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POSTMODERN MARKETING: TOWARDS A CONVERGENCE BETWEEN THE
INDIVIDUALISTIC
APPROACH AND THE TRIBAL APPROACH
Rabeb BLAIECH*
(Corresponding author)
Faculty of Economic Sciences and Management-Tunis-Tunisia
Abderrazak GHARBI*
Faculty of Economic Sciences and Management-Tunis-Tunisia
Manel HAMOUDA*
Faculty of Economic Sciences and Management-Tunis-Tunisia
(*Authors Names are sorted by alphabetical order)
Abstract
This research focuses on the approaches that structure the
postmodern marketing framework: the individualistic
approach and the Latin approach. It is a synthesis work
elaborated in order to show, firstly, the differences
between these two approaches on the theoretical, epistemological
and methodological levels. Secondly, we tried
to overstep these differences by highlighting the common points.
Our goal is to diffuse the understanding of
postmodernism and to reduce the postmodern theorization
contention by advocating a moderate vision that
combines individualistic and Latin approach.
Key words: Postmodern Marketing, individualistic approach,
tribal approach, epistemology, methodology,
convergence.
1. Introduction
Postmodernism was born due to the modernity myth saturation
(Maffesoli, 1988 in Basilico, 2003;
Venkatesh, Sherry and Firat, 1993). The origin of this paradigm
has its first signs in areas such as art and
architecture. It is that towards the 90s when Marketing and
Management became aware of the postmodernism
revolution (Venkatesh, Sherry and Firat, 1993). The growing
implications of postmodernism affect, closely,
various marketing subjects, as consumer behavior (Venkatesh,
Sherry and Firat, 1993; Firat and Venkatesh,
1995; Joy and Venkatesh, 1994), consumption (Elliott, 1998;
Cooper et al., 2005, Holt, 1997; Sandikci et al.,
2002. Sitz and Amine, 2004; Chantelat et al., 2002),
communication (Firat and Christensen, 2005; Patterson,
1998; Noah and Venkatesh, 1999) and industrial marketing (Arias
et al., 2001). However, studies which have
traced the panorama of the debates dealing with postmodern
marketing highlight two main trends: the Latin
versus the Anglo-Saxon. Thus, two distinct contributions were
identified. The Anglo-Saxon school of thought
sees that the fundamental change of postmodern marketing is the
individualistic side of the consumer and the
consumption (Firat and Venkatesh, 1993). Whereas, the Latin view
believes that the tribalism of the consumer
and the consumption experiences (Cova and Badot, 1994 in Cova,
2004) is the major feature that characterizes
the postmodern marketing. Instead of trying to analyze these two
trends and to studying their points of
divergence and eventual convergences, the lack of consensus
between these two schools of thought, led that
contributions emerging from these debates were ignored (El
Rigaux-Bricmont and Kamel, 2011) in consumer
and consumption researches. So, the main question of this study
is: to what extent can we reconcile between the
individualistic approach and the tribal approach of the
postmodern marketing?
This research aim is, therefore, the study of the convergence
points between the two approaches in
order to propose a moderate view. This moderate view enables
postmodern marketing to be an analytical
framework adapted to consumer research either alone or in group.
So, a literature review was conducted and
which presents, firstly, the research framework through the
postmodernism definition and the rise of postmodern
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marketing. Secondly, an analysis of the characteristics of each
approach will be made by showing its
contributions on the theoretical, epistemological and
methodological side. Thirdly and finally, a synthesis of the
two approaches over the discussed sides will be realized in
order to identify the convergence points between the
individualistic and tribal approach.
2. Postmodernism and Postmodern Marketing
2.1. Postmodernism
Postmodernism can be defined in different ways, but what seems
to gather all the authors who
addressing this subject; it is what Lyotard suggests that the
societies do not meet the requirements defined by the
modern thought context. According to him, these societies are
defined by a return to the irrational, the
subjectivity and the fragmentation. He proposes to use the term
of "postmodern" to refer to the new cultural
system, in which predominates the disbelief towards
"metanarratives" (Lyotard, 1979) legitimizing knowledge
and coexistence of multiple "language games" that takes body in
the fragmentation of activities, particularly
scientific (Lyotard, 1979, 1988). To better understand
postmodernism, three approaches have been identified
(Firat and Vankatech 1995): Critical postmodernism, Affirmative
postmodernism and Liberatory
postmodernism.
- Critical postmodernism or skeptical postmodernism.
Postmodernists, who adopt a critical perspective, consider
postmodern conditions as the result of an excess of modernism,
or what Jameson (1984) calls a "late
capitalism". They stand for a radical break with the culture of
late capitalism and a return to some of moral
utopianism (Jameson, 1984, Ziegler, 1991). Skeptical
postmodernists have adopted positions addressed with
more inquisition than tolerance. By doing this, they forget even
their basic precepts based on the multiplicity of
a text meanings (Cova and al., 2012). So, this postmodern
approach is considered as the most extreme
postmodernism formulation. It tackles the basis of social
science and questions it radically.
