British Civilization - Taylor & Francis eBooks

British Civilization provides a comprehensive introduction to a wide rangeof aspects of contemporary Britain including its country and people poli-tics and government education the economy the media arts and religionThe fifth edition of this highly praised textbook has been comprehensivelyupdated and revised It includes

a concise chronology of the most significant events in British history fully revised illustrations to portray contemporary British life exercises and questions to stimulate classroom discussion updated coverage of British politics to include the 2001 general elec-

tion and Blairrsquos second term new material on devolution and on Wales Scotland and Ireland more

generally insights into the attitudes of British people today towards important

issues updated guide to further reading including key web site addresses to

assist research

John Oakland is Senior Lecturer in English at the Norwegian University ofScience and Technology He is author of Contemporary Britain A Surveywith Texts (Routledge 2001) A Dictionary of British Institutions(Routledge 1993) and with David Mauk of American Civilization (3rdedition Routledge 2002)

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British Civilization

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British Civilization

An introduction

F I F T H E D I T I O N

John Oakland

111123456789101111234567892012345678930111234567894011123111London and New York

bullT

aylor amp Francis Group

bull

RO

UTLEDGE

First published in 1989

Second edition 1991Third edition 1995Fourth edition 1998

Fifth edition published in 2002by Routledge11 New Fetter Lane London EC4P 4EE

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canadaby Routledge29 West 35th Street New York NY 10001

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor amp Francis Group

copy 1989 1991 1995 1998 2002 John Oakland

All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproducedor utilised in any form or by any electronic mechanical or other meansnow known or hereafter invented including photocopying and recordingor in any information storage or retrieval system without permission inwriting from the publishers

British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Datahas been applied for

ISBN 0ndash415ndash26149ndashX (hbk)ISBN 0ndash415ndash26150ndash3 (pbk)

This edition published in the Taylor amp Francis e-Library 2003

ISBN 0-203-36159-8 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-37416-9 (Adobe eReader Format)

List of plates ixList of figures xiList of tables xiiPreface and acknowledgements xiiiChronology of significant dates in British history xiv

Introduction 1

Exercises 7Further reading 8Websites 8

1 The country 9

Geographical identities 10Physical features and climate 11Agriculture fisheries and forestry 19Energy resources 22Transport and communications 25Attitudes to the environment 30Exercises 34Further reading 34Websites 34

2 The people 37

Early settlement to AD 1066 38Growth and immigration to the twentieth century 41Immigration from 1900 45Population movements from 1900 49Attitudes to national regional and local identities 51

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Contents

Exercises 56Further reading 56Websites 57

3 Politics and government 59

Political history 60The political framework 65Constitution and monarchy 69UK Parliament role legislation and elections 74The party-political system 81UK government 85UK parliamentary control of government 89Attitudes to politics 90Exercises 91Further reading 92Websites 92

4 International relations 93

Foreign and defence policy 94Empire and Commonwealth 98The European Union (EU) 101Irish Republic and Northern Ireland 106Exercises 110Further reading 111Websites 111

5 The legal system 113

Legal history 114Sources of British law 116The court system in England and Wales 118Civil and criminal proceedings 122Law and order 128The legal profession 132Attitudes to law and order 136Exercises 137Further reading 138Websites 138

6 The economy 139

Economic history 140The modern economy policies structure and performance 141Social class the workforce and employment 148

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vi Contents

Financial institutions 152Industrial and commercial institutions 157Consumer protection 161Attitudes to the economy 161Exercises 163Further reading 163Websites 164

7 Social services 165

Social services history 167Changing family and demographic structures 169Social Security 171The National Health Service (NHS) 173The personal social services 177Housing 179Attitudes to the social services 185Exercises 186Further reading 186Websites 187

8 Education 189

School history 191The state school system 195The independent (fee-paying) school sector 198School organization and examinations 200Higher education 204Other higher education collaeges 207Further adult and lifelong education 208Attitudes to education 209Exercises 210Further reading 211Websites 211

9 The media 213

The print media 214The broadcasting media 222Media ownership and freedom of expression 229Attitudes to the media 232Exercises 233Further reading 234Websites 234

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Contents vii

10 Religion 235

Religious history 236The Christian tradition 240The Roman Catholic Church 245The non-Christian tradition 248Other non-Christian religions 249Co-operation among the churches 252Religion in schools 252Religious membership and observance 253Attitudes to religion and morality 254Exercises 257Further reading 257Websites 257

