Century of Progress ASTM

A S T M

1898-1998

A Century

of Progress

his book is dedicated to

the many thousands of

ASTM members who, over

the past century, have

developed the standards

that improve the quality

of our lives.

T

Early StandardsDevelopment and theOrigins of ASTM

A Broader

physicalcharacteris-tics. The federal governmentalso asked thesteel makers to take a sample from each steel batchwhich was then subjected to a few simple tests determining its tensile strength and elasticity. To perform quality checks, American steel companiesused new testing equipment such as the Riehle steeltester or a version of Tinius Olsens Little Giant,which were used to determine tensile strength.

RESISTANCE TO STANDARDSProgress was nevertheless slow. Suppliers in manyindustries such as construction and metallurgyobjected to standard material specifications and test-ing procedures because they feared that strict qualitycontrols would make customers more inclined toreject items and default on contracts. Even in iron andsteel, where quality definitions and standards madegreater headway than in other industries, materialspecifications remained controversial. The ones thatexisted were highly customized and applied only to aspecific order. Industrywide standard specificationswere unheard of, making life difficult for large buy-ers. Without standard specifications, and with eachmill following its own material testing procedures,buyers of industrial products were unable to ensureuniformity and frequently found reason to complainabout the uneven quality of steel rails for railroads.

The Pennsylvania Railroad, the largest corporation ofthe 19th century, played a key role in the quest forstandard specifications. Its efforts in this field wereinitiated by Charles Dudley, who received his Ph.D.

A. The Tinius Olsen autographic testing machine provided for the firsttime a permanent, easily interpreted record of test results from the start

of each test to the end.

B. Charles Benjamin Dudley, 1842-1909.

STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS: A NOVELTY INAMERICAN INDUSTRYOne of the first materials specifications is found in theBook of Genesis: Make thee an ark of gopher wood;rooms shalt thou make in the ark, and shalt pitch itwithin and without with pitch. Prior to the 19th cen-tury industrial revolution, craftsmen told their suppli-ers in similarly basic language what kinds of materialsthey desired. Shipwrights preparing to build a sturdyvessel usually ordered live oak, the toughest hard-wood available in Europe and North America, ratherthan softer white oak, because they knew from expe-rience that live oak was more durable. Craft experi-ence was indeed key because artisans had no instru-ments to measure the tensile strength, chemical com-position, and other characteristics of a given material.

The industrial revolution opened a new chapter in thehistory of material specifications. Locomotive builders,steel rail producers, and steam engine builders whoused revolutionary new materials such as Bessemer steel could no longer rely on craft experiences of centuries past. The new materials andtechniques invented during this period required newtechnical expertise. Moreover, manufacturers encoun-tered numerous quality problems in end productssuch as steel rails because suppliers furnished inferiormaterials. American rails were so poorly-made, in fact, that many railroad companies preferred Britishimports, which were moreexpensive but reliable.

To avoid such prob-lems, some manu-facturers issueddetailed descriptionsof material to ensurethat their supplies metcertain quality standards.For example, when a fed-eral arsenal ordered gun steelfrom a steel mill, the contract included several pagesof specifications detailing chemical composition and

View

A

B

29

1898

A-1 on Steel, Stainless Steel, and Related Alloys

1902

C-1 on Cement

1902

B-2 on Nonferrous Metals and Alloys

1902

D-1 on Paint and Related Coatings, Materials, andApplications

1903

A-6 on Magnetic Properties

1903

D-4 on Road and Paving Materials

30 A Broader View

A. The struggles between early steel makers and corporate consumersover the quality of steel led Charles Dudley to champion the need forstandard material specifications. Photo credit: American Iron and SteelInstitute; Historical File

B. Meeting of the Section on Alloy Steel Forgings of Committee A-1

from Yale University in 1874, and who later becamethe driving force behind ASTM. Dudley organized therailroads new chemistry department, where he inves-tigated the technical properties of oil, paint, steel, andother materials the Pennsylvania Railroad bought inlarge quantities. Based on his research, Dudley issuedstandard material specifications for the companyssuppliers.

Dudley soon realized that he had taken on a formidable task. In 1878, he published his first majorreport, The Chemical Composition and PhysicalProperties of Steel Rails, in which he analyzed thedurability of different types of steel rails. It concludedthat mild steel produced a longer-lasting rail thanhard steel, and Dudley recommended an improvedformula for mild steel for rails to be used by the

Pennsylvania. Hisreport raised afirestorm amongsteel masters, who disputed itsfindings. Theapplication ofDudleys new formula, theycharged, producedunnecessaryexpenses thatincreased produc-

tion costs. Steel producers, determined to keep fullcontrol over output and quality control, viewed standard specifications issued by their customers asunacceptable meddling. Dudley later reported thatsteel companies often told the railroads that if theydid not take the rails offered [by the manufacturers],they would not get any.

The disappointing response to his first report reinforced Dudleys resolve to initiate a constructivedialogue between suppliers and their customers. Eachparty had much to learn from the other. Steel makersknew more about practical production issues and theindustrys cost structure than their customers, whilerailroads, locomotive builders, and other users of steel products had better knowledge of amaterials long-term performance, knowledge thatcould help manufacturers improve the quality of rails,plates, and beams. Dudley concluded that a goodspecification needs both the knowledge of the products behavior during manufacture andknowledge of those who know its behavior while in service.

The introduction of more powerful locomotives,heavier rolling stock, and longer trains gave buyersan additional incentive to work more closely withtheir suppliers. Statistics compiled by railroad engi-neers indicated that the average wheel load of carsincreased 75%, and traffic volume rose more than300% during the late 19th century. Rail manufacturersneeded this kind of data to supply steel that conformed to higher performance standards. But the lack of cooperation between producers and usersof steel rails was an enormous detriment to suchimprovements.

THE BIRTH OFCONSENSUSDudleys efforts to find a solution to these seemingly intractableproblems facilitated theformation of ASTM,which was committed to building a consensus onstandards for industrialmaterials. The foundingof the organization in 1898 was preceded by severalkey initiatives that laid the groundwork.

A

B

Dudley, whose experiences during the 1880s gavehim a better picture of the antagonistic attitudes thatmarred relationships between the PennsylvaniaRailroad and its suppliers, proposed aninnovativesystem oftechnicalcommittees.These committees provided represen-tatives of the main partieswith a forum to discuss every aspect of specificationsand testing procedures for a given material. The goalwas to reach a consensus that was acceptable to bothproducers and to the customer, i.e., the railroad.Although many initial meetings ended in failure dueto the inflexibility of the parties involved, Dudleyssystem held considerable promise and later formedthe basis for ASTMs committee structure.

Dudleys call for consensus building, which he articulated in meetings of the American ChemicalSociety and the International Railway Congress, fellon fertile ground in the engineering community. His ideas contributed to the formation of theInternational Association for Testing Materials (IATM),which organized working committees to discuss testing methods for iron, steel, and other materials. In its by-laws, the organization dedicated itself to thedevelopment and unification of standard methods of testing; the examination of technicallyimportant properties of materials of construction andother materials of practical value, and also to the perfection of apparatus used for this purpose.

The International Association encouraged members toform national chapters. On June 16, 1898, seventyIATM members met in Philadelphia to form theAmerican Section of the International Association forTesting Materials. The members grappled with twoquestions that were widely discussed throughout the

A Broader View 31

A. Critical to commerce at the turn of the century, railroads and the materials upon which they relied sparked the

beginnings of ASTM. Photo credit: Library of Congress, Prints and PhotographsDivision, Detroit Publishing Company.

B. The first specification on carbon steel rails was published in 1901. This is the draft proposal of that specification which

was circulated when the organization was the American Section of theInternational Association for Testing Materials.

engineering community at the turn of the century.First, how could standards for materials contribute to industrial progress? And second, how could producers and users of industrial materials reach aconsensus on standards? ASTMs early history was in large part a quest to find answers to these pivotalquestions.

The American Sections first technical committee onsteel initiated a series of discussions of testing andmaterial standards for the railroad industry, wheremost of its members were employed. During the firsttwo years, the committee drafted specifications forsteel used in buildings, boiler plate, and bridges. Oneof the first standard specifications in the history of theorganization, Structural Steel for Bridges, wasapproved by thecommittee andsubmitted to allmembers for a finalballot vote at theannual meeting in1901.

