opportunities for labor, which restrict thesupply of fodder for many dairy herds. In turn, limited access to good-quality fodder reducesthe cost effectiveness of feeding concentrates. Dairying in Sri Lanka primarily depends on thepasture and fodder found on the farm, or from common property lands with limited areas ofcultivated pasture and fodder.

Of the total dairy farmers in Sri Lanka, 65% are smallholders. A majority of them dependupon grazing as their main source of animal feed. Grazing occurs mainly on paddy land (bundsand harvest aftermath), public spaces and under coconut trees. Animals are usually tetheredduring grazing, except in the dry zones. In the higher-production potential Zones 3, 4, and 5,

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stall-feeding often combined with some grazing is a common system. Use of concentrates ishigher per lactating cow in Zone 3. The cattle are fed concentrate feeds over buffaloes,indicating that buffaloes are kept mainly for draft and not for milk.

In the dry zone (Zone 6), which is the predominant rice-growing area, larger quantity ofrice bran is fed to both dry and lactating cows. In the wet zone (Zones 2 and 3) feeding of ricebran is common. The cut fodder is used for night feeding or seasonally, when grazing isrestricted due to cropping. Farmers apparently relying solely upon stall-feeding may be peri-urban producers or those rearing cattle in confinement in the uplands, where manure is amajor product of the system.

Technology Adoption

Artificial Insemination (AI)

Although known to most of the livestock farmers in many areas, successful application of theAI technology has not yet been achieved. As per the performance of AI activities, Kandy andKurunagala districts (Zones 5 and 2 respectively) rank high as the best districts that reachedover 90%of the annual AI target (performance review of AI activities, DAPH 1998). At theprovince level, central province (Zones 4 and 5) ranked first, recording 40,871 Als in 1998,followed by north western and western provinces (Zones 2 and 3). The highest performance incentral province was not only due to better climate suitable for improved animals, but also dueto better awareness of the technology. It is not just AI, but also all the other related livestockbreeding technologies such as pregnancy diagnosis and AI calving that have been widelyadopted in the Central province (DAPH 1998).

Performance of AI species-wise, indicates that AI of both cattle and goat increased overthe year, but AI of goats appeared to be declining/stagnated in the past three decades. Theperformance of AI in Jaffna district where large numbers of goats are reared was highest in thecountry during the 1970s. In the last two decades, it declined drastically. AI in buffaloes hasalso increased but the number covered is very small. There is a significant growth of total AI ofcattle; however, compared with the total breedable cattle, there is a huge potential forimprovement of AI (Figure 4.1). The AI technicians, both government and private, areattached to range veterinary office from which they have to obtain semen doses. Variations inthe number of AI technicians and the number of breedable cattle over time are shown inFigure 4.2

According to a field survey, the constraints encountered by farmers were non-availabilityof timely insemination (84%), repeated breeding (90%) and poor veterinary follow-up work(75%). While others were silent or showed no heat signs, only 64% of animals exhibiteddistinct estrus signs at the time of visit. The coverage of AI is marginal and the conception rateappears to be less than optimal (Abeygunawardena et al. 1995).

The 1981 census found only 3% improved cattle, but a household survey in 1998 foundthat some 40% of the national cattle herd consisted of improved cattle. Private bull services aswell as marketing of improved heifers from surplus areas have also contributed to this(Ibrahim et al. 1999).

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Figure 4.1. Variations in total breedable cattle and total AI of cattle, Sri Lanka.

Figure 4.2. Variations in number of AI technicians over time, Sri Lanka.

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Urea Molasses Mineral Block (UMMB)

Dairy buffaloes and cattle in Sri Lanka have traditionally been reared on natural pastures andtree fodders that are available in the locality. The quantity and availability of these grasses andfodder vary widely from season to season. During the dry period, both the quantity and qualityof forages decline, and the feeds available for dairy animals are mature grasses and cropresidues such as straw, which are deficient in crude protein, soluble carbohydrates andminerals. They are low in digestibility and palatability. UMMB supplements provide nutrientsthat are deficient in poor-quality roughages. It helps create favorable conditions in the rumento enhance microbial fermentation. It thereby improves digestibility, intake and utilization offorages and crop residues as it acts as a catalyst to enhance microbial growth.