11 Leisure sports and the arts 259

Leisure activities 260Sports 266The arts 271Attitudes to leisure sports and the arts 276Exercises 277Further reading 278278

Index 279

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viii Contents

11 Welsh countryside 1712 Barley fields in Devon England 2013 The Tate Modern art gallery 2314 A London bus 2615 Waterloo International railway terminal London 2716 Sellafield nuclear reprocessing plant Windscale 3321 Women at work in a McVitiersquos food factory 4422 A Scottish fling 5323 Notting Hill Carnival 5531 Ken Livingstone Mayor of London 6732 The Scottish Parliament Edinburgh 6833 Houses of Parliament 7534 Prime Minister Tony Blair meets with his new cabinet 8741 Prime Minister Tony Blair with US President

George W Bush at the G8 summit in July 2001 9642 Prince Charles on walkabout in Saskatchewan Canada

in April 2001 9943 The European Parliament in Brussels 10451 Inside a magistratesrsquo court 11952 The Old Bailey London 12053 The Royal Courts of Justice London 12354 British riot police in action in London 13255 Outside a barristerrsquos chambers in Middle Temple London 13461 Textile factory Inverness Scotland 14562 Rover car plant Oxfordshire 14963 An open-plan office 15164 Lloydrsquos of London 155

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Plates

65 Canary Wharf London 15671 A hospital nurse 17572 A detached house 18073 A semi-detached house in Finchley North London 18074 A terrace of houses 18175 A council estate in Thamesmead London 18376 Homeless 18481 A multi-ethnic class in a primary school 19682 Girls in the classroom at Cheltenham Ladies College

a private school 19983 Children in the playground of an inner-city primary school 20184 A science class in progress 20385 Students walking through the grounds of Hertford College

Oxford 20591 Daily Express Newspaper building Blackfriars London 21792 Newspaper headlines 21993 Paparazzi at a royal event 231

101 Anglican village church Northamptonshire 241102 Westminster Abbey 243103 At prayer Roman Catholic mass 245104 Jewish bar mitzvah boy reading out of the Torah 249105 Regentrsquos Park Mosque Central London 250106 A Hindu wedding in Leicester 251111 A working menrsquos club 261112 An English pub Nottingham 264113 British holidaymakers in Gran Canaria in the

Canary Islands 265114 Manchester United fans at a football match between

their team and Tottenham Hotspur 267116 A football match Liverpool versus Tottenham Hotspur 268116 Cricket in the city Kennington estate London 269117 Cricket in the country Kent 270118 People leaving an Odeon cinema 274

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x Plates

11 The British-Irish Isles 1312 Highland and lowland Britain 1513 The British regions and energy sources 2431 The political framework 6632 The House of Commons 7633 From bill to UK Act of Parliament 7941 The European Union 2001 10351 Civil and criminal courts in England and Wales 11752 A typical magistratesrsquo court in action 12553 A typical crown court in action 12654 Criminal procedure 12761 Inflation rate 1960ndash2001 14762 Unemployment rate 1960ndash2001 15281 The current state school system 19782 The independent school sector 19891 The structure of British broadcasting 2001 228

101 Main contemporary religious groups 239

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Figures

01 Top issues facing British society 2001 421 Early settlement to AD 1066 4022 Non-white ethnic minorities in Britain 1999ndash2000 4723 Populations of major British cities estimated 2000 5031 British governments and Prime Ministers since 1945 8132 General election results 2001 8441 European Union Parliament election results 1999 (Britain) 10591 The main national newspapers 2000 218

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Tables

This book examines some central features of British society and places themwithin a historical context Current debates developments and attitudes onmany issues are also evaluated

The book is necessarily indebted to many sources for its facts ideasand statistics to which acknowledgement is gratefully made (see Furtherreading) Particular thanks are due to Britain An Official Handbook(annual) and the Annual Abstract of Statistics (both published by theSationery Office London) British Social Attitudes and Market andOpinion Research International (MORI)

The websites included in this book are mainly those of public insti-tutions Although these may present official and standard views they areoften more permanent up-to-date and informative than many independentwebsites which can quickly change their addresses and content or simplydisappear

The term lsquobillionrsquo in this book means lsquothousand millionrsquo

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Preface andacknowledgements

Early history

Prehistory British-Irish islands once part of European land mass warmerconditions alternated with Ice Ages