This specification,like its successors,was not set instone. The organi-zation acknowl-edged that it isthoroughly appre-ciated that in therapid advancesmade in theprocess of manu-facture, and the increased demands made by the

1904

E-5 on Fire Standards

1904

D-5 onCoal and Coke

1904

D-2 on Petroleum Products andLubricants

1904

C-4 on Vitrified Clay Pipe

1904

D-7 on Wood

1905

D-8 on Roofing,Waterproofing, and BituminousMaterials

B

A

32 A Broader View

A. ASTM charter incorporating the American Society for TestingMaterials in 1902.

B. A turn of the century 60-inch black iron culvert.

Engineers in their Specifications, that no StandardSpecification can be in force for a long time. It will ofnecessity have to be modified from time to time.Indeed, the above mentioned steel standard, whichwas later classified as ASTMs Standard SpecificationA 7, soon underwent a series of thorough revisions. Itwas widely used by large engineering companies thatordered steel for bridge construction projects duringthe 1920s and 1930s. The standard finally was discontinued after a long and useful life in 1967,when Committee A-1 reported that almost no struc-tural steelshapeshave beenpurchasedto A 7 forsometime.

The steelcommit-tees earlyworkattracted wide-spreadattentionin theengineer-ing com-munityandhelped the American Section increase its membershipfrom 70 to 168 during its first three years. But theorganizations plan to increase membership on thesteel committee was vetoed by the InternationalAssociation, which was determined to maintainextensive control of its national chapters and restrict committee memberships. The resulting

conflict,combinedwith otherdisagree-ments,convincedDudleyand otherAmericanmembersthat theyhad to strike out on their own. At the fifth annualmeeting of the American Section in 1902, theyrenamed the organization the American Society forTesting Materials and elected Dudley as its first president.

ASTM developed what Dudley called a broaderview of standards issues than the InternationalAssociation for Testing Materials. IATM educated itsmembers on testing procedures and the technicalproperties of a given material, but left the actual writing of standard specifications to unaffiliated engineers societies. ASTM, in Dudleys words,intended to go a step farther, and [put] its accumu-lated information with its recommendations into definite and serviceable shape. As the steel committees early work indicated, ASTM wanted towrite standard specifications that were directly applic-able in production processes.

ASTM was not the only organization dedicated tostandards development. Well-established technicalassociations, including the American Society of CivilEngineers and the American Society of MechanicalEngineers, formed technical committees that draftedstandard specifications for the iron and steel industry.The federal government, responding to the pressingneed for standards in many industries, established theNational Bureau of Standards (NBS) in 1901.Manufacturers and engineers, however, resisted NBSsplans to duplicate European practices in which gov-ernment standard bureaus had authority to write

1906

A-5 on Metallic -Coated Iron and Steel Products

1909

D-9 on Electrical and ElectronicInsulating Materials

1909

B-1 on Electrical Conductors

1912

D-11 on Rubber

1912

C-7 on Lime

1914

C-8 on Refractories

A

B

A Broader View 33

A. Procedures Governing the Adoption of Standard Specifications(1908)

specifications and force industry to adopt them. Theresult was a uniquely American system in which professional organizations such as ASTM played a keyrole in voluntary standards development.

During the early years, ASTM refined its consensus-building process.The key was balanced representation of producersand users of materials in technical committees. To allayold fears that producers woulddominate the standard-settingprocess, ASTMs rules stipulated that supplier representatives on a givencommittee could not outnumber the representativesof buyers, and that supplierrepresentatives could not serveas committee chairmen.Moreover, the ProceduresGoverning the Adoption ofStandard Specifications adopted in 1908, requiredthat once technical committee members had drafted aspecification, a two-thirds majority was necessary torefer it to ASTMs annual meeting for consideration.At the annual meeting, a simple majority of memberscould amend the specification, which was finally pre-sented to the meeting for a ballot vote. Negative votescarried considerable weight and were referred to thecommittee, whose members discussed them and triedto resolve differences. Negative votes that remainedunreconciled could be overruled by the committeefor good cause. This basic structure of checks andbalances, designed to ensure fairness in the stan-dards-setting process, proved highly effective andremains essentially in place to this day.

Most members of ASTMs technical committees werescientists and engineers who were employed by someof the nations leading industrial enterprises and thefederal government. A-1 on Steel, which togetherwith its subcommittees remained ASTMs

core committee for decades, included metallurgists,chemists, railroad engineers, and naval architects. Theproducer side was represented by the industrygiantsU. S. Steel, Bethlehem, and Midvaleandsmaller specialty firms such as Jones & Laughlin, thena proprietary steel company in Pittsburgh that later

joined the ranks of thenations leading steelproducers. They werejoined by a second group, variablycategorized as non-producers andconsumers (the latterterm usually meantend user, not consumer in ourcontemporary sense ofthe word) that purchased a givenmaterial. On the A-1committee, theyincluded engineers

and scientists who represented the New York CentralRailroad, General Electric, the U. S. Navys Bureau ofSteam Engineering, and other steel consumers.

EXPANDING THE SCOPE OF ASTMAfter the turn of the century, ASTM formed severalnew committees that expanded the organizationsscope beyond the steel industry and responded tothe growing need for standards in many areas.Committee C-1 on Cement, Lime and Clay Products,for example, founded in 1902, played a key role instandardizing test methods in the cement and concrete sector.

The American cement industry, which traces its origins to the 1870s when David Saylor received the

1914

D-13 on Textiles

1914

C-9 on Concrete and Concrete Aggregates

1914

D-10 on Packaging

1915

C-11 on Gypsum and Related Building Materials and Systems

1916

E-4 on Metallography

1925

B-4 on Materials forThermostats,Electrical Heating and Resistance, and Contacts and Connectors

A

1910, when it introduced ayearbook which laterbecame the world-renowned AnnualBook of ASTMStandards. This publication constituted a majorimprovement; eachvolume made theentire set of existing,revised, and newASTM standard specifications available to members on an annualbasis. Membership rose to1,687 in 1914, nearly a tenfoldincrease from 1902.

World War I marked another watershed in the historyof standard specifications. Many steel mills andcement plants that had traditionally supplied commercial materials now geared up for military pro-ductionforeign territory to most civilian manufactur-ers. Standard specifications greatly facilitated this con-version. ASTM specifications, for example, providedrolling mills with detailed technical information thatwas necessary to produce steel plates for

first U.S. patent for portland cement, underwent amajor growth cycle during the late 19th century,when an urban construction boom generated strongdemand for this versatile material. The first concreteroad was built in Bellefontaine, Ohio, in 1891, followed by the first concrete high rise in Cincinnatiin 1903. Despite its remarkable success, however, the cement industry suffered from a lack of basicstandards that defined the materials chemical composition and performance, leading to conflictsbetween manufacturers and their customers in theconstruction industry that resembled disagreementsbetween steel makers and users. Prior to 1900, therewas no consensus on the exact ratio of stone, silica,iron, and aluminum in portland cement, or on simple properties such as tensile and compressivestrength. As a result, construction companies oftenreceived cement that was unsuitable for a given project because it did not meet performance requirements.

The work of Committee C-1 was part of industry-wideefforts to develop uniform test methods. The commit-tee defined basic testing procedures to measure tensile strength seven and twenty-eight daysafter the pour, researched the weather resistance ofvarious cement formulas, and developed compressiontest standards that were widely adopted across theindustry. During later years,committee members supportedthe formation of the CementReference Laboratory at theNational Bureau of Standards,which standardized cementtesting equipment used inresearch laboratories.

ASTM published each standardspecification only once until

34 A Broader View

A. In 1918, ASTM headquarters was relocated from the EngineeringDepartment at the University of Pennsylvania to the Engineers Club inPhiladelphia.

B. Officers and crew, USS Mount Vernon, October 30, 1918. Photo credit:Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Detroit Publishing Company.

1926

C-18 on Dimension Stone

1928

B-7 on Light Metals and Alloys

1928

B-5 on Copper and Copper Alloys

1931

C-12 on Mortars and Grouts for Unit Masonry

1931

C-13 on Concrete Pipe

1932

D-19 on Water

A

B

tanks and ships. Cement producers used standardspecifications to supply concrete for massive fortressconstruction projects on the Western Front. A seniormilitary officer later recalled that a big job was done, and done well, because of a U.S.industry that performed to the standardsset largely by ASTM.