The importance of Urea Molasses Mineral Blocks (UMMB) is well recognized andproven at the field level, and there is an increasing, consistent demand for it. The majorproblems encountered at the field level were over-licking, biting and eating of blocks. A needwas felt for the cow to have UMMB throughout the day. However, it is impossible to practicethis under semi-intensive type of management, because the animals are grazing most of thetime. The Fodder Development Center is presently unable to continue the UMMBmanufacturing process, as they do not have funds from the provincial council, and also, it isdifficult to have a continuous supply of molasses. Organizations such as Cooperatives,Farmers’ Organizations and the private sector should undertake this operation and therequired publicity (Perera 1996, Siriwardana 2001, Subhasinghe 2001, Nettasinghe 2001). Toovercome the problem of continuous supply of molasses, a policy-level decision is required onthe issue of molasses to farmers’ organizations or registered companies, and the prices fixedbecause molasses are prone to large price fluctuations in a given year.

Urea treatment of straw

With the assistance of the extension officers of the National Livestock Development Board andMahaweli Authority, the Straw Utilization Project (SUP) launched its first attempt onextension of urea treatment of straw on a trial basis, at Malsiripura and Mahaweli “H ” areaamong farmers. A convenient and easy method of treatment of straw (4% urea) — the so-called ‘two pit-seven day system ’ — has been demonstrated and successfully adopted.

However, although many efforts were taken since then to popularize the technology, theadoption rate in the field level is very slow. Presently, this technique is practised only in large-scale livestock farms. Use of treated straw among small-scale and subsistence-level farmers isvery low. Lack of extension support, accidents due to urea, lack of water, high cost of treatmentof straw are the major constraints (Ibrahim & Schiere 1986; Ibrahim et al. 1986).

Rice bran

Sri Lanka is a rice-producing country and rice bran is the most widely used local feedingredient fed directly to all types of livestock in varying proportions in the rations(concentrate feed). Palipana and Swarnasiri (1985) determined the composition of bran fromthe milling of raw and parboiled rice of six varieties. Variety had a significant effect on thechemical composition. It is fairly balanced with regard to the amino acid composition. Thequality of the rice bran varied widely with the type of milling. Non-conventional type of mills

135

produce poor-quality bran containing a higher percentage of rice husk resulting in increasedcrude fiber content up to 20–30%, whereas semi-modern and modern mills produce rice branwith crude fiber levels of 14–15% and 7–8% respectively. Therefore, the use of bran informulation of rations (concentrate feed) has been a constraint due to high fiber content(Palipana 2000; Wickramaratne 1999).

Conclusion

There is a distinct pattern of regional specialization of livestock species and their outputsinfluenced by agro-ecological and socio-economic factors. Dairy farming is important in Zones4, 5, and 3, non-ruminants in Zones 2 and 3, and goats in Zones 1, 2 and 3. Indigenous cattleand buffalo are mainly found in Zones 1 and 6, and here meat production is more importantthan milk. Zones 1 and 6 account for the bulk of livestock population, but has poor livestock-related infrastructure facilities. The unexploited potential of livestock in this zone should betapped.Secondly, there is a wide variation in production systems from the backyard (extensivemanagement) to intensive stall-fed market-oriented systems requiring high inputs of labor andcapital. Between these two extremes, there are semi-intensive systems where a mixture ofboth is practised. Any intervention in the livestock sector has to keep these differences in theforefront for success of the intervention.