500000 BC earliest human bones found in southern England

250000 BC nomadic Old Stone Age (Palaeolithic) peoples

50000 BC warmer climate encouraged the arrival of distant ancestors of themodern populations

10000 BC end of Ice Ages Population consisted of hunter-gatherers andfishers

5000 BC contemporary islands gradually separated from continental Europe

3000 BC New Stone Age (Neolithic) peoples populated the western parts ofthe islands Farming introduced

2400 BC Beaker Folk (Bronze Age) settled in southeast and eastern England

ca 600 BC settlement of the Celts (Iron Age) began

55ndash54 BC Julius Caesarrsquos exploratory expeditions

AD 43 Roman conquest of England Wales and (temporarily) lowlandScotland by Claudius Christian influences

200ndash400 the Scots from Ireland colonized western Scotland

122ndash38 Hadrianrsquos Wall built between Scotland and England

409 Roman army withdrew from Britain

410 Germanic (Anglo-Saxon) invasions began Anglo-Saxon kingdomscreated from the 450s in England Mainly Celtic peoples in WalesIreland parts of Scotland and Cornwall

430 Existing Christianity in Ireland later spread by St Patrick andothers in Ireland and Scotland

597 St Augustine converted Anglo-Saxons to Christianity

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Chronology ofsignificant dates inBritish history

664 Synod of Whitby chose Roman Catholic church model

789ndash95 Scandinavian (Viking) raids began

820 the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms dominated by Wessex

832ndash60 union of the Celts (Scots and Picts) in Scotland to form most ofthe eventual kingdom of Scotland

878 Vikings defeated in England by King Alfred of Wessex

954 the Kingdom of England formed

1014 Vikings defeated in Ireland

The early Middle Ages

1066 William the Conqueror defeated King Harold at Hastings andascended the English throne Feudalism introduced

1086 Domesday Book (tax records) compiled in England

1169 Henry II invaded the east coast of Ireland

1215 King John signed Magna Carta which protected English feudal(aristocratic) rights against royal abuse

c 1220 first Oxford and Cambridge colleges created

1258 and first English parliamentary structures1264

1275 the Model Parliament (first regular English Parliament)

1282 much of Wales controlled by England under Edward I

1296 the Scots defeated by Edward I

1297 first Irish Parliament

1314 battle of Bannockburn regained Scottish independence

1326 first Scottish Parliament

The late Middle Ages

1337 Hundred Years War between England and France began

1348ndash49 Black Death (bubonic plague) destroyed a third of the islandsrsquopopulation

1362 English replaced French as the official language

1381 Peasantsrsquo Revolt in England

ca 1387ndash Geoffrey Chaucer wrote The Canterbury Talesca 1394

1400ndash10 Failed Welsh revolt by Owain Glyndwr against English

1407 the House of Commons became responsible for taxation

1411 the first university in Scotland founded (St Andrews)

1415 the Battle of Agincourt England defeated France

1455ndash87 Wars of the Roses between Yorkists and Lancastrians

1477 first book printed in England by William Caxton

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Chronology of s ignif icant dates xv

Towards the nation state (Britain)

1509 accession of Henry VIII

1534ndash40 English Reformation Henry VIII broke with Papacy and becameHead of the English Church (Roman Catholic)

1536ndash42 Acts of Union integrated England and Wales

1547ndash53 Protestantism became official religion in England under Edward VI

1553ndash58 Catholic reaction under Mary I

1558ndash1603 Elizabeth I Protestant ascendancy

1558 Calais Englandrsquos last possession in France lost

1560 creation of Protestant Church of Scotland by John Knox

1584 first English colony (Virginia) in North America

1587 Mary Stuart Queen of Scots executed in London

1588 defeat of Spanish Armada

ca 1590ndash plays of William Shakespeare writtenca 1613

1600 East India (trading) Company founded

1603 union of the two crowns under James VI of Scotland (James I ofEngland)