ASTM, firmly committed to the conceptof consensus building, played a vital rolein resolving conflicts among differentparties involved in wartime standard-setting. Corporations, trade associations, and engineering societies often workedon the same standard problem withoutknowing about each others work andproduced overlapping and conflicting

specifications. To streamline theprocess, ASTM, other profes-

sional organizations, and the U.S. departments forcommerce, war, and thenavy established theAmerican EngineeringStandards Committee in1918. This committee,which was established tocoordinate and

review standards work in American industry,

remained active after thewar and was later renamed the

American Standards Associationand then the American National Standards Institute.

By the end of World War I, ASTM had found answersto the two major questions that had preoccupied theorganizations founders in 1898. How could standardsdevelopment contribute to industrial progress? ASTMswork in the steel and concrete sectors demonstratedthat standard specifications for testing and materialsenabled producers and consumers to

exploit the vast potentials of new industrial materials.Practical benefits included more uniform quality andgreater predictability of a given materials perfor-mance, which in turn enabled end users to improve

their safety record, particularly in railroad transporta-tion. On the producer side, standard specificationsimproved quality and the competitiveness of thenations steel industry, reflected in a sharp decline of American rail imports from Britain.

The second major question originally raised by theorganizations foundersdefining the parameters of an effective consensus-building processwasdeveloped through several years of hard work.Careful reviews of procedures that guided ASTMsearly technical committees finally resulted in theadoption of the Procedures Governing the Adoptionof Standard Specifications in 1908, a milestone in the organizations history. Equipped with an effectiveconcept for consensus-building through technicalcommittee work, ASTM soon ventured beyond thesteel, cement and other industries involved in the rail-road sector and developed standard specifications onthe cutting edge of American industrial development.

A Broader View 35

A. A young Charles Dudley

B. The Tenth Annual Meeting of the American Society for TestingMaterials was held at the Hotel Chalfonte, in Atlantic City, NJ,

June 20-22, 1907.

1932

E-2 on Analytical Atomic Spectroscopy

1935

E-3 on Chemical Analysis of Metals

1935

D-3 on Gaseous Fuels

1936

D-12 on Soaps and Other Detergents

1937

D-6 on Paper and Paper Products

1937

C-14 on Glass and Glass Products

B

A

Extending the

ASTM in a MaturingIndustrial Society

ASTM STANDARDS IN NEW INDUSTRIESIn the early 1920s, ASTMs main activities still focusedon the steel, railroad, and cement industries, andmost of its members were based in the Northeasternpart of the country. In the four decades after World

War I, ASTMevolved intoa trulynationalorganizationwhose morethan 100technicalcommitteesformed anintegral part

of Americas maturing economic base, contributing tothe rise of new industries in strategic areas such ashighway transportation, petrochemicals, electronics,and aerospace technology, to name only a few.ASTMs development from the 1920s to the 1960shelped facilitate the nations rise to economic andmilitary superpower status.

The period between the two world wars witnessed a phenomenal growth of mass-production industries,which formed the back-bone of American economic strength fordecades to come. Mass production, whichinvolved interchangeableparts and manufacturingmethods based onthe

A. Early auto assembly room.Courtesy of the Detroit Public Library,

National Automotive History Collection.

B. Henry Ford in his original Model A.Courtesy George Eastman House.

C. Front page of first ASTM Bulletin,April 1921.

assembly-linesystem, hadbeen pioneeredby Eli Whitneyin small arms manufacture,Isaac Singer insewing machineproduction, andHenry Ford (who was a member of ASTM) in automobile production. In the 1920s, mass-production technologies fueled skyrocketing growthin other product lines as well, including appliances,telephones, rubber tires, chemicals, and electricalequipment. The principle of interchangeability, thelinchpin of the mass-production system, confrontednew-growth industries with major challenges becausematerials used in manufacturing processes had toconform to new standards of precision and uniformity.

To meet this challenge, leading manufacturers availed themselves of ASTM standards, which gainedwide acceptance well beyond the steel industry.General Electric, for example, a pioneer in the use of ASTM standards in the electrical industry, requiredsuppliers to adhere to ASTMs new standard specifications for non-ferrous metals in the early1920s. A GE official commented that the company

bought many supplies directly to A.S.T.M. specifications by title and designations. Occasionally direct reference to A.S.T.M. standards is made even on drawings. Like most

manufacturers, GE also used ASTMstandards as a basis for its ownspecifications. In such cases quo-tations from the A.S.T.M.

Influence

A

C

37

B

38 Extending the Influence

standard are written[into the contractwith the supplier] asfreely as possibleand the companysstandard differs fromthat of the Societymainly by additionsrather than in tech-nical detail. Theuse of standardspecifications rein-forced GEs status as

one of the worlds leading producers of electricalequipment during the interwar period.

The automobile, another recent innovation that cameinto its own during the 1920s, also benefited from the widespread adoption of ASTM standards. In thisera, leading car manufacturers like General Motors,Packard, Hudson, and Studebaker copied Henry Fords mass-production system,which depended on theuniformity of materials like steel, rubber, paint,and oilall areas where ASTMs technical committeeslaunched a series of new activities. Committee D-11 on Rubber Products, for example, developed standards for testing the effect of vibration of rubber products used in automobile production, such as bumpers, engine supports, and universal joints in 1928. This initiative,

which evolved in close coordination with theAmerican Society of Automotive Engineers, was followed by a series of committee activities during the1930s that resulted in 16 standards for testing thechemical properties, aging patterns, adhesion charac-teristics, hardness, and abrasive wear of vulcanizedrubber. Most of them were quickly adopted by B. F.Goodrich (the pioneer of the modern rubber industry), GoodyearTire & Rubber, Chrysler,and Firestone Tire & Rubber, whose representatives onASTMs D-11 had been instrumental in formulating the standards in the first place.

Road construction,another spin-off of theautomobile revolutionthat forever changedthe American land-scape, triggered a rangeof ASTM activities during the interwarperiod. The Federal Aid Road Act of 1916 and theFederal Highway Act of 1921 provided financial back-ing for turning many dirt tracks into concrete or asphalt roads, and for the construction of NewYorks Bronx River Parkway, the nations first scenichighway. ASTM standards laid the groundwork forthese vast civil engineering projects. Taking the leadrole, Committee D-4 on Road and Paving Materialcoordinated its standards activities with the AmericanAssociation of State Highway Officials, which adopted70 standards for testing road materials in 1928.Twenty-three of them had been issued by D-4;another 16 were slightly modified versions of ASTMstandards.

The automobile revolution triggered a virtual frenzyin bridge construction and led to some of the most

1937

C-15 on ManufacturedMasonry Units

1937

D-18 on Soil and Rock

1937

D-20 on Plastics

1938

E-7 on Nondestructive Testing

1938

C-16 on Thermal Insulation

1941

B-8 on Metallic and Inorganic Coatings

A. Bending fenders in a car factory, 1909. Courtesy of the Detroit PublicLibrary, National Automotive History Collection.

B. A tire surgeon showing complex structure of 1930s heavy-duty truck tires.

C. Construction of a reinforced brick abutment.

B

C

A

Extending the Influence 39

A. Built adhering to myriad ASTM standards, the Ambassador Bridge,between Detroit and Windsor, Ontario, was the worlds longest

suspension bridge.

B. Bread lines and makeshift urban communities were commonplaceduring the Great Depression. Photo credit: Library of Congress, Prints and

Photographs Division, Detroit Publishing Company.

C. In 1940, Chrysler Corporation opened this spectrographic analysislaboratory. The ASTM president was present at its dedication.

spectacular engineeringprojects of the age. SeveralASTM technical committeesprovided vital testing andmaterials specifications tosupport these efforts. TheAmbassador Bridge linkingDetroitbirthplace of theAmerican automobileindustrywith Windsor,Ontario, served as anexample. This $23 millionconstruction project, which was completed in 1929, produced the worlds longest suspensionbridge. Probably unbeknownst to the 1.6 million drivers who crossed the Ambassador Bridge during itsfirst year of operation, the majestic span was builtaccording to ASTM standards for structural carbonand silicon steel, steel castings, cement, concrete, andpaving blocks.

THE NEW DEAL ERAThe Great Depression of the 1930s marked a difficultperiod as ASTMs membership and income fell significantly for the first time in the organizations history. To cope with the financial hardship, the

leadershipintroducedausteritybudgetsandreducedthe volumeof techni-cal paperspresentedin commit-tees and at annualmeetings.

