By By Dr. Muhd. Najib Mohd. Alwi Dr. Muhd. Najib Mohd. Alwi Dept. of Psychiatry Dept. of Psychiatry Universiti Sains Malaysia Universiti Sains Malaysia
Dec 29, 2015
ByByDr. Muhd. Najib Mohd. AlwiDr. Muhd. Najib Mohd. AlwiDept. of PsychiatryDept. of PsychiatryUniversiti Sains MalaysiaUniversiti Sains Malaysia
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SchizophreniaSchizophrenia• Definition:
a major psychotic disorder with onset in early adulthood, characterised by bizarre delusions, auditory hallucinations, strange behaviour and a progressive decline in personal, domestic, social and occupational competence, all occurring in clear consciousness.
To diagnose, (ICD-10 & DSMIV) require one or more discrete symptomsdiscrete symptoms to be present for more than one month or longer
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History of SchizophreniaHistory of Schizophrenia
– Benedict Morel (1856):• “demense precoce”
– Emil Kraepelin (1893):• “dementia praecox”
– cognitive disorder (dementia)
– early onset (praecox)
• included hebephrenia, catatonia, paranoia, simple schizophrenia
– Bleuler (1911)• coined “schizophrenia” =
“splitting of the mind”
• Primary / Fundamental Primary / Fundamental symptomssymptoms (4A’s)
– AAmbivalence– AAffective abnormalities
(blunting, inappropriate)– AAutism– Loosening of A Association
• Secondary / Accessory Secondary / Accessory symptomssymptoms
– hallucinations, delusions
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History of Schizophrenia
• Kurt Schnieder (1959)– First Rank Symptoms :First Rank Symptoms :
• thought passivity– insertion
– broadcast
– withdrawal
• ‘made’ phenomena– actions
– impulses
– feelings
• auditory hallucinations– thought echo– running commentary– voices arguing
• somatic passivity (delusion of bodily influence)
• delusional perception
– Second Rank Symptoms:Second Rank Symptoms:• all other hallucinations
• secondary delusions
• catatonic behaviour
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Schneider’s First Rank Symptoms
• Characteristic, not pathognomonic
• 1/5 patients with Schizophrenia have never had any FRS
• 1/10 non-Schizophrenic patients have experienced some FRS
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Timothy Crow (1980)
• Type I Schizophrenia– acute onset
– positive symptoms
– normal ventricles
– good response to medication
– a/w increased dopaminergic activity
– better prognosis
• Type II Schizophrenia– insidious onset
– negative symptoms
– enlarged ventricles
– poor response to medication
– deteriorating course
– poorer prognosis
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Nancy Andreasen (1982)
• Positive Symptoms– delusions
– hallucinations
– bizarre behaviour
– due to presence of abnormal brain mechanisms
– responds to typical (D2 receptor antagonists) anti-psychotics
• Negative Symptoms– avolition
– anhedonia
– affective blunting
– loosening of association
– due to loss of brain mechanisms
– may respond to atypical anti-psychotic drugs (e.g. Clozapine)
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• Incidence and Prevalence– occurs in all cultures
– prevalence is geographically stable
– Incidence:• 2 to 4 per 10 000 per
year!
– Lifetime risk:• 1%
Schizophrenia
• Age and sex– equal for both sexes
– peak incidence:• men: 15-25
• women: 25-35
• In Malaysia– 100 000 - 500 000
Schizophrenia sufferers at any one time (could be underestimation!)
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Biological Theories
• GeneticsGenetics– at least 30% of patients
will have an affected relative (Gottesman 1991)
– Lifetime Risk• 13% DZ, 48% MZ• 10% siblings• 5% for parents• 13% if one parent• 46% if both parents
– 70% of heretability is genetic
• only 10% of adopted-away children (of affected parents)
• only 1% of adopted-into (affected parent)
– polygenic / multifactorial threshold genetic menchanism
– Current view:• gene/environment
interaction model
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Biological Theories• Dopamine Hypothesis
– Schizophrenia is caused by excess dopamine activity within the mesolimbic-mesocortical mesolimbic-mesocortical systemssystems
– Supporting facts:• amphetamine releases
dopamine and causes positive symptoms
• all effective anti-psychotics are D2 receptor antagonists
• anti-psychotic efficacy correlates with D2 occupancy
– Opposing facts:
• amphetamine do not produce negative symptoms
• anti-psychotics are also effective in other psychotic conditions
• blockade of D2 within hours but efficacy within days or weeks
• More recent theories:– Serotonin overactivity
• atypical affinity to 5HT2A/2C
– Insufficient Excitatory Amino Acid Hypothesis (glutamate)
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Biological Theories– Neurodevelopmental theory
• abnormalities seen in the brain of Schizophrenic patients from neuroimaging and neuropathological studies:
– limbic system: size of amygdala, hippocampus, parahippocampus
– basal ganglia: D2 receptors in caudate nucleus
• Imaging and pathological findings revealed lesions representing developmental anomalies rather than disease dating probably from mid-gestation.