- Affirmative postmodernism also called celebratory
postmodernism. This postmodern approach address a direct
criticism to modernism and calls for imminent dissolution of its
metanarratives and great projects that seems to
be timeless and unshakable (Vattimo, 1988). It encourages
redefinitions and more elaborating research
questions.
- Liberatory postmodernism: This postmodernism approach is
advanced by Firat and Venkatesh (1995). They
are closer to "Celebratory postmodernism" in its modernism
criticism and its belief in a liberating potential of
postmodern conditions and postmodern ideas towards discourse and
epistemology. Liberatory postmodernists
partially agree with Jenks (1987) that postmodern conditions
cannot be considered as an interruption and break
of modernism, but an extension and maturation of it.
2.2. Postmodern Marketing
Marketing field has not explicitly recognized postmodernism as a
major descriptor of the current social
condition that from the 90s (Lo 'pez-bonilla and Lo' pez-bonilla
2009). Postmodernism was introduced, initially,
in marketing thanks to many authors such as Hirschman, Holbrook,
Firat and Venkatesh, and it has resulted in
considerable contributions (Saren, 2011), including a reflection
on the paradigms to understand the postmodern
consumption complexity (Hirschman and Holbrook, 1992) and the
role of marketing in today's consumer
society (Firat and Venkatesh, 1993; Badot and Cova 1992a,
1992b). The most recent postmodernism definition
applied in marketing studies was proposed by Gerrit Van Raaij
(1998) who defined it as: a cultural episode,
characterized by a pluralism of styles (of consumption) and
ideologies, a need for hyperreality and self-
expression through consumption.
The lack of consensus on postmodernism definitions and
approaches is also transposed to the marketing
discipline as researchers do not agree on marketing approaches
applied in postmodernism context. Indeed, these
approaches are marked by the duality individualism / tribalism.
This duality in the vision of the postmodern
marketing transformation is expressed even on a geographical way
as individualistic approach is advocated by
the North American or Anglo-Saxon view, while the tribal
approach is strongly supported by the Latin view.
Otherwise, the anglo saxon view or the individualistic approach
applied to postmodern marketing fits rather in
the liberatory postmodernism thought (Firat and Vankatech, 1995)
whereas the latin postmodern marketing
view would be integrated into the affirmative postmodernism
approach (Cova and Badot, 1994 in Cova,
2004).Table1 summarizes the different approaches of
postmodernism and postmodern marketing.
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3. Postmodern Marketing approaches: theoretical, epistemological
and methodological contributions
The divergence of postmodernist approaches and visions applied
to marketing is appeared in terms of
theoretical differences related to consumer and consumption
nature. On the epistemological side this divergence
is seen by differences in the reality perception as well as in
the research methods and evaluation criteria of
scientific production as a methodological differences. Hence, in
this section, we will try to study the theoretical,
epistemological and methodological contributions of the
individualistic approach and the tribal approach applied
to postmodern marketing research.
3.1. Individualistic approach
The individualistic approach is supported by the proponents of
the North American view, Anglo-Saxon
or also called Nordic view. They advocate that the postmodern
era is the era of the individualism, which is the
main feature of the postmodern consumption and postmodern
consumer behavior.
3.1.1 Theoretical contributions
- Postmodern individualism: This approach initiated by Firat
(1991), Van Raaij (1993), Firat and
Venkatesh (1993), is trying to adapt to the fragmentation and
the postmodern individualism. It is looking to the
consumer proximity. This approach is also advocated by
Lipovetsky (1990), who sees in the postmodern era, an
era of individualism resurgence marked by an authority crisis
and a social vacuum. According to him,
postmodern society has no idol, no taboo, no more glorious image
of itself, no more inspiring historical project
(Lipovetsky, 1983). The individual is free of all life ideals
and societal obligations which he felt bounded in the
modern era, the individual is becoming left to himself. He is
completely autonomous. This customization
process, called "trial personalization" by Lipovetsky (1983),
begins to have its impact on social relationship as
far the individual triumph group.
In today's societies, expertise and authority are as much more
situated on the consumer side than the
supplier one (Keat et al, 1994). Indeed, it is a consumer with
developed skills by the accumulation of daily
experiences with a product or service. A consumer with a set of
theoretical knowledge acquired through the
information technology proliferation, especially Internet.
