CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Different researchers have conducted studies on
working and non-working women. Some have related it to role
perception, role playing, employment, education and other areas.
Locke and Mack (1949) conducted a study on marital
adjustment and employed wife and found that there was no
significance of difference between the marital adjustment of
working women engaged in full time employment and non-working
women engaged in full time home making.
- 2 0 -
Kala (1986) conducted a study on personality
development and adjustment of pre-adolescent children born to
working and non-working women and found that the girls of
working women were better adjusted at home than those of non
working group.
Sharma (1986) conducted a study on the children of
the working and non-working mothers. The results revealed that
the children of non-working mothers were excited, tender-hearted,
sensitive, dependent and more protected.
Sabhavathmma (1989) conducted a study on
educated working women and found that due to dual responsibility
married working women expressed that they faced difficulties in
meeting demands of both profession and family. There was a
clash of personal interests between the spouses, which had been
experienced by a majority of the respondents.
Hot Jujats (1990) conducted study on working
women’s perception on their self and environment in relation to
job and life satisfaction and found that women in skilled labour
-21 -
were found satisfied than women in semi-skilled and unskilled
jobs.
Vasti (1990) conducted a study on attitudes of women
towards women’s education and found that women of different
occupations, income groups, and age level had a favourable
attitude towards women’s education.
Dua (1991) conducted a study on adjustment familial role
expectations, and modernization of working and non-working
women and found that working women yielded significantly higher
mean values as compared to their non-working counter parts on
the variables of emotional adjustment.
Upmanyn Kalpana (1991) conducted a study of marital
adjustment of working and non-working women in relation to
certain socio-psychological variables and found that women in
Rajasthan had a more favourable attitude towards marriage as
compared to women of Uttar Pradesh.
Das, et. al (1992) conducted a study on need achievement
as related to type A/B behaviour patterns among working and
non-working women and found that there is no significant
- 2 2 -
difference between type “A” behaviour pattern of working and non
working women.
Over the past decade, an increasing number of women
have started working outside their homes. A number of studies
have considered several aspects of women workers: their
activities (i.e. Buttner, 2001 )3; career selection (Matthews and
Moser4, 1996; Scherer, Brodzinski and Weibe5, 1990); work-
’ Buttner, E. and D. Moore: 2001, Women's organizational exodus
to entrepreneurship: Self reported motivations and correlates with
success. Journal of Small Business Management, 35(1): 34-46.
Matthews, C. and S. Moser 1996. A Longitudinal Investigation
of the Impact of Family Background and Gender on Interest in Small
Firm Ownership. Journal of Small Business Management 34(2): 29-43.
' Scherer, R., J. Brodzinski and E. Wiebe. 1990. Entrepreneurship
Career Selection and Gender: A Socialization Approach. Journal of
Small Business Management 28(2), 37-44.
- 23 -
home, role conflict (Stoner, Hartman and Arora6, 1990); gender
and ownership patterns (Rosa and Hamilton7, 1994);
entrepreneurial attitudes and skills (Sexton and Bowman-Upton8,
1990); perceptions about work (Hisrich, Koiranen and Hyrski9,
' Stoner, C., R. Hartman and R. Arora. 1990. Work- home Role
Conflict in Female Owners of Small Businesses: An Exploratory Study.
Journal of Small Business Management 28(1), 30-38.
Rosa, P. and D. Hamilton. 1994. Gender and Ownership in UK
Small Firms. Entrepreneurship Theory & Practice 18(3), 11-28.
' Sexton, D. and N. Bowman-Upton. 1990. Female and Male
Entrepreneurs: Psychological Characteristics and Their Role in Gender-
related Discrimination. Journal of Business Venturing 5: 29-36.
'J Hisrich, R., M. Koiranen and K. Hyrsky. 1996. A Comparison of
Men and Women Entrepreneurs: A Cross-national Exploratory Study. In
P. Reynolds, S. Birley, P Davidsson, J. Butler, W Gartner, W Bygrave
and P. McDougall (eds.), Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research
(Babson College, Wellesley, MA), pp. 104-105.
- 2 4 -
1996); education (Dolinsky, Caputo, Parsumarty and Quazi10,
1993; Hisrich and Brush11, 1983); and networking patterns
(Aldrich, Reese and Dubini12, 1989; Andre13, 1992; Carsrud,
10 Dolinsky, A., R. Caputo, K. Parsumarty and H. Quazi. 1993.
The Effects of Education on Business Ownership: A Longitudinal Study
of Women, Entrepreneurship Theory & Practice 18(1): 43-54.
11 Hisrich, R. and C. Brush. 1983. The Woman Entrepreneur:
Implications of Family, Educational, and Occupational Experience, in J.
Hornaday, J. Timmons and K. Vesper (eds.), Frontiers of
Entrepreneurship Research (Babson College, Wellesley, MA), pp. 255-
270.
12 Aldrich, H., P Reese and P. Dubini. 1989, Women on the verge
of a breakthrough: Networking among entrepreneurs in the United
States and Italy. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development 1: 339-
356.
h Andre, R. 1992. Women's participation in networks of business
leaders. Journal of Small Business Management, 30(1): 66-73.
- 25 -
Gaglio and Olin14, 1986; Cromie and Birley15, 1992). The majority
of these studies compared male and female workers. While these
studies show the differences between working and non working
women, collectively they fail to clarify the unique dimensions of
women workers. The studies reviewed in this chapter are as
under:
14 Carsrud, A., C. Gaglio and K. Olm. 1986. Entrepreneurs -
Mentors, Networks, and Successful New Venture Development: An
Exploratory Study, in R. Ronstadt, J. Hornaday, R. Peterson and K.
Vesper (eds.), Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research (Babson College,
Wellesley, MA), pp. 229-235.
11 Cromie, S. and S. Birley. 1992. Networking by Female Business
Owners in Northern Ireland, Journal of Business Venturing 7: 237-251.
- 2 6 -
Lingam16 (2005) reviewed working and non-working women
over the past one and half decades with a focus on different
continents and different communities in diverse societies. The
literature showed a broad consensus regarding the determinants
of women's work, increase in women's public domain work as a
strategy for survival of households, the mutual accommodation of
markets and gender ideology in service of each other. The
stubbornness, with which gender division of work and gender
relations within households remains unchanging, is demonstrated
in most studies. A woman as resource for globalizing capital which
simultaneously incorporates women's work but also undermines
its significance was apparent through the literature.
When women began to make inroads into the
managerial and professional ranks in the mid-1960s, conventional
wisdom held that career success would bring with it a host of
16 Lingam . L. 2005. Structural Adjustment, Gender and
Household Survival Strategies: Review of Evidences and Concerns,
Center for the Education of Women, The University of Michigan, 330 E.
