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Chapter 6: Basic Motivation ConceptsMotivation = The processes
that account for an individuals direction, intensity and
persistence of effort toward achieving a goal
Direction = should benefit the organization (i.e. quality of
effort counts!)Intensity = how hard an employee triesPersistence =
how long can an employee maintain his/her effort?
Note: the goal is an organizational goal
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Early Theories of Motivation
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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
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Maslows Hierarchy of NeedsPhysiological includes hunger, thirst,
shelter, sex and other bodily needs Safety includes security and
protection from physical and emotional harm Social includes
affection, belongingness acceptance, and friendship Esteem includes
internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and
achievement; and external esteem factors such as status,
recognition, and attention Self-actualization the drive to become
what one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving ones
potential, and self-fulfillment
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Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)
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Two-Factor Theory
Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while
extrinsic factors are related to job dissatisfaction.Hygiene
factors = when these are adequate, workers feel OK (i.e. they are
NOT dissatisfied). Examples include quality of supervision, company
policies and administration.Motivators = examines factors
contributing to job satisfaction. Thus, there are factors which
lead to job satisfaction and things that dont (i.e. notice there is
a difference between non-satisfying and dissatisfying factors)
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Contemporary TheoriesAlderfer's ERG
TheoryExistenceRelatednessGrowth
This theory does not assume a rigid hierarchy like Maslow's. For
example, all 3 of these could be operating at the same time.
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McClelland's Theory of Needs
The Need for Achievement: the drive to excel, achieve in
relation to a set of standards, strive to succeed. The Need for
Power: The need to make others behave in a way that they would not
have behaved otherwise. The Need for Affiliation: The desire for
friendly and close interpersonal relationships.
Q: So, what can we do with such information about our
employees???
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Answer: Match People and Jobs (an example)
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Cognitive Evaluation Theory
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Goal -Setting Theory
The theory that specific and difficult goals lead to higher
performance. Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how
much effort will need to be expended. Specific goals increase
performance; that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher
performance than do easy goals; and that feedback leads to higher
performance than does non-feedback. Specific hard goals produce a
higher level of output than does the generalized goal of "do your
best." The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal
stimulus. Be sure to note the importance of goal commitment,
self-efficacy, task characteristics, and national culture on
goal-setting theory.
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Reinforcement Theory
A counterpoint to the goal-setting theory. In reinforcement
theory, a behavioristic approach, which argues that reinforcement
conditions behavior. Reinforcement theorists see behavior as being
behaviorally caused. Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state
of the individual and concentrates solely on what happens to a
person when he or she takes some action.
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Flow and Intrinsic Motivation Theory
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Ken Thomass Model of Intrinsic MotivationEmployees are
intrinsically motivated when rewards an employee gets from work
result from:Choice the ability to freely self-select and perform
task activities.Competence the sense of accomplishment from
skillfully performing chosen tasks or activities.Meaningfulness
pursuing a task that matters in the larger scheme of
things.Progress the feeling of significant advancement in achieving
the tasks purpose.
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Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of
others and then respond so as to eliminate any inequities (this is
the motivation component)Equity theory recognizes thatindividuals
are concerned not only with the absolute amount of rewards for
their efforts, but also with the relationship of this amount to
what others receive. Historically, equity theory focused on:
Distributive justice or the perceived fairness of the amount and
allocation of rewards among individuals. However, equity should
also consider procedural justice or the perceived fairness of the
process used to determine the distribution of rewards.
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Equity Theory (contd)Choices for dealing with inequity:Change
inputs (slack off)Change outcomes (increase output)Distort/change
perceptions of selfDistort/change perceptions of othersChoose a
different referent personLeave the field (quit the job)
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Expectancy Theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on
the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a
given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the
individual. The theory focuses on three relationships:
Effort-performance relationship or the probability perceived by the
individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to
performance. Performance-reward relationship or the degree to which
the individual believes that performing at a particular level will
lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. Rewards-personal goals
relationship or the degree to which organizational rewards satisfy
an individuals personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of
those potential rewards for the individual.
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Expectancy Theory
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Performance Dimensions
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Summary and Implications for Managers
Need TheoriesMaslows hierarchy, Two factor, ERG, &
McClellandsGoal Setting TheoryClear and difficult goals often lead
to higher levels of employee productivity.Reinforcement TheoryGood
predictor of quality and quantity of work, persistence of effort,
absenteeism, tardiness, and accident rates.Equity TheoryStrongest
when predicting absence and turnover behaviors.Weakest when
predicting differences in employee productivity.Expectancy
TheoryFocus on performance variablesIt is a rational model so be
careful when using itThis theory may be better applied to employees
with greater discretion in their jobs (i.e., as opposed to
semi-skilled positions)