Despite cutbacks, technical papers remained one ofASTMs most important vehicles to disseminate theresults of cutting-edge research conducted by

committee members withinthe engineering community.

The greatest worry of theDepression years wasASTMs declining member-ship, a result of growingunemployment and tightbudgets in industrialresearch. The GreatDepression threatened theorganization with brain

drain. In 1934, ASTM declared that the regaining of membership lost under the difficult times throughwhich we have been passing is one of the basicproblems that faces the Society todaynot alonebecause of its financial aspects, important thoughthey are, but from the viewpoint of building up themanpower of the Society and extending still widerthe influence of its work. But the membership crisisreached its peak inthe mid-1930s, andASTM launched imag-inative initiatives todeal with its budgetproblems. Mostimportant, it introduced a new category of sustain-ing members aimedat major corporationsthat were willing tosupport ASTM with$100 in annual membership fees. By 1940, more than100 companies with historic ties to the organization,such as International Harvester, Westinghouse, and

1944

D-14 on Adhesives

1944

D-16 on Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Related Chemicals

1944

B-9 on Metal Powders and Metal Powder Products

1946

E-6 on Performance of Buildings

1946

C-17 on Fiber-ReinforcedCement Products

1946

E-11 on Quality and Statistics

C

A

B

40 Extending the Influence

A. The ASTM Executive Committee meets at the June 1940 AnnualMeeting in Atlantic City, NJ.

B. 112,000 pounds were required to crack this six-foot diameter reinforced concrete pipe, made in accordance with ASTM standards.

C. X-ray machine used in testing penstock welds. Boom rotates througha complete circle, giving access to steel at either side of machine.

Firestone, had joined the ranks of sustaining members.

Depression-related problems did not prevent newindustries from availing themselves of ASTMs consensus process. One of the most important newcommittees formed during the 1930s was D-20 onPlastics which evolved out of an ASTM symposiumheld in 1937. D-20 quickly evolved into one of theorganizations most active committees and includedrepresentatives of DuPont, General Electrics plasticsdepartment, and other industry leaders.

Given ASTMs long tradition of consensus building, itwas no surprise that the organization was a strongsupporter of President Franklin D. Roosevelts economic recovery programs, which encouraged private business to weather the Great Depression collectively and with government support. Major

initiativesincluded theNationalIndustrialRecovery Act,which intro-duced codes offair practice inmany industries,and the PublicWorks Act providing $3.3billion for

federally-funded employment programs. ASTM com-mented on the passage of this legislation in 1933 bystating that codes of fair practice must in the lastanalysis be based on equitable standards, and thepurchase of large quantities of construction materials

for the public works program should, wherever possible, be based upon such standards. Moreover,there is immediately available in the Society the orga-nization and experience to bring about the necessarycooperation between industries. ASTM soon forgedclose ties with New Deal programs that introducedthe principle of consensus-building in manyDepression-stricken industries.

The engineeringcommunity,hard timesnotwithstanding,developed keyinnovations during the 1930sthat revolution-ized materialstesting, still ASTMs main field of activity. In 1932, scientists introduced the worlds first electron micro-scope, enabling researchers to study materials at alevel of detail unimaginable only a few years before.An ASTM member who used the nations first com-mercially-produced electron microscope at StanfordResearch Laboratories in 1940 to produce severalthousand micrographs marveled, objects commonlyused were seen for the first time. This had immensebenefits for ASTM committees that worked on high-performance test standards involving details as smallas 40 angstroms in materials such as silicone, hydro-carbons, and metal alloys.

Radiographywas anotherinnovation thatdeveloped dur-ing the 1930s.First introducedafter World WarI, radiographyfound accep-tance among

1946

E-9 on Fatigue

1947

D-15 on Engine Coolants

1948

E-12 on Appearance

1948

C-21 on Ceramic Whitewares and Related Products

1949

C-3 on Chemical-Resistant Nonmetal Materials

1950

D-21 on Polishes

A

C

B

Extending the Influence 41

A. 1942 Book of ASTM Standards.

B. On October 12, 1944, at a special meeting of the Society, ASTMPresident Bates was presented the Army Ordnance Distinguished Service

Award from Major General Burnes.

C. During WWII, ASTM responded to the urgent demand for standardsby introducing the Emergency Standard.

metallurgists during the Depression decade, whenseveral dozen welding shops introduced X-raymachines to inspect welds in high-pressure vessels.ASTM, the first engineering society to recognize theenormous potential of the new technology for teststandards, held a symposium on radiography and X-ray differentiation methods in 1936, followed twoyears later by the formation of Committee E-7 onRadiographic Testing (todays Committee E-7 onNondestructive Testing). ASTM X-ray test standardswere used by aircraft manufacturers who had recentlyintroduced planes that flew at high altitudes, thusrequiring welds that could withstand extreme changesin temperature and pressure.

INDUSTRIAL MOBILIZATION IN WORLD WAR IIThe trends of the 1930sadvances in test methods,close cooperation between government and industry,and mass production techniquesconverged duringWorld War II, whenASTM joined theindustrial mobiliza-tion effort. Its firstmajor contributionwas the publicationof the Societys mostextensive Book ofStandards, thethree-volume 1942books that mademore than 1,000standard specifications available to industry and gov-ernment. Since more than half of these were purchase specifications, they could be writtendirectly into tens of thousands of government contracts for war-essential materials. Existing ASTMstandards also played an important role in the creation of an industrial base that was necessary tosustain the war effort. Major projects included a state-of-the-art aviation fuel plant built by the Sun Oil Company at Marcus Hook, Pennsylvania, whosebuilders used 50 ASTM standards for steel (includingthe venerable A 7 standard for structural steel).

The effectiveness ofGerman submarine warfare triggeredcritical shortages instrategic materialsimported fromoverseas, leadingmany ASTM committees to issuemodifications toexisting standardsthat enabled usersto adapt to thenational emergency. Faced with a severe shortage of tin, for example, a subcommittee of B-2, Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys, issued a series ofemergency modifications that reduced the amount oftin in a wide variety of alloys. The speedy passage ofsuch emergency modifications preserved many ASTMstandards for the war effort. Others had to bereplaced to meet the challenges of materialsshortages. CommitteeB-1 on ElectricalConductors wroteentirely new specifica-tions to replace tin-wire covers withlead-coated ones. Agood deal of wartimecommittee workinvolved highly sensi-tive material standards.ASTM distributed thesestandards to manufac-turers hand-picked bythe War Department,

A

C

1950

E-13 on MolecularSpectroscopy

1951

E-10 on Nuclear Technology and Applications

1951

D-22 on Sampling and Analysis of Atmospheres

1955

F-1 on Electronics

1956

D-24 onCarbon Black

1957

F-2 on Flexible Barrier Materials

B

42 Extending the Influence

A. B.F. Goodrich tests bomber equipment Behind sights of a 50-calibre machine gun, a marksman riddles sections of new bullet-sealing synthetic rubber hose developed to replace heavy metal fuelfeed systems on combat planes providing added fuel capacity.

B. A number of ASTM standards, including those addressing buildingcodes and construction materials, played major roles in the explosivepostwar growth of American cities and suburbs.

C. 1916 Race Street as it looked in 1945, when the Society boughtits own headquarters building on Philadelphias Parkway at LoganSquare.

which kept a keen eye on plant security. CommitteeD-2 on Petroleum Products and Lubricants, for example, developed ES-45, an emergency standardfor testing olefins and naphthenes in aviation fuel,early during the war, but it was not printed in ASTMsBook of Standards. Like many wartime developments, ES-45 proved a major improvementover previous standards and found widespreadacceptance in the industry once the governmentlifted security restrictions.

ASTM IN THE POSTWAR ECONOMYThe relationship between ASTM, the federal government, and private industry remained vitalthroughout the postwar era, most obviously indefense procurement. Federal spending on conven-

tional weaponrydecreased significantlyduring the postwaryears, partly becauseimmediate militarythreats had ended withJapans surrender inAugust 1945, and partlybecause the Trumanadministration reliedon the nations monop-oly on nuclearweapons to deter long-term threats. But this

trend reversed when Soviet expansionism intoEastern Europe and Russias acquisition of a nucleararsenal triggered the Cold War, leading

to the largest peacetime military buildup in world history.