1607 Plantation of Ulster with Scottish and English settlers

1611 the Authorized (King James) Version of the Bible issued

1642ndash48 Civil Wars between King and Parliament

1649 execution of Charles I monarchy abolished

1653ndash58 Oliver Cromwell ruled as Lord Protector

1660 monarchy restored under Charles II

1665 the Great Plague in England

1666 the Great Fire of London

1679 Habeus Corpus Act passed Party political system grew

1688 The Glorious Revolution accession of William III and Mary II tothe throne

1689 the Declaration of Rights

1690 Irish defeated by William III at the Battle of the Boyne

The eighteenth century

1707 Acts of Union joined EnglandWales and Scotland (Great Britain)

1715 Scottish Jacobite rebellions crushed

1721 Walpole became Britainrsquos first prime minister

1739 War with Spain

1742 War with France

1745 Failed Scottish rebellion under Bonnie Prince Charlie

1760sndash1830s Industrial Revolutions

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xvi Chronology of s ignif icant dates

1761 opening of the Bridgewater Canal began the Canal Age

1769 the steam engine and the spinning machine invented

1775ndash83 American War for Independence loss of 13 Colonies

1793ndash1815 Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars

The nineteenth century

1801 Act of Union joined Great Britain and Ireland (United Kingdom)

1805 Battle of Trafalgar Nelson defeated the French navy

1807 abolition of the slave trade in the British Empire

1815 Napoleon defeated by Wellington at Waterloo

1825 opening of the Stockton and Darlington Railway the worldrsquos firstpassenger railway

1829 Catholic emancipation (freedom of religious worship)

1832 First Reform Act extended the male franchise (vote)

1838 the Peoplersquos Charter and the beginning of trade unions

1839 The Durham Report on dominion status for some colonies

1845 disastrous harvest failure in Ireland

1851 first trade unions appeared

1853ndash56 The Crimean War

1868 Trades Union Congress (TUC) established

1870 elementary state school education introduced

1871 legal recognition of trade unions

1899 The Boer War (South Africa)

The twentieth century

1901 death of Queen Victoria (born 1837)

1911 political power of the House of Lords restricted

1914ndash18 First World War

1916 Easter Rising against Britain in Dublin

1918 all men over twenty-one receive the vote

1921ndash22 Irish Free State established Northern Ireland remained part of theUnited Kingdom

1924 the first Labour government

1926 the General Strike

1928 votes for all women over twenty-one

1931 the Commonwealth officially formed

1939ndash45 Second World War (W Churchill Prime Minister 1940)

1944 the Butler Education Act compulsory secondary school education

1945 United Nations formed

1947 Independence for India and Pakistan

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Chronology of s ignif icant dates xvii

1948 National Health Service created

1949 Irish Free State became Republic of Eire NATO created

1952 accession of Elizabeth II

1956 the Suez Canal Crisis

1965 death penalty abolished

1965ndash69 oil and gas discoveries in the North Sea

1968 protest and violence erupted in Northern Ireland

1972 direct rule from Westminster in Northern Ireland

1973 Britain entered European Economic Community (now EU)

1975 referendum on Britainrsquos continued membership of EEC

1979 Margaret Thatcher Britainrsquos first woman Prime Minister

1982 the Falklands War with Argentina

1994 the Channel Tunnel between France and Britain opened

1997 referendums on devolution for Scotland and Wales

1999ndash2000 devolution structures in Scotland (a Parliament) and Wales andNorthern Ireland (Assemblies)

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xviii Chronology of s ignif icant dates

TH E F O L L O W I N G C H A P T E R S E X A M I N E Britainrsquos physical geographythe British people and the historical evolution of structural features in

the society The latter currently take many different forms and sizesoperate on both national and local levels embrace a range of attitudes andvalues and help to promote and condition cultural identities

The major formal features such as Parliament monarchy law andgovernment are concerned with state or public business and initiate poli-cies in top-down and hierarchical form But there are many other structureson both public and private levels of social activity such as sports familiesleisure activities neighbourhoods popular culture and habitual ways of life which have their own value-systems They frequently have a bottom-up form and may illustrate more localized informal and individualisticcharacteristics

The lsquoBritish way of lifersquo and British identities are partly determinedby how people function within and react to national and local structureswhether positively or negatively These are not remote abstractions butdirectly influence individuals in their daily lives For example governmentpolicies affect citizens and families commercial organizations influencechoices in music clothes and fashion the media try to shape news valuesand agendas sponsorship and advertising may determine sports activitiesand local government partly conditions community life These featurescover a range of practices on both high and popular cultural levels Theirnumber and variety mean that there are many different lsquoways of lifersquo inBritain and all contribute to the diversity and pluralistic identities ofcontemporary society