Liberty St. Ann Arbor, Ml 48104-2289, 734/998-7080,
http://www. cew. umich.edu
- 27 -
work-related health problems. Job stress, it maintained, would
leave women as ravaged by high blood pressure and heart
attacks as men. A new finding appears to put such concerns to
rest. North Carolina researchers have found no overall increase in
women’s blood pressure to go along with their increased presence
in the workplace. In fact, professional women enjoy lower blood
pressure than women who stay at home. “Basically, the theory
that job stress will make women as susceptible to cardiovascular
disease as men doesn’t bear out,” says study author Kathryn
Rose of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of
Public Health. Rose and her colleagues used data from the
National Health Examination Survey of 1960 and the National
Health and Nutrition Examination Survey of 1976 to 1980. In the
1960 study, 64 percent of the 2,500 women surveyed listed their
occupation as homemaker. Working white women filled
predominantly sales and clerical positions. Black women, who
reported higher employment rates, had largely domestic jobs.
Sixteen years later, 54 percent of the 3,800 women surveyed
worked, about one-quarter of them as managers and
professionals. This dramatic difference in employment patterns
led Rose’s team to compare blood pressure readings for the two
sets of women. In the 1960 survey, the researchers saw only a
- 2 8 -
very small trend toward higher blood pressure in working women.
In comparison, women in the later survey had lower overall blood
pressure, regardless of employment status. However, as Rose
reported at the annual meeting of the Society for Epidemiologic
Research in Snowbird, Utah, last week, the decrease was more
pronounced, at 23 percent, among working women than
nonworking women, who experienced a 4 percent decrease.
“Overall, the working women had lower blood pressures than
those who were not employed," says Rose. Seventeen percent
fewer working women suffered high blood pressure than women
who stayed at home.
Mubarak et. al (1991 )17 conducted a cross-sectional case-
control study comparing working women employed by the
Women's Work Centres of the Orangi Pilot Project with non
working matched controls. Differences in the knowledge, attitude
and practice of several variables were elicited. Working women's
h Mubarak, K. et.al .1991. Health, attitudes and beliefs of
working women, Soc Sci Med. PM ID: 2255961 [PubMed - indexed for
MEDLINE];31(9):1029-33.
- 2 9 -
families had significantly higher immunization rates, 73 per cent vs
55 per cent, and shorter duration of illness, 5.9 days vs 8.8 days,
compared to controls. More working than non-working women
supported contraception, 100 per cent vs 74 per cent, desired
equal education for sons and daughters (P less than 0.005), and
had a dominant role in family health decision-making, 48 per cent
vs 12 per cent. The study concluded that these working women in
Orangi had a different set of beliefs and practices than non
working women and this may be one important factor responsible
for the lower morbidity in their children.
Seachrist (1995)18 separated the women into two age
groups, 25 to 44 and 45 to 64. Among the older group, working
and nonworking women in the later survey registered lower blood
pressure than women in the earlier one. Looking at the younger
groups, the prevalence of hypertension had increased for stay-at-
home women in the second survey, High blood pressure
increased by 15.3 percent among young, nonworking black
women and by 1.7 percent among young, nonworking white
18 Seachrist. 1995. Blood pressure lower for working women.
Science News, July 1, Vol. 148 No. 1 p. 6A ! U . ' i o ! - ! ! j n r a r
women. The researcher questioned link between hypertension
and employment. The condition is far more closely related to
weight, high-sodium diets, and alcohol. Other studies show that
workers are healthier than non-workers. The study agrees that
higher blood pressure among the stay-at-home women may result
in part from the healthy worker effect—that is, health problems
may keep these women out of the workplace.
Rabbani (1999)19 proven through his study that risk and
benefits of having multiple roles, the emotional problems and
complaints of housewives are understandable. Their anxiety and
other emotional problems could be related to their monotonous
life, lack of independence and social support, a sense of insecurity
regarding marital life, etc. The most common contributory factors
which may lead to mental distress in non-working women are low
family income, dispute among spouses, verbal abuse by in-laws
and too many children. The objective of this study was to observe
the presence of anxiety in working and non-working women with
reference to their education, family system and the number of
their children.
19 Rabbani F. 1999. Views about women’ mental health: study in
squatter settlement of Karachi. J Pak Med /Assoc ; 49(6): 139-42.
- 31 -
Mukhopadhyay (2000)20 observed that the problems and
difficulties of working women are multidimensional and may be
broadly classified into three types - environmental, social and
psychological.
Ahmad (2002)21 analyzed research on the impact of work on
mothers' health in Tehran (Iran) within a role analytic framework.
A survey was conducted CTla representative sample of working
and non-working mothers in Tehran in 1998 (N = 1065, 710
working mothers, and 355 non-working mothers). Three main
explanatory factors were examined (socio-demographic, work and
work-related, and social-life context variables) alongside a range
of mental and physical health outcome variables. Unlike in the
West, where women's paid work was generally associated with
better health, statistically significant differences between working
and non-working women were not found in Tehran. It was argued
20 Mukhopadhyay S. 2000. Working status and stress of middle
class women of Calcutta. J Biosoc Sci ;(21):109-14.
21 Ahmad, N.S.2002. Women's work and health in Iran: a
comparison of working and non-working mothers, Soc Sci Med. PMID:
11999491 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE], Mar;54(5):753-65.
- 32 -
that this was a result of the counter-balance of the positive and
negative factors associated with paid work, such as increased
stress on one hand and self-esteem on the other. Iranian society's
particular socio-cultural climate had contributed to this finding,
with its dominant gender-role ideology; the priority and extra
weight placed on women's traditional roles as wives and mothers,
and the remarkably influential impact of husbands' attitudes on
women's health.
Lim, et.al. (2002)22 identified socio-demographic, work, living
arrangement and lifestyle factors associated with morbidity of
electronics women workers in selected factories in Selangor,
Malaysia. The research design was a cross-sectional
questionnaire-based survey. Most of the 401 respondents were
young single Malay women. Morbidity was high than non-working
women, as 85.5 per cent of the women reported experiencing at
22 Lim, H. M. et.al. 2002. Work and lifestyle factors associated
with morbidity of electronic women workers in Selangor, Malaysia, Asia
Pac J Public Health. PMID: 12862411 [PubMed - indexed for
MEDLINE];14(2):75-84.
-33 -
least one chronic health problem, and 25.7 per cent said that an
illness or injury prevented them from carrying out normal activities
within the last two weeks. Major acute illness symptoms were the
common cold, backache, and diarrhoea while chronic health
problems such as persistent headache, eye problems, menstrual
problems, and persistent backache were also reported. After
logistic regression, chronic health problems /V£L?Csignificantly
associated with room sharing; while illness that prevented normal
activities within the last two weeks was significantly associated
with overtime work and exercise.
Helmy and Ahmad (2002)23 presented self report measures
of health promotion activities and demographic variables of
working women and housewives. A sample of 516 female clients
(283 of housewives and 233 of working women) were chosen
from nine different out patient clinics offering health services to
■?J Helmy, F.E and Ahmad, M.H. 2002. Health promotion activities
among working and non-working adult women, J Egypt Public Health
Assoc. PMID: 17216971 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]; 77(3-4):429-
49.