ASTM stan-dards played a major role in this effort.Building onpositive experiences in voluntary consensusstandardsdevelopmentduring WorldWar II, the Pentagon began to depend more on majortechnical societies to provide the bulk of standards used in defense procurement. Congresssupported this practice with the passage of theDefense Standardization Act of 1952, which mandated the simplification of military specificationsand standards, and strongly encouraged the Army,Navy, and Air Force to use established specifications developed by ASTM and other organizations. As aresult, government defense specifications containedextensive references to ASTM standards. For example, 60 percent of thetest methods described ina military specificationof the early 1950scovering lubricantsand liquid fuelswere virtuallyidentical withASTM standardsand containedextensive refer-ences to the organizations Book ofStandards. Recognizing theoutstanding work of veteran technicalcommittees such as D-20, D-11, and B-4, theDepartment of Defense adopted ASTM standards forplastics, rubber, and electrical resistance in toto to

1958

D-26 on Halogenated Organic Solvents and Fire ExtinguishingAgents

1959

E-15 on Industrial and SpecialtyChemicals

1959

D-27 on Electrical Insulating Liquids and Gases

1959

C-24 on Building Seals and Sealants

1960

E-17 on Vehicle-PavementSystems

1960

E-18 on Sensory Evaluation of Materials and Products

A

B

C

Extending the Influence 43

replacemilitaryspecs andstandards.

Butdefensestandardsdevelop-mentremained a two-way street. Government defense laboratories,equipped with the latest research tools, producedhigh-performance test methods that were lateradopted by ASTM. During the postwar era, a Navyresearch laboratory that operated X-ray testing equipment developed reference radiographs for theinspection of aluminum and magnesium castings.ASTM adopted this method and published it as standard E 98-53 T in its 1955 Book of Standardsas a recommended practice. This made the results ofdefense-related research conducted by governmentscientists available to private inspection laboratories,foundries, and civilian consumers of high-end castings such as jetliner manufacturers.

ASTM was aware that the fit between defense andcivilian standards was not always as seamless as in the example just described. More often than not, tech-nical committees had to develop separate standards for a given material to meet the sharplydivergent needs of the armed forces and commercialusers. Aircraft engine manufacturers that switchedfrom propeller to jet turbine technology during the late 1940s and early 1950s soon realized that commercial jetliners required vastly different fuelspecifications than fighter jets. Military fuel standards,primarily designed for combat operations, anticipateda large variety of emergency situations and rarely con-sidered cost issues. The latter was of course a keyvariable in commercial applications. A representativeof the commercial aircraft industry therefore urgedASTM that the objective must be a fuel specificationwhich will be adequate and insure consistent power

and safety and yet at the same time will not undulylimit the supply or cause too high a cost. Closefamiliarity with the divergent needs of military andcommercial end users was critical to successful fuelstandards development in technical committees.

In the civilian sector, one of the most importantdevelopments that transformed American culture andsociety during the postwar years was the explosive growth of suburbs, another area in whichASTM standardsplayed a key role. Building contractors andarchitects, applying mass-production techniques tohome constructionon a massive scaleto build suburbancomplexes in eastern metropoli-tan regions,SouthernCalifornia, and the Southern states, developed a keeninterest in material standards for construction materi-als. ASTM had been active in developing these stan-dards for decades.

The need for standards was particularly pressing inthe South, where construction standards were pooror nonexistent prior to the 1950s. In that decade, arapidly growing number of municipalities adopted the Southern Standard Building Code, which usedASTM standards throughout. This particularly

1961

E-19 on Chromatography

1962

D-28 on Activated Carbon

1962

E-20 on TemperatureMeasurement

1962

F-3 on Gaskets

1962

F-4 on Medical and Surgical Materials and Devices

1963

E-21 on Space Simulation and Applications of SpaceTechnology

A

A. Meeting of Division III on Elemental Analysis of Committee D-2 onPetroleum Products and Lubricants in June 1949, 45 years after the

formation of D-2.

B. As automobile travel increased dramatically in the 1950s and1960s, ASTM standards were used in building new highway systems

linking the growing suburbs with urban centers.

B

44 Extending the Influence

A. The great strength of A 36 steel permitted higher design stresses,welded fabrication, and cost savings in Seattles Space Needle.

B. In 1961, ASTMs magazine reported on the use of ASTM standardsto specify the more than two million pounds of aluminum in this radiotelescope, considered the worlds most accurate.

C. ASTM Race Street headquarters, 1964.

enabled suburban developers in the Southto venture into mass-produced housing

because suppliers quickly standardized materials according

to ASTM standard specifica-tions for bricks, cement,gypsum, and lime.

ASTMs structural steel specifica-tions were applied in some of themost prestigious and demanding construction projects of the postwarera. Seattles Space Needle, a soaring 600-foot steel tower that was built for the 1962 Worlds Fair, fea-tured three sets of tapered steel legsmade according to Standard A 36. Thestandard described a new type of hardened carbon steel that couldhandle extreme design stresses. AnASTM publication reported that theSpace Needle had less than 3-inch maximum sway at the top; it isdesigned for heavy seismic loadsand wind gusts. The greater strengthof A 36 steel permitted higherdesign stresses, welded fabrication, and cost savings.

ON THE THRESHOLD OF ANEW ERAIn 1961, sixty years after theAmerican Section had turneditself into the American Societyfor Testing Materials, the

organization renameditself once again andbecame the AmericanSociety for Testingand Materials. Theconjugation empha-sized that ASTM wasdevoted to the development of stan-dard material specifi-cations, not only stan-dard test methods.Fortunately, the namechange that reflectedthis broadening ofactivities over fivedecades did not require a new acronym, enablingASTM to use its old and widely-recognized logo.

C

1963

C-5 on Manufactured Carbon and Graphite Products

1964

A-4 on Iron Castings

1964

D-30 on Composite Materials

1964

G-1 on Corrosion of Metals

1964

G-2 on Wear and Erosion

1965

G-3 on Weathering and Durability

A

B

and performed a variety of administrative functions.

ASTM, which did much to facilitate the phenomenalsuccess of American industry during the postwar era,also shared some of the problems plaguing thenations businesses during the late 1960s. Not unlikemany American corporations, it suffered from a lackof management expertise and accumulated

considerabledebts. Theseproblems calledfor a strategicreconfiguration ofthe organization,a task that fell to William T.Cavanaugh,ASTMs secondfounder.

Internally, the Society had evolved from a handful of technical committees devoted to steel and cement standards into a fairly complex organization comprised of a management structure and more than80 committees involved in a wide range of activities.After decades of sharing office space with other technical societies, ASTM finally moved into its own newly-built headquarters at 1916 Race Street,Philadelphia, in1964. The buildingaccommodated theorganizations staffthat supported technical commit-tees, edited theannual Book ofStandards andASTMs memberpublications, organized meet-ings and symposia,

A

1965

B-10 on Reactive andRefractory Metals and Alloys

1965

E-24 on Fracture Testing

1966

F-5 on Business Imaging Products

1967

E-27 on Hazard Potential of Chemicals

1968

F-6 on Resilient Floor Coverings

1969

F-7 on Aerospace and Aircraft

Extending the Influence 45

A. On May 11, 1964, members and guests gathered from Europe,Canada, the United States, and Mexico to participate in the dedication

ceremony of ASTMs new headquarters building at 1916 Race St. inPhiladelphia.

Preparing for the Next Century

The Genius

A. William T. Cavanaugh, who came to ASTM in 1967, as director offield operations, was made managing director in 1970. He left a legacy

of fiscal strength, management development, and a Society open andresponsive to all interests.

B. Cavanaugh addresses members and visitors at ASTM headquarters.His vision guided the Society for 15 years.

A NEW DEPARTURE

William Cavanaugh, reflecting on the transformationof ASTM during his tenure as executive director, toldmembers in 1985 that those intimately familiar withthe affairs of ASTM for the past 14 years or so would

agree that the obvious and pervasive health of the organi-zation today is the direct and traceable result of its ability to anticipate events through planning and to set in motion,

in a timely fashion, poli-cies to accommodatethose events. The firmconviction that ASTM was the master of its own destiny, not a passiverespondent to circum-stances beyond its control, was the

essence ofCavanaughs

philosophy. Itenabled the

organization tomeet the extraordinary challenges of the 1970s andlaid the groundwork for major new departures during subsequent decades.