The dairy farmer in Sri Lanka primarily depends on pasture and fodder found on farm orfrom common property lands with limited areas under cultivated pasture and fodder. As moreand more land is used for crop production and for non-agricultural purposes, area undernatural pasture is decreasing. Therefore, the farmers have to depend more on fibrous feedstuffand crop residues. The nutritive value and the digestibility of these fibrous feedstuffs arerelatively low, compared with tropical grasses. To improve the nutritive value of rice straw,urea treatment of straw was promoted on a large scale. However, the adoption rate in the fieldlevel was very slow due to technological and socio-economic constraints. Presently thistechnique is practised only in large-scale livestock farms. Another technology was to provideall the requirements together through UMMB. At present, there is a growing demand forUMMB. To meet the demand, some commercial establishments have come forward toundertake production of UMMB. Farmer organizations in Uva and Southern province havealso expressed interest in manufacturing UMMB. Policies to encourage this industry need to beformulated. Since livestock are generally grazed during the day, an awareness program topromote night feeding with UMMB for dairy cows would be beneficial. Farmers expressedtheir willingness to buy UMMB at the milk-collecting center rather than at the Veterinaryoffice because they did not visit the veterinary officer regularly.

Rice bran is an important feed ingredient available locally. However, the quality ofavailable bran needs to be improved, by encouraging mill owners to replace outdated millingtechnology. Rice breeding programs can also contribute to improving the quality of the bran inrice through breeding for improved quality of bran—an aspect that has been totally neglected.

Due to strong Government support (tax concessions to feed industry, liberalized importsof feed ingredients, breeder material, etc.) the poultry sector has grown rapidly during the lastdecade and has established itself firmly in the country and is a significant avenue ofemployment for Sri Lankans. The private sector has entered the industry in a big way, and

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many new technologies in various activities have been adopted. This is reflected in thesignificant growth in the poultry sector compared with the stagnation in the milk and ruminantmeat sectors. The per capita availability of non-ruminant meat increased from 1kg/capita/annum in 1982 to 3 kg/capita/annum in 2000, compared with a near-stagnation of ruminantmeat at 2 kg/capita/annum. Although milk production increased, milk yields remainedstagnant in much of the country except in Zones 4 and 5. Infrastructure facilities like roads,verterinary institutions and dairy cooperatives significantly influence milk yields by facilitatingadoption of improved technologies.

In the bovine and ovine sector, adoption rate of technologies is marginal. Properunderstanding of the socio-economic constraints (land, labor and capital), increasing theprofitability of milk and meat production or reducing per unit cost of production throughimproved technologies will enable small farmers to adopt new technologies to increase theoverall productivity of the sector. The innovation rate of any new technology is determineddepending on the cost of technology and the margin of the output. In general, agriculture beingcrop dominated, livestock in most of the systems are given low priority. Strong governmentsupport is required for this sector to raise its contribution to the agriculture economy thatwould directly benefit the poor and small holders.

ReferencesAbeygunawardena, H. Charles Mya Sein and Epakande L. W. B. 1995. Reproduction status of artificialInsemination program, success rate and factors affecting fertility of artificially bred cattle. CeylonVeterinary Journal (Abstract). 42(2): 25–26.

DAPH (Department of Animal Production and Health Administration). 1998. Report of Department ofAnimal Production and Health (1989–1998). Gatabe, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.

Devendra C, Thomas D, Jabbar M and Zerbini E. 2000. Improvement of livestock production in crop-animal systems in agro-ecological zones of South Asia. Nairobi, Kenya: International Livestock ResearchInstitute (ILRI).

Herath, A. 2002. International trade agreements and the future of spice sector. Paper presented at theNational Workshop on High Quality Spice Products, 9 July 2003, Training Center, Department of ExportAgriculture, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Ibrahim MNM and Schiere JB.1986. Extension aspects of treatment application at farm level. Rice strawand related feeds in ruminant rations. Proceedings of an International Workshop, 24–28 March 1986,Kandy, Sri Lanka. 201–207 pp.

Ibrahim MNM, Schiere JB and Perera HGD. 1986. Effect of method of urea solution on the nutritivevalue of treated rice straw. Agricultural Wastes 18(3): 225–232.

Ibrahim MNM, Staal, SJ, Daniel SLA and Thorpe W. 1999. Appraisal of the Sri Lanka dairy sector.Volume 2. Main report. Department of Animal Science, University of Peradeniya; ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya:International Livestock Research Institute; and Colombo, Sri Lanka: Ministry of Livestock Developmentand Estate Infrastructure.