- 34 -
women in Tanta city. Three structured questionnaire sheets were
used, namely: (1) Health promoting life style questionnaire
(HPLQ), (2) Health value scale (HVS), and (3) self-efficacy. The
results showed that a minority of housewives and working women
groups correctly tended to practice more'^health promotion
activities. However, the total mean scores of working women were
slightly higher (362.03 +/- 33.55 out of 522) than that among
housewives group (332.77 +/- 31.18). Multiple regression analysis
indicated a significant correlation between women scores
regarding most of the studied items related to self reported health
promotion activities and demographic variables. Higher education
(p = 0.004), family income (p = 0.005), and duration of marriage (p
= 0.031) were associated significantly with working women who
sought more health promotion activities, while education (p =
0.003) and family income (p = 0.028) were associated significantly
with housewives group. Finally, the present study proved that
work of women (p = 0.000) significantly related to the practice of
health promotion behaviours.
- 35 -
Thoits (2002)24 reported that traditional role theories suggest
that women who are trying to maintain several roles would be
expected to experience negative stressful feelings. In contrast,
more recent theories suggest that individuals may profit from
enacting multiple roles. Performing several roles may increase
individual’s privileges and resources in their social environment,
assist in establishing social and economic status and security, act
as a buffer for problems or families in any single life domain, and
enhance feelings of self-worth. Recent studies of the risk and
benefits of having multiple roles indicate that people who had
more social roles experience less psychological distress and
mental illness.
Linville (2003)25 observed that joining the business life
outside home is an extra burden for women who have already
z4 Thoits PA. 2002. Multiple identies and psychological well
being: A reformulation and test of the social isolation hypothesis. Am
Sociological Rev; 48:174-87.
2' Linville PW. 2003. Affective consequences of complexity
regarding the self and others. In MS Clark & ST Fiske (Eds.), Affect and
cognition: The seventeenth annual carnegie symposium on cognition
(pp 79-109), Hillsdale, NJ; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
- 36 -
been responsible for baby-sitting (child rearing) and other
household chores. From this aspect, working women are
expected to have more psychological symptoms. However, the
studies carried out in various countries show that it is not the
case. Working has a positive psychological influence on women
especially those from the lower socioeconomic class. In a
comparison of working and non-working women, the study
showed a positive statistically significant relationship between the
‘health score’ and ‘anxiety score’.
Harpham (2004)26 observed that majority of housewives
presented with anxiety had low education. Researchers have
already established the role of formal education in developing
psychiatric disorders. It has been observed that lack of formal
education is a major risk factor for developing psychiatric
disorders as it is felt that education provides coping mechanisms
in more than one way. It raises self-efficacy, makes us feel less
sensitively in situations and gives a greater sense of control over
2fi Harpham T. 2004. "Urbanization and mental health in
developing countries: a research role for social scientists, public health
professionals and social psychiatrists. Soc Sci Med; 39: 223-45.
- 37 -
environment. It is concluded from the study that non-working
women suffer more from anxiety as compared to working women.
The main contributory factors could be their low education, their
involvement in less number of roles, and their familial and social
status in general. It is suggested that women should be
encouraged to concentrate on enhancing their formal educational
level and should participate in more social roles to avoid the risk
of developing anxiety.
Iqbal et al. (2004)27 studies the presence of anxiety in
working and non-working women with reference to their
education, family system and the number of their children. A
purposive sample of 50 working women and 50 non-working
women was taken. Both groups were matched on their age,
education, occupation and socioeconomic background. Taylor
Manifest Anxiety Scale was administered on all women to assess
their anxiety. They were also interviewed to record the
Iqba, et. al. 2004. Anxiety In Non-Working Women With
Reference To Their Education, Family System And Number Of Children,
Pakistan Medical Journal of Sciences, Quarterly, Pak J Med Sci., 20(4),
Oct.-Dec., Professional Medical Publications 345-348.
- 38 -
demographic information. Anxiety was observed in 57 per cent of
sampled women; 74 per cent of non-working women and 36 per
cent of working women had anxiety. A statistically significant
association between anxiety in women and education and number
of their children was found. No significant association was
observed between women’ anxiety and their family system. It was
concluded that all non-working women should be supported
morally and socially to spare some time for their entertainment
and pleasurable activities outside homes to distract the monotony
of routine work.
Kekker, et. al (2007)28 studied the variation of the
menopause rating scale (MRS) scores with age, working/non
working and educated/uneducated status in a cohort of north-
Indian subpopulation and to look for the possible reasons for the
incurred variations. MRS is a well-known and validated instrument
' Kekker . K. et.al. 2007. Assessment of the variation in
menopausal symptoms with age, education and working/non-working
status in north-lndian sub population using menopause rating scale
(MRS), Maturitas. PMID: 17408889 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher],
Apr 2.
- 3 9 -
for assessing the frequency and intensity of menopausal
symptoms. A menopause clinic was organized in collaboration
with a primary care centre (under the guidance of a
gynaecologist). A random sample of 208 women aged 35-65
years participated in the study. The MRS scale, a self
administered standardized questionnaire was applied with
additional patient related information (age at menopause, level of
education, working/non-working and exercising or not). The
results were evaluated for psychological (P), somatic (S), and
urogenital (U) symptoms. The average age at which menopause
set in, in the cohort was found to be 48.7+/-2.3 years (46.4-51
years). Based on the average age at the menopause, the cohort
was divided into p ^ (35-45), menopausal/early menopause (46-
SI) and the postmenopausal (52-65) groups. A significantly higher
per cent of pj^.menopausal women (36 per cent) showed a P
score of >1=1 \ while a higher per cent of postmenopausal showed
S score and U score >1=7 (>40 per cent; p</=0.001). Working
women seem to suffer more from psychological symptoms
whereas non-working women showed a greater incidence of
somatic symptoms. Educated women showed a lower incidence
of psychological and somatic symptoms. The study indicated that
age, level of education and working/non-working status (in a
group of women with same socio-cultural background) may also
contribute to significant variations in menopausal symptoms.
Adjustments among Working and Non-
working Women
Collier (1990)29, Haddad (1991 )30, Palmer (1991 )31 and
Horton et al., (1991)32 studied working and non-working in relation
29 Collier, P., 1990, .The impact of adjustment on women., Chapter 8
of Social Dimensions of Adjustment: A Framework for Analysis, World
Bank.
30 Haddad, L., 1991, .Gender and adjustment: theory and
evidence to date., paper presented at the workshop on The Effects of
Policies and Programmes on Women, 16 January, 1992, International
Food Policy Research Institute.
31 Palmer, I., 1991, .Gender and population in the adjustment of
African economies: planning for change., Women, Work and
Development Series No 19, ILO.
32 Horton, S., Kanbur, R. and Mazumdar, D., 1991, .Labour
markets in an era of adjustment: an overview., Policy, Research and
-41 -
to their adjustment approaches. These studies did not view the
impact of adjustment on working women as necessarily negative.