Knowledge and skills that form the basis of the
consumers power against suppliers power what drive Hemetsberger
(2003) to describe the postmodern
consumer as a "prosumer" because consumers are involved in the
production process and even seem to be the
first producers of consumer experience. This power shift seems
to be explained not only by a growing
institutional distrust and increasing consumers skills, but also
by a change in society legitimation systems.
One of the most prominent evidence of this structural change is
the heroes of popular culture (Eco,
1978 in Vankatech and Firat, 1993). Nowadays heroes appear more
as more simple heroes, not as super heroes
with supernatural and incredible powers. On this regard Eco
(1978 in Vankatech and Firat, 1993) states that it is
television which imposed the everyman against the superman, by
offering of the everyday man model with his
weaknesses and imperfections: a model in which each one can find
himself.
-Postmodern individualism reasons: The main purpose of the
individualistic approach is to build,
develop and maintain a relationship with a clearly identified
customer, rather than to fill a market composed of a
mass of unknown persons grouped into homogeneous segments (Firat
and Venkatesh, 1993). So, this approach
recommends the abandon of mass marketing to direct marketing
based on a customers and well known
prospects database relayed by an industrial organization in
order to realize a "mass customization".
The principle of marketing practice adapted to the postmodern
individual age can then be considered as
follows: a highly personalized marketing form which enables to
recognize, understand, appreciate and serve the
interests and needs of consumers whose personal identities and
marketing profiles are known (Firat, 1991; Van
Raaij, 1993; Firat and Venkatesh, 1993). The argumentation of
this approach is based on the following reasons:
- If we cannot divide the market into homogeneous and stable
segments, so, it remains only to track
individually the consumer (as technology progress including
computing permits it);
- If the consumer is fickle, in perpetual movement, it is
necessary to try at least to predict its behavior
and to be able to react as quickly as possible to its new
aspirations through a continuous contact;
- If the consumer is individualistic, then, he looks for all
which allows him to maintain and develop its
freedom, as a trust relationship with a supplier who releases
him from the material life aspects by the
offered service quality;
- If the consumer seeks to differentiate itself, he asks for
individualized products and services that only a
constant, close and interactive contact, close and interactive
enables to provide it.
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- Individualistic postmodern consumption: At the consumption
level and in the context of the individualistic
approach, postmodern consumer behavior researchers, privileged
an experiential vision which emphasize the
regret values as well as the individual subjectivity (Addis and
Holbrook, 2001) rather than a functional and
progressive consumption vision. From a micro-economic and
psychological origin, the functional and
progressive vision highlights the information search and
influence multi-attribute mechanisms processing to
optimize a transaction made by a single individual. Whereas, in
the experiential perspective of consumption, the
individual is considered as no more seeking to maximize a profit
but as claiming a hedonistic gratification.
The market is, thus, characterized by a " re enchanted " offer
and emotions produced by imaginary
projections which not only trying to meet needs, but it
affecting the consumer's quest for identity (Bud-
Renault, 2007; Filser, 1996). Individualistic approach
precursors speak of a "reenchantment of consumption"
(Firat and Vankatesh, 1995) to report the break with the modern
disenchantment consumption which had
rationalized consumers lives and made everything measured in
terms of utility. Hence, the simple act of
consumption is a means to enchant consumer daily life, indeed,
Firat and Dholakia (1998. p96) argued that:
for the postmodern consumer, consumption is not a mere act of
devouring, destroying, or using things. It is also
not the end of the (central) economic cycle, but an act of
production of experiences and selves or self-images . . .
The way to enhance and enchant life is to allow multiple
experiences, to be sensed emotionally as well as
through reason, utilizing all the aspects of being human . . .
Life is to be produced and created, in effect,
constructed through the multiple experiences in which the
consumer immerses.
3.1.2. Epistemological and methodological contributions
The epistemology is the study of science. It ensures to
completely ignore things that are aimed by
science, but it considers the science itself as an object. It
assigns as the exclusive domain of study what science
says, not what science carries about (Blanch, 1972). The use of
a research method is based on the choice of a
mode among three investigation modes: a quantitative,
qualitative and mixed mode (both quantitative and
qualitative). This choice is, often, the result of an
epistemological choice (positivism / constructivism, ....).
The individualistic or Anglo-Saxon approach applied to
postmodern marketing slots rather into the
liberatory postmodernism which considers that the postmodern
conditions can not be in a complete break with
modernism, but an extension of it (Firat and Venkatesh,
1995).
Therefore, according to this approach, marketing researchers do
not reject epistemologies and
methodologies of previous research. Indeed, these epistemologies
and methodologies remain valid in the context
of social science research in general and in marketing research
in particular. Moreover, the marketing literature
review conducted to study the postmodern consumer as an
individual (as advocated by the North American
individualistic approach) shows that research within this
approach involve several types of study mainly
quantitative, qualitative, or both, consequently these research
are positioning on more than an epistemology
(Firat and Shultz, 2001; Kniazeva and Venkatesh, 2007, Elliott,
1994; Mustonen and Honkanen, 2007).