Social structures must adapt to new situations if they are to surviveand their present roles may be very different from their original functions

Introduction

In earlier centuries England Scotland Wales and Ireland experienced veryvaried events and conflicts in their historical growth But since 1707 whenEngland and Wales were united with Scotland as Great Britain and since1801 when the United Kingdom (England Scotland Wales and Ireland)was formed British state structures and a resulting social life have gener-ally evolved slowly unevenly and pragmatically rather than by violentchange

These characteristics have often been attributed to the allegedlyinsular and conservative mentalities of island peoples with their supposedpreference for traditional habits and institutions Some influences havecome from abroad But the absence of any successful external military inva-sion of the islands since the Norman Conquest of AD 1066 has allowedEngland Scotland Wales and Ireland to develop internally in distinctiveways despite wars and disputes between them The resulting social prin-ciples such as parliamentary democracy and religion have often beenimitated by other countries or exported overseas through the creation ofan empire and a commercial need to establish world markets for Britishgoods

The development of the British state and its empire historically wasaided by increasing military and economic strength so that by the nine-teenth century Britain had become a dominant world power But thecountry has experienced substantial changes since the earlier imperialperiod and from the mid-twentieth century Today it is a complex societyin which diversity has created problems as well as advantages

Britain today may give an impression of homogeneous or uniformbehaviour But there are differences in the society such as the culturaldistinctiveness and separate identities of Wales Scotland and NorthernIreland (leading to the devolution of some political power in 1999ndash2000)subsequent demands for local autonomy in some English regions (such asthe north-east) disparities between affluent and economically depressedareas throughout the country (including the decay and social deprivationof many inner-city locations) alleged cultural gaps between North andSouth political variety (reflected in support for different political parties indifferent parts of Britain) debates on the positions of women minoritygroups and ethnic communities (with tensions between national identityand ethnicity) campaigns for individual and collective rights (with theconflict between rights and responsibilities) a gulf between rich and poor(with a growing underclass of disadvantaged alienated people) and gener-ational differences between young and old

Such features illustrate the present divisions in British society Theysuggest a decline in the traditional deference to authority consensus viewsand national institutions The people are now more Nonconformist multi-ethnic and individualistic than in the past Opinion polls suggest that the

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2 Introduction

British feel that they have become more aggressive more selfish lesstolerant less kind less moral less honest and less polite Their society issometimes portrayed as one riddled with mistrust coarseness and cynicismin which materialism relativistic values celebrity worship and a sensa-tionalist tabloid media constitute the new standards

Arguably such developments have led to an increase in anti-socialbehaviour yobbishness public scruffiness serious alchohol and drug abusedisputes between neighbours street crime and public disorder The tolerantcivic image of individual liberty and sense of community which foreignersand the British often have of the country has suffered Critics and politi-cians want a return to social responsibility consensus or inclusive politicsand a caring society in which individuals feel that they have a place

Many Britons are worried about the quality and services of theirsociety An opinion poll prior to the 2001 general election found which issues were important for them in deciding which party to vote for(Table 01) Such issues are of concern to and affect British people on apersonal level in their daily lives

Pressures are consequently placed on social structures and politiciansto reflect and respond more adequately to current worries The perfor-mances of British national and local institutions are vigorously debated andmany are found wanting Questions are asked as to whether the existingstructures can cope with the needs and demands of contemporary life and whether (and how) they might be reformed in order to operate moreefficiently and responsively Such questioning is also linked to debatesabout how the country should be organized socially politically andeconomically

This domestic situation has been influenced by external pressuresSince the Second World War (1939ndash45) Britain has had to adjust withdifficulty to the results of a withdrawal from empire a reduction in worldstatus global economic recessions increased foreign competition andchanges in the geo-political world order Britain has been forced into areluctant search for a new identity and direction While maintaining manyof its traditional worldwide commercial and cultural links it has movedfrom empire and the Commonwealth towards an economic and politicalcommitment to Europe mainly through membership of the EuropeanUnion (EU)

In recent centuries Britain rarely saw itself as part of mainlandEurope It sheltered behind the barrier of the English Channel and itsoutlook was westwards and worldwide Today the psychological and phys-ical isolation from Europe is changing as illustrated by increasedco-operation between Britain and other European countries and by theopening (1994) of a Channel rail tunnel between England and France Butthe relationship between Britain and Europe continues to be problematic