This approach focused on women’s sectoral representation and
emphasised the constraints to women’s work. Constraints on
women’s flexibility hindered the success of adjustment in working
and non-working women. Typically, the constraints on women’s
work reallocation cited include labour market discrimination; lack
of education; limited access to credit or other inputs; and
reproductive responsibilities. Thus, the argument was that
countervailing policies are needed to facilitate the optimal
allocation of women’s work (from an efficiency perspective) under
adjustment
Demas (1990)33 identified diabetes as a source of
psychological stress among non-working women than working
women. Factors of stress were different for different occupations
and vary according to the women’s psychological maturity.
External Working Papers, No 694, Economic Development Institute, The
World Bank, Washington.
33 Demas, P. A. 1990. Diabetes as a source of stress. Diss. Abstr.
Int. B, 51(5): 2672.
- 4 2 -
Hirata and Humphrey (1990)34 found that economically
active women in Sao Paolo were three times as likely to be
unemployed as men (31 per cent versus 11 per cent), although
more skilled women were less likely to be unemployed. The
mean period of unemployment for women was also longer (11.6
months versus 8.2 or 8.8 months for men).
34 Hirata, H. and Humphrey, J., 1990, .Male and female workers
and economic recession in Brazil., (Version 3, July 1990), mimeo, paper
prepared for ICRW project: .Weathering economic crises: women’s
economic responses to recession in Latin America and the Caribbean.
- 43 -
Commonwealth Secretariat (199 1 35 and 199336)
disaggregated the impact of adjustment on women in terms of four
major roles (producers, mothers, household managers,
community organisers). Emphases on the pressures on women’s
time and energy, brought about under adjustment as they strive to
continue fulfilling these roles with reduced incomes and support.
Various strategies were detrimental to women or other household
members e.g. reduced feeding; withdrawal of girls from school,
and some were in the nature of collective self-help initiatives e.g.
communal kitchens; savings and loan associations, which were
deployed by women to deal with the effects of adjustment at
Commonwealth Secretariat, 1991, .Women and structural
adjustment: selected case studies commissioned for a Commonwealth
group of Experts, in Commonwealth Economic Papers No 22,
Commonwealth Secretariat, London.
36 Commonwealth Secretariat, 1993, .Mitigating the social costs of
adjustment: the vital role of transfers, safety nets and other social
provisions., paper for Commonwealth Secretariat Asian Regional
Seminar on Structural Adjustment, Economic Change and Women, 5-8
January.
- 4 4 -
household and community levels. Women’s involvement in
informal sector work increased, with a deterioration of the position
of women working in this sector. There was an increase in
women’s unpaid family labour in agriculture; and the small scale
of women’s independent operations (in agriculture and the
informal sector) limits their ability to take advantage of new
incentives. Joekes (1991a37, 1991b38 and 199339) found that the
female share of public service employment in developing
countries is stable or rising slowly. In Botswana, there was a
3/ Joekes, S., 1991a, .Kenya: report of an ILO exploratory
mission on women’s employment, with recommendations for follow up.,
September-October 1991, Policies and Programmes for Development
Branch, Employment and Development Department, International
Labour Office, Geneva
Jfl Joekes, S., 1991b, .Women and structural adjustment:
operational implications for the JCGP member agencies., (mimeo).
39 Joekes, S., 1993, .The influence of international trade
expansion on women’s work. Paper prepared for interdepartmental
project on equality for women in employment. International Labour
Organisation, Bridge Report No. 16, Sussex: BRIDGE. IDS.
- 45 -
dramatic rise in the share of female employment, although this
was probably one of the countries in sub-Saharan Africa least
affected by adjustment. Also, data from Kenya showed that
women’s share of public sector employment had increased
consistently over the period 1970-90, with a jump from 21 to 26
per cent between 1985 and 1990, whereas the female share of
private sector waged employment did not expand significantly
between 1985 and 1990 However, in Latin America, public sector
employment had only been affected by adjustment in the latter
half of the 1980s, and even in sub-Saharan Africa, retrenchment
(as opposed to freezes in recruitment or wages) had tended
to come later rather than earlier in the adjustment process.
Lockwood (1992)40 used data from 1960 to the early 1980s
to examine trends in female labour participation in manufacturing
and their association with adjustment patterns. He found that
developing countries which exported a rising proportion of their
manufacturing output to the North, tended to employ an increasing
40 Lockwood, M., 1992,. .Engendering adjustment or adjusting
gender: some new approaches to women and development in Africa.,
IDS Discussion Paper.
- 4 6 -
share of females in their manufacturing sectors. Of the 35
countries covered, over half increased the female intensity of their
manufacturing sectors in the period - although a number of
countries in Latin America showed falling female intensity in
manufacturing. He also found (although the association is
weaker) that countries with export-oriented manufacturing sectors
tended to have female intensive manufacturing sectors. These
findings cannot be directly related to the impact of adjustment,
although they would seem to suggest that, where increased
export-orientation follows devaluation and trade liberalization
under adjustment, it may lead to more female intensive
manufacturing.
Moser (1992)41 differentiated working and non-working
women’s responses to the pressures of adjustment within a low
income community in Guayaquil, Ecuador, and found that
factors such as the number of persons in the household in
productive work; the stage in the household life cycle and the
41 Moser, C., 1992, .Adjustment from below: low income women,
time and the triple role in Guayaquil, Ecuador, in Afshar and Dennis.
- 4 7 -
number of other females (particularly daughters) involved in
reproductive work, are important in determining which women
enter the work force. The study also reveal that women are
working longer hours than a decade previously in order to
maintain the same incomes, and beginning work earlier (in
relation to the age of their children).
Kanji and Jazdowska (1993)42 conducted a study on the
impact of adjustment on women in Zimbabwe in mid-1991 and
found that, in one particular district of Harare, the majority of
women surveyed were engaged in some form of informal sector
activity. Self-employment was also found to be highly gender
segregated, with men commonly working as taxi drivers,
whilst women worked mainly as seamstresses and knitters, and
selling agricultural produce. Gender differentials in earnings did
not appear to be particularly marked, with women’s earnings
averaging Z$740 compared to men’s of Z$760 per month;
however, most of the women who identified themselves as
housewives were in fact engaging in regular or irregular income-
42 Kanji, N. and Jazdowska, N., 1993, .Structural adjustment and
women in Zimbabwe, in Review of African Political Economy, No 56.
- 4 8 -
generating activities, with monthly incomes averaging Z$170
for regular activities and Z$44 for irregular ones. Six months later,
a small sample follow-up survey found that the incomes from
women’s cash generating activities had fallen, due to higher
outlay costs and lower demand; several women had given up their
activities because they could no longer afford the initial outlay.
Baden (1993)43 attempted to provide a framework for the
analysis of the impact of adjustment on women, including on their
paid and unpaid work. Overall, the assessment of these
studies was that the impact of adjustment on women,
particularly poor women, was negative. However, these paths
breaking works had tended to rely heavily on a priori arguments,
rather than rigorous empirical study. Moreover, little if any attempt
was made to distinguish the effects of recession or longer term
4j Baden, S. 1993. The impact of recession and structural
adjustment on women's work in selected developing countries, Report
prepared for the Interdepartmental Project on Equality for Women in
Employment, International Labour Office, Geneva, Institute of
Development Studies, Brighton.