Unlike previous ASTM leaders, Cavanaugh was not anengineer but a management expert who had been appointed executive director-secretary of theAdministrative Management Society in 1959, a posi-tion he held until 1966. During his tenure, he gainedclose familiarity with some of the major problems thatwere beginning to plague American business duringthose years, notably its unwillingness to adapt itsmanagerial structures and strategies to a much morevolatile and competitive world economy. Earlier thanmost management professionals, Cavanaugh was con-vinced that any organizations chance for future suc-cess hinged on its ability to

streamline its administrative apparatus, develop itscore competencies, and deploy its expertise inpromising new areas.

WhenCavanaughjoinedASTM asdirector of FieldOperations in 1967, itstechnical committeeswere over-burdenedwithadministrative functions. This called for a new departure to maintain ASTMs viability in standards development. The Board of Directors tooktwo critical steps in this direction: First, it formulateda strategic plan titled ASTM in the Seventies, andsecond, it appointed Cavanaugh Managing Director in1970.

ASTM in the Seventies was primarily a blueprint for financial consolidation but also reconfigured the organizations mission and identity. It assessedrevenue streams and concluded that ASTM needed a new membership structure and better marketingstrategies for its income-generating products, notablythe Book of Standards. Most administrative functionswere to be performed by the staff, enabling commit-tee members to concentrate on technical standardswork. These and other measures initiated ASTMstransformation from a traditional engineers society

of ASTM

B

A

47

48 The Genius of ASTM

A. ASTM in the Seventies is reviewed by (from left) L.S. Crane (president 1969-1970), T.A. Marshall (executive secretary 1960-1969and managing director 1969-1970) and H.N. Bogart (president 1968-1969).

B. In 1972, dozens of ski industry representatives skiers, equipmentmanufacturers and academicians formed Subcommittee F08.14 onSkiing within Committee F-8 on Sports Equipment and Facilities. In 1982,Committee F-27 on Snow Skiing was established as an outgrowth ofF08.14.

C. Standards that protect electric utility line workers are one example ofthe cooperation between OSHA, the utility industry, and ASTM.

into a non-profitenterprisededicated to modernbusinessprinciples,includingprocess efficiency,responsive-ness tochanging

market conditions, and financial viability.

Cavanaugh played an important role in formulatingand implementing ASTM in the Seventies. The firstitem on his agenda as managing director was internalrestructuring. Characteristically, Cavanaugh focusedon strategic goals and gave staff members wide latitude in implementing the new departure. Thedays of passive staff are over; this is a perfor-mance staff, he declared. To measure staff performance, departmentheads introduced short-range and long-range fiscal projections, production goals, and other manager-ial systems borrowed from the corporate sector.

NEW PARTNERSHIPSExternally, ASTM reached far beyond itsmainstay in industrial standards and entered

rapidly-growing markets forconsumerproducts andenvironmen-tal standards.Prior toCavanaughs appoint-ment as managingdirector in 1970, ASTMhad already launched several initiatives in theseareas, highlighted by the formation of Committee F-8 onSports Equipment andFacilities. Cavanaugh, determined to use ASTMsexpertise in related fields,

provided strategic guid-ance for these activities. In one of the

most important programmaticstatements of his career, he

declared, The genius ofASTMmeaning the

consensus approach tostandardsis applicableto a broad range of problems that are onlyvery generally related to our traditional area of

activity. This call fordeploying the consensus

principle in cutting-edgefields precipitated the formation

of new technical committees, includingF-15 on Consumer Products, E-34 on OccupationalHealth and Safety, F-13 on Safety and Traction forFootwear, and F-20 on Hazardous Substances and OilSpill Response, to name only a few.

As in previous decades, ASTMs initiatives wereclosely related to seismic shifts in American society.The 1950s had marked the beginning of the modern

1969

F-8 on Sports Equipment and Facilities

1969

E-28 on Mechanical Testing

1969

C-26 on Nuclear Fuel Cycle

1969

E-29 on Particle and SprayCharacterization

1970

E-30 on Forensic Sciences

B

C

A

The Genius of ASTM 49

A. ASTM standards were used to test a wide variety of consumer goods,ranging from materials used in refrigerators to vacuum cleaners.

B. In the 1970s, CPSC labs conducted toy chest lid tests for an ASTMstandard to assure that toy chest lids would not accidentally fall and

cause injury to children. Photo credit: Consumer Product Safety Commission.

C. From wall panels to childrens sleepwear, ASTM standards havemade major contributions towards forwarding fire safety for the public.

Photo credit: Southwest Research Institute.

consumer age, when millions of middle-class families bought automatic washingmachines, electric dryers, home freezers,television sets, and a large variety ofother consumer items. American con-sumer-goods industries remained theundisputed leaders in this sector forclose to two decades, but the steadily-growing availability of Japanese andEuropean imports revealed problemswith the quality of some American-madeproducts. This trend coincided with thesocial activism of the late 1960s, whichprecipitated the rise of a grass-roots consumer rights movement. Activists challenged man-ufacturers to tackle prevailing product quality andsafety problems in cooperation with consumers, butalso complained about their inability to match indus-trys power and influence in the standards develop-ment process. This formed the backdrop to the pas-sage of the Consumer Products Safety Act in 1972,

establishing afederal com-mission withthe power topromulgateconsumerproduct standards.

At about thetime that ASTMwas enjoying anew partner-

ship with consumer advocacy groups, a new regula-tory storm gathered on the horizon. The mid 1970ssaw a rash of legislation aimed at federalizing theAmerican standards development systema formida-ble threat to the voluntary standards system that hadprevailed since the early 20th century.

In response, ASTM launched a spirited defense of thevoluntary system at several Congressional hearings inWashington, D. C., declaring that the organizations

consensus-buildingprocess, which hadevolved through decadesof committee work onindustrial products, was aviable alternative to gov-ernment-issued standardsfor consumer products.Responding to critics whocharged that the voluntarysystem benefited majorcorporations at theexpense of other interests,Cavanaugh argued, We

cannot agree that the present standardization processposes grave economic hardships for small business. There are many small business concerns involvedin ASTM. In recog-nition of this fact,we have doneeverything possibleto keep the cost ofparticipation in the ASTM process at a minimum.

Furthermore,Cavanaugh wascommitted to ensur-ing fair consumerparticipation intechnical committeework. We mustmake sure that

1970

E-31 on HealthcareInformatics

1971

D-31 on Leather

1971

F-9 on Tires

1972

F-11 on Vacuum Cleaners

1972

C-27 on Precast Concrete Products

1972

E-33 on Environmental Acoustics

A

C

B

50 The Genius of ASTM

A. Standards for protective headgear for football cover shock attenuation characteristics and shock absorption requirements.

B. More than 250 producer, consumer, government and general interest representatives established ASTM Committee E-35 onPesticides in 1973.

C. ASTM standards have played an important role in addressing modern-day environmental concerns such as clean air and water. Photocredit: ETC Houston/Wood Allen Photography

there is no aspect ofASTM structure thatcan be interpreted asexcluding any quali-fied person from par-ticipating in the con-sensus process ofASTM, he urged.This is the reasonwe have left ourdoor open by creating the affiliatemembership. It isalso the reason thatwe have gone so faras to suspend anymeeting registration

fees that ASTM has had. In addition to opening upthe formal consensus-building process to consumers,ASTM established a Consumer Participation Fund tofinance the participation of consumer rights groups,representatives of homemaker organizations, and oth-ers that were heretofore not involved in technicalcommittee work.

ASTM soon accumulated an outstanding record inconsumer products standards. Committee F-8 onSports Equipment and Facilities, a pioneer in thisfield, issued its first standard test method for footballhelmets in 1971, followed by a steady stream of newinitiatives involving footwear, ice hockey equipment,playing surfaces and facilities, and headgear. Thecommittee also developed F 1446, Test Method forEquipment and Procedures Used in Evaluating thePerformance Characteristics of Protective Headgear.Established ASTM committees also contributed to the

quest for consumer standards. D-13 on TextileMaterials initiated a major activity on the flammabilityof childrens sleepwear in 1971, when it organized acollaborative study involving sixteen research laboratories.