Kodituawaku AO. 1999. Crop-livestock systems in Sri Lanka. Pages 102 –106 in Proceedings of a PlanningWorkshop of Regional Stakeholders on Increasing Livestock Productivity in Mixed Crop-Livestock Systemsin South Asia. ICRISAT, India. Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India: International Crops ResearchInstitute for the Semi-Arid Tropics.

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Nettasinghe AMP. 2001. Experiences in use of UMMB in western province. In Workshop on Impact ofIntroduction Urea-Molasses-Mineral Blocks (UMMB) in Sri Lanka, 20 December 2001, Institute forContinuous Education, Department of Animal Production and Health, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.

Palipane KB. 2000. Paper presented at the rice symposium, 2000. Department of Agriculture,Gannoruwa, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.

Palipana KB and Swarnasiri CDP. 1985. Composition of raw and parboiled rice bran from common SriLankan varieties and from different types of rice mill. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 33:732–734.

Perera ANF. 1996. Urea molasses mineral blocks. Low cost feed for high milk production. EconomicReviews Sep-Oct 1996.

Siriwardana J and Ade S. 2001. Nutritional benefit in using Urea Molasses Mineral Block (UMMB). InWorkshop on Impact of Introduction Urea-Molasses-Mineral Blocks (UMMB) in Sri Lanka, 20 December2001, Institute for Continuous Education, Department of Animal Production and Health, Peradeniya, SriLanka.

Subasinghe DHA. 2001. Research experience on UMMB. In Workshop on Impact of Introduction Urea-Molasses-Mineral Blocks (UMMB) in Sri Lanka, 20 December 2001, Institute for Continuous Education,Department of Animal Production and Health, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.

Wickramaratne SHG. 1999. Terminal report submitted to CARP on characterization and economicevaluation of major pig farming systems in the coastal regions of Sri Lanka. Veterinary Research Institute(VRI), Peradaniya, Sri Lanka.

Wickramasinghe PJ, Abeysekera T, and Herath A. 2003. Agricultural diversification in Sri Lanka. Paperpresented at the International workshop on agricultural diversification and vertical integration in SouthAsia, 5–7 November 2003, New Delhi, India Jointly organized by ICRISAT, FICCI and IFPRI.

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Appendix table 4.1: Area under crops relative to total cropped area1 (%) in crop-typologyzones, 1998: Sri Lanka.

Zones Paddy Other Pulses Oilseeds Root Vegetable Spices Plantation Coconut 2cereals crops and fruits

–––––––––– 1998 ––––––––––

1 83.4 1.9 3.0 3.4 1.7 5.9 0.4 0.1 7.2

2 43.8 1.0 3.9 3.4 4.9 33.0 2.3 5.9 57.3

3 27.8 0.0 0.0 0.5 2.1 11.5 8.5 48.2 17.1

4 8.7 2.6 1.2 1.4 4.3 18.2 2.8 59.6 7.3

5 5.8 1.9 0.8 2.4 2.9 29.0 19.7 36.0 15.3

6 27.4 11.4 8.7 5.6 4.6 38.8 0.4 2.8 9.2

All zones 48.8 2.1 2.4 2.6 2.8 15.3 3.9 21.3 20.4

–––––––––– 1980 ––––––––––

1 72.0 2.6 4.4 9.2 3.6 7.5 0.4 0.1 9.8

2 58.6 1.6 7.2 7.1 7.2 13.0 0.4 3.2 50.6

3 32.6 0.1 2.0 0.7 3.6 6.3 4.6 48.1 14.0

4 20.1 3.9 1.7 2.1 4.9 12.1 1.2 53.1 4.8

5 25.0 3.5 0.7 3.4 2.5 12.6 4.1 46.6 7.2

6 62.4 6.3 3.7 7.3 5.5 14.2 0.1 0.2 5.9

All zones 45.6 2.4 3.3 4.8 4.3 9.9 2.0 26.6 19.0

1. Coconut area not included in total cropped area.2. Total cropped area with coconut area included.

139

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