- 4 9 -
trends from adjustment, overall assessments of the impact of
adjustment on women stress the intensification of the trade off
between women’s producer and non-producer roles, leading to a
squeeze on women’s time and energy, with women bearing the
hidden costs of adjustment. Other assessments focus on the
constraints to women’s labour mobility which may restrict their
ability to benefit from new opportunities. Adjustment policies
themselves may be worsening such constraints. Moreover, the
new opportunities were in reality very limited for the majority of
women.
Mostow (1995)44 compared housewives with a matched
group of working women and revealed some significant
differences in social functioning in relation to work roles. The
psychological benefits of outside employment have been widely
significant in relation to middle-class and upper-class women. This
44 Mastow, E. and Newberry, P. 1995. Work role and depression in
women: a comparison of workers and housewives in treatment, Am J
Orthopsychiatry. PMID: 1180337 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE],
Jul;45(4):538-48.
- 50 -
study indicates that, for women of lower socio-economic status,
work may also have a protective psychological effect. When a
working woman gets stressed out, many blame her job. But
women who stay at home are more likely to suffer anxiety and to
feel unhappy.
Florence (1996)45 stated that low income urban working
women in Nicaragua were constantly making adjustment to their
paid work as well as unpaid work in the home to absorb the
pressure of neo-liberal policies of the 1980s and 1990s. The
urban informal sector comprised of women who sold food, fruit,
vegetables, ice and drinks, run barbershops and carpenters’,
tailors’, and mechanics’ workshops often in the front parts of their
homes.
41 Florence, Babb E (1996): ‘After the Revolution: Neo-liberal
Policy and Gender in Nicaragua’; Latin American Perspectives, Vol. 23,
Issue 1, 1996, pp. 27-48.
- 51 -
Messias (1997)46 found that the engagement of non-working
women in less number of roles may also be a contributory factor
towards high adjustability in them, as they have to rely mainly on
their role as housewives for their identity and self-esteem.
Whereas, occupying multiple roles is thought to increase women’s
chances to learn, to develop self- efficacy and self-esteem, to
build social network and open access to informational,
instrumental and emotional support, and to buffer life’s stresses
and strains. Playing multiple roles also provides cognitive
cushioning and alternative sources of self-esteem and gratification
when things go poorly in one life domain.
Milkman (1997)47 investigated women’s paid and unpaid
work roles and the implications of this for their situation in the
current economic crisis and their adjustability. The widely
46 Messias Deanve K Hilfinger et at. 1997. "Defining and
redefining work: implications for women’s health. Gender and Society.
11:296.
47 Milkman. R. 1997. Women's Work and Economic Crisis: Some
Lessons of the Great Depression, Review of Radical Political
Economics, Vol. 8, No. 1, 71-97, DOI: 10.1177/048661347600800107
- 5 2 -
accepted notion that women form a "reserve army" which is
integrated into the labour market during periods of expansion and
expelled with contractions was criticized. While economic
expansion draws women into the labour force, it was argued, the
sexual segregation of occupations creates inflexibility in the labour
market which prevents their expulsion during a crisis of
contraction. Women's unpaid house hold work, however, is an
arena where they can be forced to "take up the slack" in the
economy during crises.
Mukhopodaya (1998)48 found that in India an increase in
female employment outside the home has occurred during the last
few decades, especially in urban areas. A working woman may
face difficulties in attempting to fulfil the demands of both worlds,
at home and outside, while a housewife may feel tired and irritated
with her household chores and financial dependence. All these
may cause stress for these groups of women. The present study
compares a group of working mothers with their non-working
4* Mukhopodaya, S. 1998. Working status and stress of middle
class women of Calcutta. PMID: 2925695 [PubMed - indexed for
MEDLINE], J Biosoc Sci. 1989 Jan;21(1):109-14.
- 53 -
counterparts with respect to their adjustability. The results show
that anxiety and health scores of the two groups of women are
similar. Further, the health score and anxiety score seem to be
correlated, more clearly among the working mothers.
Newberry, et. al. (1999)49 matched groups of working wives
and housewives drawn from a community sample which did not
differ on current and past adjustments and social functioning.
However, they did differ markedly on enjoyment in and
satisfaction from their work. The working women derived
considerably more satisfaction from their outside jobs than either
they or the housewives did from their work in the home.
49 Newberry. P. et.al. 1999. Working wives and housewives: do
they differ in mental status and social adjustment? Am J
Orthopsychiatry. PMID: 434122 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE],
Apr;49(2):282-91.
- 54 -
Griffin et.al. (2002)50 revealed that the main reasons of high
frequency of unadjustability in non-working women could be their
familial and social status, low control at home, low education and
their involvement in limited number of roles. Women in our society
have more household responsibilities, face domestic conflicts,
abusive relationships, and enjoy less privilege, less rights, less
social and economic freedom. They lack the ability to escape their
captors due to social and cultural pressures and rarely get an
opportunity for dissipating their stress. The fact, however, remains
that they face much-pronged problems stemming from socio
cultural values and traditions, illiteracy, political instability and the
erroneous interpretation of religion. Their housework is typically
associated with unpaid, obligatory work. This along with the lack
of benefits and positive knowledge, may contribute to a decrease
in mental well-being and an increase in anxiety, stress and
depression. All these stresses may cause low control at home,
M Griffin JM, Fuhser R, Stansfeld SA, Marmot M. 2002. "The
importance of low control at work and home on depression and anxiety:
do these effects vary by gender and social class." Soc Sc/ Med; 54 (5):
783-98.
- 5 5 -
which usually result in high anxiety in non-working women, Griffin
JM, et. al have also reported increased risk of developing
depression and unadjustability in women having low control at
home.
UNIFEM (2002)51 conducted a short-term study, solely
based on secondary data sources. It aimed at. assessing the
impact of economic liberalization on the textiles and food
processing industries in India and whether women workers have
been able to reap the benefits. These two sectors were selected
due to the large proportion of women employed in these
industries and because both industries have experienced
substantial export-led growth in the post-liberalization period.
The study found that although both the textiles and food
processing industries have experienced substantial export and
Jl UNIFEM . 2002, Gender Impact of WTO on Women’s
Livelihood in India: Women Workers in the Textiles and Food
Processing Industries, The study commissioned by the United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) and the United
Nations Children’s Fund (UNIFEM). Gender and Local Governance: It’s
Implications on Development. Centre for Social Research.
- 5 6 -
employment growth in the post-liberalization period, this does
not necessarily mean that there has been an improvement in
women’s wages or working conditions in these industries. It
found that the increasing mechanization of the textiles sector
could pose a particular threat to women’s jobs because women
tend to be employed in greater numbers in the more labour-
intensive processes. The study found that many of the jobs
created in the food processing sector were very casual in nature
and that woman workers are over-represented in part-time work
and in the unorganized sector. The case study conducted on the
marine processing industry illustrated that in spite of many
indicators of improvements in the employment situation in this
industry, the conditions of women workers are still very poor.