Organizedconsumeractivismstarted towane in thelate 1970s,but its effectsremain evi-dent. ASTM establishedmechanismssuch as theConsumer Sounding Board, by which consumerscould provide input into the technical requirements ofstandards. The resurgence of the nations consumer-good industry during the 1990s was partlya result of major improvements in product quality andsafety that enhanced the competitiveness of U. S.manufacturers in global competition.

The environment was yet another area where ASTMestablished a major presence during the 1970s. As in consumer products, social activism and governmentintervention were important factors. Rachel CarsonsSilent Spring, a penetrating analysis of pesticides suchas DDT in the food chain published in 1962, helpedtrigger the modern environmental movement, whose participants were particularly concerned about air and

1972

E-34 on Occupational Health and Safety

1972

F-12 on Security Systems and Equipment

1973

E-35 on Pesticides

1973

E-36 on Conformity Assessment

1973

E-37 on Thermal Measurements

1973

F-13 on Safety and Traction for Footwear

A

B

C

The Genius of ASTM 51

A. Initiatives toward improved safety for the worker resulted in theestablishment of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration

(OSHA) in 1972 as well as the formation of Committee D-34 onOccupational Health and Safety that same year.

B. Constantly pushing the limit of manufacturing technology, semi-conductor processes rely on the standards of Committee F-1 on

Electronics to advance the state-of-the-art of the industry.

C. ASTM standards such as those for sampling airborne contami-nation have aided NASA and the aerospace industry.

water quality. Federalinitiatives soonfollowed, includ-ing the passageof the Clean AirAct of 1970 thatset standards for automobileemissions. OlderASTM commit-tees, such as D-18 on Soil andRock and D-19on Water, thatstarted to work

on environmental standards during this era, devel-oped strong relationships with the EnvironmentalProtection Agency. EPA, which was formed in 1970,used ASTM standards for electrical generating plants,petroleum tests, and water as a basis for its own standards. Furthermore, industries with interests inenvironmental protection solicited the assistance ofASTM, leading to the formation of new technicalcommittees such as F-20 on Hazardous Substancesand Oil SpillResponse and E-35on Pesticides.

ASTM alsoresponded to theestablishment of theOccupational Safetyand HealthAdministration(OSHA) in 1972.Reacting to OSHAsrequest that thenations engineeringand scientific com-munities participate in the development of federal workplace standards, ASTM convened a conference of interested parties in October 1972. Theimmediate result was the formation of Committee

E-34, Occupational Health and Safety Aspects ofMaterials, Physical and Biological Agents, and itsseven major subcommittees. Committee E-34 workedon such diverse subjects as storage, transportation,and disposal of hazardous agents, occupational exposure standards, medical exami-nations and first-aidtreatment, protective equipment, and control.

Standards develop-ment for industrialmaterials and testing remainedASTMs largest fieldof activity. Some ofthe most significantwork was done byCommittee F-1 onElectronics, which focusedincreasingly on semiconductortechnology. Building on the development of solid-state amplifiers by the Bell Telephone Laboratories in

the 1950s, the semiconductor industry quicklybecame a major growth sector in the Americanand Japanese economies. Committee F-1 supplied IBM and other major manufacturerswith widely-adopted standards for silicone, a material that required precise quality controltechniques at the molecular level. TheCommittee reached a milestone with theSpecification for Monocrystalline Silicon Surfaces (F 515) that enabled producers to assess material

1973

F-14 on Fences

1973

F-15 on Consumer Products

1973

F-17 on Plastic Piping Systems

1974

F-16 on Fasteners

1974

F-18 on Electrical Protective Equipment for Workers

1974

E-41 on Laboratory Apparatus

B

C

A

52 The Genius of ASTM

A. In 1991, ASTM published the first Chinese-language edition of itsmagazine.

B. National and regional standards systems around the globe are covered in ASTMs monthly magazine, Standardization News.

C. ASTMs European Office houses meeting rooms, storage areas andmailing facilities.

characteristics such asflatness, finish, andtolerances. Advancesin semiconductortechnology had been hampered by manufacturersreluctance to shareproprietary informa-tion in this highlylucrative field withcompetitors. A BellTelephone Laboratoryresearcher who specialized in inte-grated circuit

bonding, related: The committee has been the onlyplace where people concerned with this field couldcome and really feel free to discuss their problems.These discussions paved the way for the third industrial revolution that transformed the world economy at the end of the 20th century.

ASTM IN THE GLOBAL ECONOMYThe rise of the new economic world order of the1980s and 1990s that transformed modern standardsdevelopment was an extraordinarily complex process.Economically, it was triggered by the rebirth ofJapanese and Western European industry from the ashes of World War II, and by the formation of so-called tiger economies on the Pacific Rim during the1970s. Technologically, globalization fed on newcommunication systems that allowed instant access to and exchange of information across continents.Politically, the lowering of tariff barriers in NorthAmerica and Western Europe created vast new

markets in which global producers competed head-on. The buzzwords of the new, interdependentworld economy were cost efficiency, customer orientation, and the ability to respond quickly tochanges in the global marketplace.

Globalization compelled ASTMand its internationalcounterparts tocooperate acrossnational bound-aries. In the postwar era,American voluntarystandards hadreigned supremebecause U.S. industries had stillenjoyed undisputedleadership in worldmarkets. TheInternationalOrganization for Standardization (ISO), for example,had frequently used ASTM standards as platforms for international standards in key areas such as steel,petroleum, and industrial chemicals. The end ofAmerican industrial supremacy and the rise of a multipolar world economy turned international standards development into a two-way street asAmericanstandardsusers paidmore attention tothe specificneeds ofemergingmarkets.ASTM facilitatedthis trendby continuingto encourage international participation in technical

1975

G-4 on Compatibility and Sensitivity of Materials in OxygenEnriched Atmospheres

1975

D-32 on Catalysts

1975

F-20 on Hazardous Substances and Oil Spill Response

1976

F-21 on Filtration

1976

E-42 on Surface Analysis

1977

E-43 on SI Practice

B

C

A

The Genius of ASTM 53

A. In 1993, ASTM published for the first time a dual-language international newsletter, Standards International, in Spanish and English.

B. The merits of ASTMs open process of standards development, inwhich participation is not nationspecific, are evidenced by the wide

acceptance and use of ASTM documents around the world.

committee work, and byestablishing an overseas officein London. It also forged close ties with major foreignstandards organizations suchas Germanys DeutschesInstitut fr Normung (DIN),Frances Association Francaisede Normalisation (AFNOR),the Japanese StandardsAssociation (JSA), and theBritish Standards Institution(BSI).

International cooperation led to increased awarenessof the fact that incompatible standards and certifica-tion became trade barriers in the new global economy. In a 1990 editorial in ASTMs magazine,then-ASTM President Joseph G. OGrady (ASTM president 1985-1992) commented that for the freeflow of trade, equivalent standards, test data, and certification procedures must be mutually acceptedand reciprocal. Where this reciprocity is lacking,

Americanrefrigeratorsand baseballbats sit on foreigndocks,devoid ofthat magiclocalapprovalmark

soaking up sunshine and billions of dollars.Incompatibility was evident in measurement standards, reflecting Americas reluctance to switchfrom the English measurement system to the metricsystem. Absent official action, ASTM continued itslong-standing practice of using both English and metric measurements in all its specifications, thushelping to break down trade barriers that couldexclude products in the global market.

Although these and other traditions enabled ASTM tomaster the transition into the new global economy,structural changes were necessary to meet the needsof standards users in anincreasingly competitiveenvironment. Responding to industry concerns aboutthe relatively slow pace ofstandards development during the 1980s, ASTM

introduced more restrictivetimelines that helped technical committees stayfocused on deliverables. To further accelerate thestandards development process, ASTM formed theInstitute for Standards Research (ISR) in 1988. ISR wasprimarily designed for accelerated standards researchprograms that exceeded the capacities of the tradi-tional committee management system. Based on a committee proposal for a given activity, ISRdeveloped a plan to fund the required research, contacted potential sponsors, selected appropriateresearch organizations, and provided continuous support during the research phase. Major activitiesthat evolved along these lines included a unified classification scheme for advanced ceramics and projects on fire standards, degradable polymers,clothing sizing, and a wetlands standards program.