• Some supporting findings in epidemiological studies:
– season of birth (winter)
– prenatal influenza
– obstetric complications
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Psychological Theories• Attempts to explain the origin of Schizophrenic
symptoms– over-inclusive thinkingover-inclusive thinking (Cameron)
• loss of conceptual boundaries
– concrete thinkingconcrete thinking (Goldstein)• impairment of abstract thinking
– filter theoriesfilter theories (Frith)• inadequate filtering of background environmental stimuli
– cognitive defect theorycognitive defect theory• impaired ability to perceive, assess and judge cognitive input
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Social Theories
• Family processes:– Double Bind Communication (Bateson, 1956)
• parent giving conflicting messages, can not escape or respond to both => irrational / ambiguous behaviour => Schizophrenia
– Skew and Schism (Lidz, 1957)• caused by shifts in the traditional power roles in a family
– skewskew: mother dominant, father submissive
– schismschism: parents hostile towards each other => split psyche in child => Schizophrenia
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Social Theories• Family processes:
– Life EventsLife Events
• relapse preceded by an excess of life events (compared to normal controls, but not compared to other psy. patients)
– High Expressed Emotion (EE)High Expressed Emotion (EE):
• relapse risk increasing:– hostility
– emotional over-involvement
– critical comments
• relapse risk reducing:– positive remarks
– warmth
Relapse Rates Over 9 MonthsLow EE High EE
<35h/wkHigh EE>35h/wk
Anti-psychotic
12% 15% 53%
No Anti-psychotic
15% 42% 92%
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Social Theories• Socio-economic status
– higher in lower SES, urban areas (industrialized countries)
• social drift hypothesissocial drift hypothesis:– effected individuals move to lower SES due to social and
occupational incompetence (parents normally higher SES)
• social causation hypothesissocial causation hypothesis:– stresses related to SE deprivation causes Schizophrenia
• immigrantsimmigrants:– Afro-Carribean in UK have higher rates of Schizophrenia
– ? Stresses of leaving own country, adapting to new environment
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Premorbid and Prodromal Phases• Premorbid personality:
– subtle motor, linguistic and social deficits in preschizophrenic children
– increased developmental deviance with age and more marked cognitive impairment in early adolescence
• Prodromal phase:– decline in the level of functioning: insiduous and
gradual
– changes in behaviour: odd ideas, eccenteric interests, changes in affect, unusual speech and bizarre perceptual experiences
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Acute Phase
• Common features:– prominent positive
symptoms: persecutory ideas, auditory hallucinations
– gradual social withdrawal / impaired work performance
10 most common sx in acutephase
SYMPTOM FREQUENCY (%)Lack of insight 97AuditoryHallucinations
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Ideas of reference 70Suspiciousness 66Flatness of affect 66Voices talking topatient
65
Delusional mood 64Persecutorydelusion
64
Thoughtalienation
52
Thought echo 50
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Chronic Phase
• Complete recovery possible after one ot two acute episodes, but many patients have a protracted illness with residual symptoms persisting between acute relapses
• Characterized by:
– thought disorder
– negative symptoms
• lack of drive
• underactivity
• social withdrawal
• emotional apathy
• THREE clinical syndromes noted in chronic schizophrenia:
– psychomotor poverty (negative symptoms)
• poverty of speech, decreased spontaneous movement, catatonia, blunting of affect
– disorganisation
• inappropriate affect, incoherent speech, poverty of content of speech
– reality distortion
• delusions, hallucinations
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Diagnosis• DSM-IV Criteria:
• >= major symptoms during 1 month1 month period delusions
hallucinations
disorganized speech
grossly disorganized or catatonic behaviour
negative symptoms
• social/occupational dysfunction
• continuous signs of disturbance for at least 6 6 monthsmonths
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Diagnosis• DSM-IV Criteria:
• subtypes: Paranoid typeParanoid type: delusions, auditory hallucinations
Disorganized typeDisorganized type: disorganized speech and behaviour, flat/inappropriate affect
Catatonic typeCatatonic type: waxy flexibility, stupor, extreme negativism, posturing, stereotyped movements, motor excitement
Undifferentiated typeUndifferentiated type
Residual typeResidual type: negative symptoms in absence of prominent delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech or behaviour or catatonic behaviour
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Catatonic Symptoms• StuporStupor: akinetic mutism - immobile, mute, unresponsive
but fully conscious
• ExcitementExcitement: uncontrolled motor activity, agitation, uninfluenced by external stimuli
• Waxy flexibilityWaxy flexibility: allowing to be placed in awkward postures without evidence of distress (a.k.a. catalepsy)
• NegativismNegativism: opposing every movement instructed to do
• Pillow signPillow sign: sleeping with head raised as if there is a pillow underneath the head
• StereotypyStereotypy: repetitive fixed pattern of purposeless movements
• MannerismMannerism: habitual seemingly goal directed movements
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Course
• In most cases there are FOUR patterns:– single episode only, no residual impairment
(22%)– several episodes, no or minimal impairment
(35%)– impairment after 1st episode, subsequent
exacerbation, no return to normality (8%)– increasing impairment with each episode, no
return to normality (35%)
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Outcome• Better in developing country (social rather than
clinical recovery)– ? better social support
• Life span of schizophrenics is shortened by 10 years– suicide
• 50% attempted• 10% commit suicide (commonly early stage): depressive
symptoms, educated, good premorbid adjustment
– common causes of death include accidents and cardiovascular disease (? complication of medication)
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Prognosis
• Predictors of good outcome:– sociodemographicsociodemographic:
• married, female
– premorbid adjustmentpremorbid adjustment:
• no previous psy. history
• good social relationships
• good work/educational record
– clinicalclinical:• acute onset• precipitated by stressful
event• older age of onset• short episode• florid psychotic symptoms• good initial response to
medication• good compliance to
medication
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Management• Principles:
– Biological• antipsychotics: typical / atypical
• Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
– Psychological• psychotherapy: supportive, cognitive therapy, token
economy
– Social• family intervention, social skills training,
rehabilitation programmes