The study found that although there have been various policies
initiated by the government to promote exports, not many steps
have been taken to ensure that women workers in the sector
also reap the benefits of growth. It was recommended that while
formulating policies, the Government of India should give more
attention to the welfare of women workers in the industry.
- 5 7 -
Murry, et. al (2003)52 conducted a study on adjustability of
working and nonx working women. The purpose of this study was
to assess the impact of unemployment on the adjustability of
women in the context of massive unemployed women.
Comparisons were made between the level of mental distress
experienced by unemployed and employed women, in two areas
of Newfoundland, Canada that were affected by the northern cod
moratorium. In addition, the relationships between women's
mental distress and a number of variables were explored.
Questionnaires were administered to 112 unemployed and 112
employed women three years after the moratorium began. The
unemployed women reported significantly poorer mental well
being in the year prior to data collection. At the time of the study,
however, both groups of women were experiencing high levels of
distress. The moratorium, financial problems, and feelings of
uncertainty were identified as key stressors for all the women, but
12 Murry. C. L. et.al. 2003. A comparison of the mental health of
employed and unemployed women in the context of a massive layoff,
PMID: 12733553 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE, Women Health.
2003,37(2):55-72.
- 58 -
especially for those without work. Among the working women,
past experience with unemployment and level of education had
significant correlations with their mental well-being.
Blake (2004)53 put forth two ways to look at women and
work. One way supposes that women have a limited amount of
energy. Each role drains part of that energy, so the more women
do, the worse off women are. But the other way, which women’s
work supports, is that having more roles offers women more
opportunities to be challenged, to feel competent and to have their
work acknowledged. It also gives them more options, like having
more money to hire help, to lessen the burden of housework.
Filling more than one role also allows women to divide their
emotional eggs among several baskets. If something is going
poorly in one area, things are likely to be going better in another.
Stress doesn't seem to be related to how many roles a woman
takes on. Up to a point, the more roles, and the greater the self
esteem. It is the family role that gives women the most stress.
53 Blake. L. 2004. The stress of staying home - nonworking
women, Psychology Today. July-August. Sussex Publishers, Inc. Gale
Group.
- 5 9 -
Work is clearly not the culprit. Planning, child care and day-to-day
support systems are an important part of being a successful wife,
mother and career woman. It takes more than hard work and high
hopes.
Kumthekar (2004)54 revealed that self-concept is an
important indicator of personality. The working woman, being an
earner in the family, is easily accepted and respected. Hence, it
was thought that working women would have a more positive self-
concept as compared to non-working women. To assess this, a Q-
sort technique developed by Butler and Haigh (1954) was used for
137 working and 99 non-working, all graduate, middle-class,
married women in the age range of 25 to 45 years. However, it is
amazing to note that no significant difference between working
and non-working women was found. All women had a devaluated
self-concept. The study was also aimed to note the differences
among women working at different occupational levels. There is
also no significant difference in their self-concept. However, in
~4 Kumthekar. M. 2004. Women's Self-concept and Mental Health,
Journal of Health Management, Vol. 6, No. 2, 163-175(2004) DOI:
10.1177/097206340400600207. SAGE Publications.
- 6 0 -
item-wise analysis, more confidence, ambition and assertiveness
were seen in the case of working women as compared to non
working women.
Harshpinder and Aujla (2006)55 found that unfinished tasks,
compulsion of doing disliked activities, death of a close relative
and improper sleep were the common factors of stress in both
working and non working women. Working women were more
stressed due to factors viz. pleasing others, overburden of work
and non-allowance by family to take family decisions
independently. Non - working women were more stressed than
working women due to wrong working posture and her non
involvement in decision making by family. On an average,
working-women were experiencing more physiological and
psychological factors of stress.
Harshpinder and Aujla. P. 2006. Physiological and
Psychological Stressors among Working and Non Working Women, J.
Hum. Ecol., 20(2): 121-123. Kamla-Raj
-61 -
Hymowitz (2007)56 reported that women often are told that
all they need to do to advance to the top of companies is acquire
experience and show their competence. The researcher found
that women have great difficulty following the same career path as
men. The survey conducted on 2,500 working and non-working
women revealed that most working women take some time off
work or intentionally avoid advancing for a while so they have time
to care for children and elderly relatives. Getting back on the fast
track is difficult for them. The growing number of jobs that require
workweeks of 60-plus hours and 24/7 attention to clients, is
leaving women farther behind and costing business valuable
talent.
’6 Hymowitz . C. 2007. Why More Women Aren't At the Top of
Companies, The Wall Street Journal Online. Dow Jones & Company.
Carer Journal, com
- 62 -
Aspirations among Working and Non-working
Women
Fox and Faver (1991 )57 considered both meaning and
mediation factors in the achievement-aspiration relationship. In a
sample of graduate women students ("academic-career
aspirants"), the achievement- aspiration relationship varied with
type of academic achievement and professional aspirations, and
as it was mediated by women’s perceptions of their professional
roles and their faculty's support. Women's achievement-aspiration
conversion was different from, but not necessarily lower than, non
graduate non-working women. Rather, the strength and direction
of the relationship varied with aspiration type (traditional versus
alternative) and, to some extent, with specific types of academic
achievement. The mediators of the achievement-aspiration
relationship also vary by work conditions and aspiration type.
1 Fox.M. F. and Faver. C. A .1991. Achievement and Aspiration,
Patterns Among Male and Female Academic-Career Aspirants, Work
and Occupations, Vol. 8, No. 4, 439-463 (1981),
DOI:10.1177/073088848100800403, SAGE Publications.
-63 -
Women's aspirations for traditional career rewards were largely a
function of their perceptions of the structural availability of job
opportunity.
Carpenter and Western (1993)58 analysed working and non
working women within the context of the restructuring of higher
education and possible changing perceptions about the benefits of
higher education among those involved, the impact of selected
structural and social psychological variables upon the transition of
a group of young working and non-working women from Year 12
of high school to higher education and/or the workforce. The data
revealed that the transition from high school to tertiary education
was dependent upon social origins, prior school achievements and
aspirations as well as on the processes of interpersonal
encouragement and academic self-assessment of women. Such
dependence differs between the working and non-working women.
Specifically where educational aspirations were constant, social
58 Carpenter, P. and Western, J.1993. The Facilitation of
Attainment Aspirations, Journal of Sociology, Vol. 19, No. 2, 305-318,
DOI: 10.1177/144078338301900210, Australian Sociological
Association.
- 6 4 -
background was more important for working women than non
working women; while perceived encouragement from significant
others, academic self- assessment and academic achievement
were more important for women.