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Introduction 3

and new associations have been forced by events and circumstances ratherthan wholeheartedly sought

Despite such developments and more internal social diversity thereis still a conservatism in British life which regards change with suspicionThe lsquoforces of conservatismrsquo (in Tony Blairrsquos words) may lead to tensionbetween the often enforced need for reform and a nostalgia for an assumedideal past They can cause difficulties for progress and the evolution ofsocial structures Historical fact demonstrates that the past in Britain wasnot as idyllic as is sometimes imagined But the myth and traditionalpatterns of behaviour still hold considerable attraction for many people

Fundamental change does not come easily to old cultures such asBritain and social structures (or the human beings who operate them) areoften resistant to major alteration It is argued that Britain since the 1950shas been unwilling to face large-scale reassessment in its social politicaleconomic and institutional structures A relative economic decline since the late nineteenth century was joined to a political system and nationalmentality which could not cope with the reality or needs of the post-

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4 Introduction

T A B L E 0 1 Top issues facing British society 2001

Per cent

Health care 73

Education 62

Law and order 50

Pensions 40

Taxation 37

Public transport 31

Managing the economy 31

Unemployment 30

Asylum seekersimmigration 27

Europe 26

Protecting the natural environment 26

Housing 21

Animal welfare 11

Defence 11

The constitution and devolution 8

Northern Ireland 7

Trade unions 6

Source MORI June 2001

industrial and culturally diverse society that Britain had become Much ofthis decline was supposedly due to long-term and global events which werenot reversible But it is argued that the country still suffers from structuraldefects which need radical rethinking Pragmatic evolution and a com-placent attachment to past habits are in this view no longer sufficient

Britain does have its problems There is continuing social instabilitysuch as the tension between tradition and modernization a gap betweenrich and poor industrial and technological change inadequacies in socialinstitutions (such as education and health) alleged lack of governmentalcompetence and vision social fragmentation and an apparent decline incohesion and identity

But despite the often lurid picture of social decay painted by somecommentators the essential fabric of British society is not falling apartBiased ideological views and a British capacity for self-denigration andcomplaint can encourage unbalanced sensational views and events maybe exaggerated beyond their national importance or representative valueMost British people now enjoy greater prosperity and opportunitiesalthough the economy suffered a globally influenced downturn in somesectors from 2001 But continuing structural and social problems warnagainst undue complacency

Assumptions about British life have in fact been strongly questionedin recent decades Conservative governments under Margaret Thatcher(1979ndash90) tried to reform social structures and promote new attitudesThey attempted to reduce the statersquos role in public affairs and replace it bylsquomarket forcesrsquo The focus was upon economic growth competition priva-tization (state concerns transferred to the private sector) the creation ofchoice and standards in public services such as education and health andthe reform of bodies such as the trade unions some professions and localgovernment People were encouraged to be more responsible for their ownaffairs without reliance on the state for support (the lsquodependency culturersquo)and to adopt more individual competitiveness and efficiency (the lsquoenterpriseculturersquo)

Such policies were partially successful on the economic level but therewas resistance to the alleged accompanying selfishness and social divisive-ness While some people applauded the freedoms of an enterprise cultureothers strongly wished for more intervention and funding in public socialservices This suggests that it is difficult to change Britonsrsquo attitudes andthat many people still look to the state for support in areas such as healtheducation and Social Security Nevertheless market programmes continuedunder the Conservative Prime Minister John Major (1990ndash97)

Meanwhile the Labour Party modernized its policies and moved to the political centre Since gaining power in 1997 the Labour govern-ment under Tony Blair has not deviated from the Conservative economic

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Introduction 5

approach while pursuing cautious policies It has also attempted (notwithout opposition) to modernize Britain by creating a lsquonew young andinclusiversquo society It is addressing social and economic realities emphasizespersonal initiative and responsibility and stresses that hard choices must bemade But the government will have to deliver on its 2001 election promisesto improve public services It has spent large amounts of money on educa-tion health and transport in order to prevent their collapse raising fearsof personal income tax rises