ASTM also initiated new standards-related programsto provide additional products and services to its members and customers, beginning in 1985 with thedevelopment of ASTMs Technical and Professional

1977

F-23 on Protective Clothing

1978

F-24 on Amusement Rides and Devices

1978

F-25 on Shipbuilding

1978

E-44 on Solar, Geothermal, and Other Alternative Energy Sources

1979

D-33 on Protective Coatingand Lining Work for Power Generation Facilities

1979

F-26 on Food Service Equipment

A

B

54 The Genius of ASTM

A. In 1991, nearly 8,000 women across the country age 55 and older,were interviewed and measured using the Ultra Fit body suit as part of an ASTM Institute for Standards Research clothing sizing project. The goal of the project was to improve sizing and labeling by the ready-to-wear garment industry for the growing market of women age 55 and older.

B. Participants can tour laboratories and see demonstrations of thecourse material during many Technical and Professional Trainingcourses, including this session on Aviation Fuels at PhiladelphiaInternational Airport.

C. A century of exposure in New York Harbor caused corrosion deterioration to the Statue of Liberty, necessitating its 1986 restoration,for which ASTM corrosion standards were used.

Training Courses. Thesecourses provide continu-

ing education in theperformance and useof ASTM and otherstandards in areassuch as petroleum,plastics, paint, steel,environmental subjects and manyother areas.

In 1993, ASTMexpanded its services to

include a new program onProficiency Testing. ASTMs

Proficiency Testing Program provides participatinglaboratories with a statistical quality assurance tool,enabling laboratories to compare their performance inconducting test methods within their laboratories and

againstother laborato-riesworld-wide.Programshavebeenlaunched

in metals (plaincarbon andlow-alloy steel,stainless steels,and gold inbullion),petroleum,plastics, andmore.

The constructionof ASTMs newheadquarters building in WestConshohocken,Pennsylvania, a suburb ofPhiladelphia,was anothermilestone alongthe way towarda more efficientorganization. Inthe late 1980s,it became clearthat the old quarters onPhiladelphiasRace Streetcould notaccommodatestate-of-the-art office technology that facilitated information management in a modern organization.We simply exceeded the life cycle of the Race Street building, a senior staff member later recalled. The tune-up required to create a more operable environment in that structure would have been cost-prohibitive.

B

1980

D-34 on Waste Management

1980

E-47 on Biological Effects and Environmental Fate

1982

F-27 on Snow Skiing

1983

F-29 on Anesthetic and Respiratory Equipment

CA

B

1984

F-30 on Emergency Medical Services

1984

D-35 on Geosynthetics

1985

E-48 on Biotechnology

1986

E-49 on Computerized Systems and Chemical and Material Information

1986

C-28 on Advanced Ceramics

A

The new building, which was completed in 1995, provided ultra-modern conference facilities for technical committees, ample work space for head-quarters staff, and prepared ASTM to meet the chal-lenges of the 21st century. The new Headquartersbuilding, a board member commented, was a tangible indication of ASTMs movement toward the future and its responsiveness to the changing environment of standards development.

A. Instantaneous world-wide access to ASTM information was madeavailable in 1995 when ASTM launched its web site. Later

enhancements to the home page have included interactive standardsdevelopment forums, which allow task group members to comment on

draft standards via the World Wide Web.

B. Completed in 1995, ASTMs new headquarters building in WestConshohocken, Pa., was designed to facilitate the Society in meeting the

modern-day needs of its members and customers.

The Genius of ASTM 55

56

How are the principles upon which ASTM wasfounded relevant today?

From its inception, ASTM has emphasized the valueand necessity of bringing together buyers and sellersto define issues and work cooperatively to improveproduct and material performance and overall qualityof life. In 1898, the principles of openness, dueprocess, balance of interests, and consensus established the basic foundation on which ASTM has matured and grown over its first 100 years. The ASTM member of 1998 relies on these same principles and the integrity of a proven process toproduce standards of recognized technical excellencethat have worldwide acceptance and use. We willcontinue to refine our process to achieve fasterresults in response to a significantly different social,political, and economic climate but at the sametime we will guard against compromising the principles on which we were founded.

The next 100 years will offer new challenges. Whatwill guide ASTM in the 21st century?

ASTM is a bottom-up organization that relies on andbenefits from the guidance and leadership of its technical committee members. The ASTM system ofstandards development is flexible and dynamic andhas demonstrated its ability to expand and change to meet constantly changing needs and expectations.ASTM committees are a true reflection of the marketplace and are uniquely positioned to respondto the new technological and competitive challengesof a global economy.

How will advances in technology impact ASTMsdevelopment and delivery of standards?

The pressure to properly use advances in technologyto improve efficiency, timeliness, and cost effective-ness has never been greater on ASTM. We areresponding by introducing new ways of conductingcommittee business between meetings by using thepower of the World Wide Web. Our web-based Interactive Standards Development Forums will makeit possible for members and other interested parties

ASTM President, James A. Thomas, reflects on

ASTMs successful past and the Societys next

one hundred years.

1987

F-31 on Health Care Services and Equipment

1988

F-32 on Search and Rescue

1989

F-33 on Detention and Correctional Facilities

1990

E-50 on Environmental Assessment

57

from around the world to contribute to the develop-ment of standards that will influence the future oftheir industries. Modifications of our ballotingprocess, to remove redundancies and streamlineadministrative procedures through use of new technology, has significantly reduced the standardsdevelopment cycle time in response to the demandsof our constituency. Our efforts to accelerate thestandards-development process without compromis-ing our basic principles are constant and on-going.

Information delivery has evolved rapidly due to theimpact of technological advances on both suppliersand users of all forms of data. ASTMs challenge is tomeet the needs of its members and customers forinformation delivery in multiple forms. The businessclimate and the demands of an evolving membershipbase make it imperative for ASTM to make the transition to improved electronic delivery as quicklyas possible. We have already seen major advances in ASTM due to the positive application of new technology but we have much more to accomplish.

What effect has the new global economy had onASTM?

From its beginning ASTM has been open to the directparticipation of technical experts from around theworld. ASTM was one of the first truly global systemsfor arriving at consensus on technical issues. TheSociety certainly benefited from the strength of theU.S. economy, which helped drive the applicationand use of many ASTM standards. However, thetechnological and economic center today is sharedby the U.S. and other global partners. This change toa global economy fits the basic policy framework ofASTM. The ability of representatives from around theworld to directly and materially influence the contentof ASTM standards contributes to their continuedacceptance on a worldwide basis. Our challenge is to find new ways to facilitate even greater direct participation of global stakeholders in our provenpartnership.

As you consider ASTMs second century, what isyour vision for maintaining the Societys pre-eminent position in standards development?

ASTMs founders developed a formula for successthat has proven itself repeatedly for 100 years. Myjob is to support, strengthen and reinforce a processthat brings together technical experts representingindustry, government, academia, and the generalpublic to work cooperatively to promulgate standardsthat contribute to improved material and productperformance and enhancements to the quality of life.Our future is secure if we stay committed to thedevelopment of high-quality, technically crediblestandards.

The membership base of ASTM, supported by a competent and dedicated staff, is our greatest asset.Relevant standardization projects accomplished in atimely, cost-effective manner is everyones goal. Theopportunities facing ASTM are significant and willprovide many challenges for the effective blending of technological and human resources. The timesahead certainly will be exciting.

1990

E-1 on Analytical Chemistry for Metals, Ores, and Related Materials

1993

E-8 on Fatigue and Fracture

1994

E-51 on Environmental Risk Management

1995

E-2 on Terminology

James A. Thomas was appointed ASTM

president in 1992. He has devoted his

entire career to ASTM, where he has served

in various positions since 1972. His

professional focus has been concentrated

on association management and the issues

facing voluntary standardization.

Mission Statement:

To be the foremost developer and provider of voluntary consensus

standards, related technical information, and services having

internationally recognized quality and applicability that

promote public health and safety, and the overall quality of life;

contribute to the reliability of materials, products, systems and services; and

facilitate national, regional and international commerce.

ASTM International Headquarters100 Barr Harbor DriveWest Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959USAPhone: 610-832-9500FAX: 610-832-9555e-mail: [email protected] site: www.astm.org

Washington Office European Office1828 L Street, NW 27-29 Knowl PieceSuite 906 Wilbury WayWashington, DC 20036 Hitchen, Herts SG4 OSX EnglandPhone: 202-835-0200 Phone: 1462 437933FAX: 610-834-7089 FAX: 1462 433678

ASTMProviding the value, strength, and respect of marketplace

consensus