Reyes, O. et. al. (1999)59 revealed that distribution of jobs
remains vastly disproportionate, especially among women minority
groups. Women continue to be overrepresented in traditionally
female occupied jobs and underrepresented in high-status, high-
paying occupations. Literature on gender distribution of careers
and factors affecting career choice remains sparse where ethnic
minority females are concerned. The present study attempted to
fill this gap and focuses on adolescent females from Mexican
American backgrounds. Descriptive findings indicate the general
male dominance of females’ career aspirations. Compared to
females aspiring to highly female-dominated careers, females
aspiring to highly male-dominated careers were more
59 Reyes, O. et.al. 1999. Career Aspirations of Urban, Mexican
American Adolescent Females, Hispanic Journal of Behavioral
Sciences, Vol. 21, No. 3, 366-382, DOI: 10.1177/0739986399213010,
SAGE Publications.
- 6 5 -
acculturated, earned higher grade point averages (GPAs) and
higher achievement scores in science and social studies, and held
higher educational aspirations and expectations, and a greater
number of this group evidenced a clear understanding of the steps
needed to achieve career goals.
Seginer (2002)60 tested a four-step model consisting of
family background, perceived parental support and
demandingness, educational aspirations, and academic
achievement. The model was estimated on data collected from
working and non-working women (N = 686) growing up in two
cultural settings: transition to modernity (Israeli Arabs) and
Western (Israeli Jews). The results showed that family background
had direct and indirect effects on the academic achievement of
Arab but not Jewish women. The indirect family background-
academic achievement path showed working and non-working
differences only for the Arab women via educational aspirations
60 Seginer, R. 2002. Family Environment, Educational Aspirations,
and Academic Achievement in Two Cultural Settings, Journal of Cross-
Cultural Psychology, Vol. 33, No. 6, 540-558, DOI:
10.1177/00220022102238268, SAGE Publications.
- 6 6 -
for girls and parental demandingness for boys, and parental
demandingness was directly related to academic achievement of
women. The study also explained ethnic and gender differences in
terms of demographic and socio-cultural conditions.
Behnke, et. al. (2004)61 conducted an in-depth interviews of
10 rural Latino family triads and investigated the educational and
occupational aspirations of working and non-working women, and
factors affecting those aspirations. Using a content analysis of the
interview scripts, several themes emerged that described their
families’ experiences. In some instances, Latino women
aspirations were found to transfer to their work. However, only one
half of the women were aware of their career’s aspirations. Non
working women articulated several barriers to achieving higher
educational or occupational aspirations. Implications for
programmatic initiatives and research are delineated.
61 Behnke, A. et.al. 2004. Educational and Occupational
Aspirations of Latino Youth and Their Parents, Hispanic Journal of
Behavioural Sciences, Vol. 26, No. 1, 16-35 , DOI:
10.1177/0739986303262329, SAGE Publications.
- 6 7 -
Gasser. et. al (2004)62 examined how a different model of
personality beyond the Big Five and interest are predictive of an
important criterion variable, i.e. aspirations. This is the first study
to investigate personality-interest convergence by examining the
newly revised 2003 California Psychological Inventory with the
1994 Strong Interest Inventory. In general, the researchers found
that those personality scales and interest scales that were more
related or applicable to educational aspirations of working and
non-workingwomen, were moderately correlated with level of
educational aspirations. Also, hierarchical regression results show
that specific dimensions of personality and interests are related to
women’s plans for future work. The study found that components
of working and non-working women’s personality and interest may
relate to aspiring to higher levels of education.
62 Gasser. C, et.al. 2004. Contributions of Personality and
Interests to Explaining the Educational Aspirations of College Students,
Journal of Career Assessment, Vol. 12, No. 4, 347-365, DOI:
10.1177/1069072704266644, SAGE Publications.
- 68 -
McElroy et. al. (2005)63 used longitudinal data collected over
a twenty-year period to explore whether college-educated women
workers were different early in their lives from other women. Early
differences would offer evidence that woman workers are led to
self-employment by their inherent virtues or by their specific
talents or interests. Lack of early differences would lend credence
to the notion that woman workers are led to self-employment by
other factors. The study suggests that women’s status as workers
is at least as much the result of life circumstances as the
completion of long-term goals. Early in their careers, some women
appear to make career and self-employment decisions much as
men do. However, when children enter the picture, some women
begin to re-consider the balance between their commitment to
work ideals and their commitment to traditional gender roles when
making self-employment decisions. Even today, for many women,
family needs trump career aspirations, and the career paths they
follow are determined, at least while children remain at home, by
63 McElroy, et. Al. 2005. A Longitudinal Analysis Of College-
Educated Women's Self-Employment Decisions, Susquehanna
University's Sigmund Weis School of Business.
69-
practical considerations rather than ideology. Some would prefer
to be take tradition jobs because they offer more security, and
some who would prefer to be employees or choose self-
employment because it gives them the flexibility to continue
working and earning money while offering them more control. The
study provides useful insights regarding the employment choices
of women.
Lallukka, et. al. (2006)64 examined whether psychosocial
working conditions and aspirations are associated working and
non-working women. Data were derived from postal
questionnaires filled in by 40- to 60-year-old women employed by
the City of Helsinki, Finland, in 2000 to 2002 (n = 7093, response
rate 67 per cent). Aspiration symptoms were measured by the
Rose Questionnaire. Logistic regression analyses were carried
out. Independent variables consisted of Karasek’s job demands
and job control, work fatigue, working overtime, work-related
mental and physical strain, the work-home interface, and social
64 Lallukka. T. et. al. 2006. Associations Between Working
Conditions and Angina Pectoris Symptoms Among Employed Women,
Psychosomatic Medicine, American Psychosomatic Society 68:348-354.
- 7 0 -
support, adjusted for age. Confounding effects of socioeconomic
status, health behaviours (smoking, binge drinking, body mass
index), and menopause were also examined. Pregnant women
were excluded. High aspiration symptoms were reported by 6 per
cent of participants. Work fatigue was strongly associated with
aspiration. In addition, working overtime, low job control, and high
physical strain at work were associated with aspiration. The
associations between psychosocial working conditions and
aspiration were unaffected by health behaviours, socioeconomic
status, or menopause.
Marital Relations and Children’s Care by
Working and Non-working Women
Mubarak, et. al. (1990)65 conducted a cross-sectional case-
control study comparing working women employed by the
Women’s Work Centres of the Orangi Pilot Project with non
working matched controls. Differences in the knowledge, attitude
and practice of several variables were elicited. Working women's
r':' Mubarak.K. et.al. 1990. Health, attitudes and beliefs of working
women, PubMed, Soc Sci Med. Ohio State University, Columbus ,
1990,31 (9):1029-33.
- 71 -
families had significantly higher immunization rates, 73 per cent vs
55 per cent, and shorter duration of illness, 5.9 days vs 8.8 days,
compared to controls. More working than non-working women
supported contraception, 100 per cent vs 74 per cent, desired
equal education for sons and daughters (P less than 0.005), and
had a dominant role in family health decision-making, 48 per cent
vs 12 per cent. We conclude that these working women in Orangi
have a different set of beliefs and practices than non-working
women and this may be one important factor responsible for the
lower morbidity in their children.