Opposition to some government programmes (such as the localgovernment property tax under Thatcher or fuel prices and rural policyunder Blair) and acceptance of others demonstrate that social change canoccur in various often interconnected ways Some social structures witheraway because they are no longer used Others are reformed internally asnew situations arise Additional forces for change are opposition politicalparties with their alternative programmes interest or pressure groupsexerting influence upon decision-makers grassroots movements protestingat some action or lack of action campaigns by the media to promote reformor uncover scandals and the weight of public opinion for or against offi-cial plans However government initiatives are the single most importantfactor in determining structural change as politicians implement policies orrespond to events

The British allow their governments a great deal of power in therunning of the country But there is a limit to their tolerance and theirdisquiet may be shown in public opinion polls demonstrations and generalelection results Most politicians are sensitive to the views of the peoplesince their hold upon political power is dependent upon the electorateGovernments usually govern with at least one eye on public opinion andgenerally attempt to gain acceptance for their policies They have to movecautiously (even with big majorities in the House of Commons like theLabour government) and may suffer setbacks in some of their programmes

The British assume rightly or wrongly that they have an individualindependence and liberty within the framework of social institutions andare quick to voice disapproval if their interests are threatened Protest is anatural and traditional reaction as well as being a safety valve against moreserious social and political disruption But dissension may be neutralizedby the promise of reform or ignored by government Adequate responsesmay not come from the authorities and there is always the danger of moreserious conflict and public alienation However peaceful evolution char-acterizes most of British life and gradualist changes reflect the diversenature of the society and its attitudes

But the British are healthily cynical irreverent critical and increas-ingly apathetic about their state institutions and political leaders BritishSocial Attitudes 1988ndash9 (pp 121ndash2) suggested that lsquoThe [British] publicrsquos

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6 Introduction

trust in the pillars of the British establishment is at best highly qualified [They] seem intuitively to have discovered that the surest protectionagainst disillusionment with their public figures and powerful institutionsis to avoid developing illusions about them in the first placersquo

The British today are confronting cultural and economic realitiesdifferent from those of the past They do not enjoy the benefits of earlierindustrial revolutions such as cheap raw materials cheap labour and anuncompetitive world market The society has seen a decline in traditionalcertainties and become more diverse mobile stressful conflict-ridden andindividualistic Old pragmatic methods of innovation which illustrate theBritish tendency to muddle through difficulties without long-term planningor fundamental reform are no longer sufficient for an era in which special-ized education and training high-technology competence and a need torespond to international competition are the main determinants

But a British CouncilMORI poll in November 1999 showed thatmany overseas countries see Britain as tradition-ridden backward-lookingand conventional with images of monarchy kilts castles and aristocracypredominating It is argued that Britain must change this image and reducethe gap between such foreign perceptions and the countryrsquos contemporaryreality while preserving its traditional strengths

On the other hand a survey by Encyclopaedia Britannica inNovember 2001 found that most recent school-leavers in Britain were igno-rant of some of the key events in British history and a quarter had nointerest in bygone days Historical knowledge was also sorely lackingamong adults

Explain and examine the following terms

insular grassroots pragmatic sponsorshipdeference conservatism inner-city diversityconsensus kilts pluralism ethnicnostalgia autonomy post-industrial modernizationmyth dependency nonconformist evolutionenterprise Thatcher yobbishness communityhierarchies homogeneous inclusive apathetic

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Introduction 7

Exercises

Write short essays on the following topics

1 Examine the view that Britain is a quaint old-fashioned museum piecebackward-looking and conventional

2 What are some of the characteristics that you would associate with theBritish people and their society

Abercrombie Nicholas and Warde Alan (2000) Contemporary British Society OxfordBlackwell Publishers

Blair Tony (1996) New Britain My Vision of a Young Country London Fourth Estate

English Richard and Kenny Michael (eds) (1999) Rethinking British Decline LondonMacmillan

Halsey AH and Webb J (2000) Twentieth-Century British Social Trends LondonPalgraveMacmillan

Marwick Arthur (2000) A History of the Modern British Isles 1914ndash1999 OxfordBlackwell Publishers

Obelkevich James and Catterall Peter (eds) (1994) Understanding Post-War BritishSociety London Routledge

Savage SP and Atkinson R (2001) Public Policy Under Blair LondonPalgraveMacmillan

Central Office of Information wwwcoigovuk

Prime Ministerrsquos Office wwwnumber-10govuk

British Tourist Authority wwwvisitbritaincom

British Council httpwwwmoricompolls1999britcounshtml

The MORI Organization wwwmoricom

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8 Introduction

Further reading

Websites