Chant (1994)66 identified the activities like income
generation by working women and domestic activities by non
working women, as household survival strategies in the towns of
Mexico and Costa Rica. The study showed that working women
have to substitute for the lack of civic amenities and labour-saving
household gadgets with their own labour power. Very often,
66 Chant, Sylvia (1994): ‘Women and Poverty in Urban Latin
America: Mexican and Costa Rican Experiences' in Meer Fatima (ed.),
Poverty in the 1990s: The Responses of Urban Women, UNESCO and
International Social Science Council, Paris, pp 87-115.
- 72 -
undertaking income-generating work implies an added burden for
women. Outside work usually involved preparing and selling food
and food-related things and offering domestic services. For many
women home-based activity was their only option especially if
they have young children and no child care support.
Langermyre (1997)67 investigated the possible effects of
maternal employment on children. Whereas 30 years ago
especially behaviour disorders were found to be correlating, today
the situation is more differentiate. Results suggest that the effects
of maternal employment have changed the years. The effects
depend on the degree of the mother's satisfaction with her work,
the sex of the children, social class, children's age, residential
area, substitute care, the possibility to conciliate working and
67 Langermyre . A. 1997. Working mothers and their significance
for the children from the viewpoint of clinical psychology, Z Klin Psychol
Psychopathol Psych other. PMID: 3330372 [PubMed - indexed for
MEDLINE];35(4):334-43.
- 7 3 -
private needs as well as the attitude of society regarding working
mothers. The part of the father in this connection is controversial.
Lately unconscious motives of working (e.g. career drive resulting
from early familial conflicts, marriage problems) or non-working
(e.g. fear of occupational conflicts) mothers are regarded more
intensively. Correlations are especially found to sex role
understanding of the children, as well as to intellectual
development and emotional stability dependent on further factors.
Andrade, et. al (19 99)68 observed that in urban India,
working women were expected to continue to discharge their
traditional domestic duties; the likely result was compromised
well-being due to role strain. Husbands of working women may
also experience pressures and hence poorer well-being. Well
being in working couples, particularly husbands, was little
researched in developing countries. The Subjective Well-Being
Inventory was administered to 46 'one-working, (only husband
employed) and 51 'both-working' (both spouses employed)
“ Andrade, C. et.al .1999. Influence of women's work status on
the well-being of Indian couples, Int J Soc Psychiatry. PM ID: 10443250
[PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE], Spring; 45(1):65-75.
- 74-
randomly selected urban, middle-class couples. In one-working as
well as both-working families, wives experienced less well-being
than their husbands. Working wives experienced more confidence
in coping than non-working wives. Husbands in both-working
families experienced better social support but less social contact,
less mental mastery, and poorer perceived health than husbands
in one-working families. Few or no socio-demographic variables
were associated with well-being. Employment may benefit women
but stress their husbands.
Hussain and Smith (1999)69 studied the relationship
between maternal work status, other socio-economic factors, and
incidence of diarrhoea among children using the Bangladesh
Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) 1994 data. This study
showed that 12.4 per cent of children had suffered from diarrhoea
in the two weeks preceding the survey. Of the women in the
sample, 12 per cent were working. Logistic regression analysis
69 Hussain, T. M., and Smith, J. F.1999. The relationship between
maternal work and other socioeconomic factors and child health in
Bangladesh, Public Health. PMID: 10637523 [PubMed - indexed for
MEDLINE], Nov;113(6):299-302.
- 75 -
revealed that children of working mothers were 65 per cent more
likely to have had diarrhoea than children of non-working mothers.
The study also found that children of women who work seasonally
were 8 per cent less likely to have had diarrhoea than children of
women who work all year. Women's higher education was found
to be one of the important determinants related to childhood
diarrhoea. Religion and ownership of land also appeared to be
important factors affecting the incidence of diarrhoea in early
childhood.
Nathawat and Mathur (1999)70 and Rani and Yadav (2000)71
put forth anecdotal evidence that housewives frequently complain
about the monotony of their lives. They feel that they have to look
after children and do the housework and they do not have time for
Nathawat S. S, Mathur A.1999. "Marital adjustment and
subjective well-being in Indian educated housewives and working
women." J Psychol; 127(3): 353-8.
71 Rani G & Yadav A. 2000. Anxiety level among working women.
Jour Personality & Clinical Studies, 16(1): 63-7.
- 76 -
themselves. Compared to the working women their social
environment is limited. Their husbands are the only ones to
appreciate their intense efforts they make for their homes. A
woman, for instance, with six children and a husband, and with no
help from others and no money for the most costly labour-saving
devices, simply can not organize her necessary duties so that she
will have leisure for pleasures and activities outside the daily
routine. In such a house the most modest requirements for food,
shelter, and clothing become a driving force that pushes aside
relentlessly any irrelevant longing. The working women, however,
have the chance of being appreciated by the society and behave
independently and earn money. On the other hand, many working
women find that children provide a common focus of interest for
them and their husbands and many of them feel that the time
devoted to children resulted in less sharing and companionship
and less spontaneity in marital relationship.
Nakahara et.al (2006)72 observed that in many developing
countries, poor women have multiple roles, and often their time
2 Nakahara, S. et.al, 2006. Availability of childcare support and
nutritional status of children of non-working and working mothers in
- 77 -
constraints are so severe that their participation in income-
generating activities results in reduced childcare time, which in
turn affects child health. The study investigated how childcare
support influences nutrition of children with working mothers'
based on comparisons with non-working mothers. However, non
working mothers are not a homogeneous group, and we therefore
need to distinguish between those who need not work and those
who wish to but cannot, for example, due to a lack of substitute
caregivers. The researcher examined the association between
availability of childcare support and the nutritional status of
children of both non-working and working mothers in poor areas of
Pokhara, a sub-metropolitan city in Nepal. The sample comprised
150 children of age 10-24 months from the waiting lists of 17 day
care centres and measured their weights and heights. Those with
height-for-age and weight-for-age Z scores of less than -2 were
defined as stunted and underweight, respectively. To collect
information on childcare practices and socioeconomic
characteristics, mothers were interviewed using a pre-tested
structured questionnaire. Unavailability of adult childcare support
urban Nepal, Am J Hum Biol. PMID: 16493631 [PubMed - indexed for
MEDLINE], Mar-Apr;18(2): 169-81
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height-for-age and weight-for-age Z scores of less than -2 were
defined as stunted and underweight, respectively. To collect
information on childcare practices and socioeconomic
characteristics, mothers were interviewed using a pre-tested
structured questionnaire. Unavailability of adult childcare support
was associated with increased risk of malnutrition among children
of both non-working and working mothers. Peer childcare was not
significantly associated with child malnutrition among children of
non-working mothers, but it was associated with an increased risk
of malnutrition among children of working mothers. The study
suggested that childcare support from adult substitute caregivers
is essential for children of non-working mothers with limited
resources.
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