Within the individualistic approach generated by the Anglo-Saxon
school of thought, researchers do
not advocate the abandonment of the "scientific procedures which
use for example cognitive psychology
methods, information processing and mathematical modeling in so
far as liberatory postmodernism never
suggests a complete rupture in the scientific process (Firat and
Venkatesh, 1995). Liberatory postmodernism
researchers, simply, argue that "scientific" knowledge is not
the only source of knowledge and that science does
not have to aim at a universal knowledge. The scientific
argument should combine with the narrative discourse
to produce a richer scientific texture that enables a better
knowledge of the consumer as well as his consumption
process. Liberatory postmodernism researchers consider
postmodernism as a post-universal science and not as a
post-science (Firat and Venkatesh, 1995).
Besides, this approach, suggests, the adoption of new
epistemological positionings jointly with the
existing positionings and consequently the use of new mode of
investigation such as the ethnographic
investigations (Belk et al., 1988; Kates 2000, 2002; Schouten
and Alexander Mc 1995) performed especially
when it comes to study the individual behavior in a community or
a specific subculture. Phenomenological
studies have been initiated by several researchers in studies on
possessions and relationship between objects
(Belk, 1988; Sherry 1993, 1995) or within the critical
hermeneutics context (Hudson and Ozanne, 1988). The
individualistic approach proposes to extend these
phenomenological studies in the postmodern framework.
Venkatech speaks even about the apparition of a new paradigm
called the "ethno-consumerism," which refers to
other ways of reflection about consumption practices (Venkatesh,
1995).
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3.2. Tribal approach
The Latin marketing (meridian or south) is to integrate in the
broader approach of affirmative
posmodernism (Cova and Badot, 1994 in Cova, 2004). This school
tries to provide an alternative model to
what is called "the American way of life" by promoting a
southern thought (Mediterranean) applied to
marketing that takes into account the specificities of this
geographical area.
3.2.1. Theoretical contributions
- Postmodern tribalism: This approach is grounded on the Latin
way of life, characterized by
consumers who like to live together in tribes, especially in a
time marked by individualism. Similarly, their daily
practices are made of objects and symbols re appropriation from
the market system rather than a simple
participation in it (Cova, 1999; 2004). Tribal marketing is more
communal than individual and at its center we
found tribes or communities. Relations in these groups relies
more on social ties than market relationship
(Remy, 2001; Badot and Cova, 1995). Tribes are considered as the
unit of analysis of the Latin approach. They
are defined by Maffesoli (1988, in Roncaglio and Cova, 1999),
the spiritual father of this concept, as
crystallized event, societal effervescence, more than
socio-economic object clearly defined: its a temporary
and highly emotional grouping of dissimilar persons. It is not a
closed object, it is an open system.
The use of tribal metaphor seems to be in perfect harmony with
postmodern re rooting of individuals
and the resurgence of archaic values (local particularities,
religiosity, group narcissism ). In fact, emotional
communities (Badot and Cova, 1995) or affectual (Maffesoli, 1996
in Cova and Cova, 2002) try to refresh the
ideal neighborhood community or village without necessarily
being spatially defined. Some use all the resources
of new media (computers, tablets ...) to form virtual tribes,
where face to face and physical co-presence are not
always required (Badot and Cova, 1995; Cova and Cova, 2002).
- Postmodern consumption: The new vision advocated by the Latin
school affects two important
aspects of marketing: consumption and value. In fact, this
approach considers the consumption from a micro
social perspective. In other terms, it focuses on the
interaction between persons. It is also called "societal level"
(Maffesoli, 1996 in Cova and Cova, 2002) or "primary level of
sociality" (Godbout and Caille, 1992 in Cova
and Cova, 2002), done with daily interactions and emotions. The
micro-social level of analysis would then
disclose elements imperceptible if we take them one by one, but
discerned through collective experience (Cova
and Cova, 2002).
- The value of goods and points of sales: To characterize the
postmodern social dynamics, Maffesoli
(1988 in Cova, 2004) focuses on the tribal atmosphere that grows
increasingly. Whereas, Certau (1980 in Cova,
2004) considers that the ordinary man invents his daily through
the art of turning away objects and codes in
order to reclaim at his manner the use and the space. Among the
contributions of the Latin school that can be
highlighted due to their relevance to the whole theory and
practice of marketing, is the concept of product and
services "link value" (Cova, 1997) and therefore "tribal
marketing" (Cova and Cova, 2002b). The link value is a
concept borrowed from recent work in anthropology and sociology.
It has been defined by Godbout and Caill
(1992, in Cova, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2002 and 2003) as: "the value
of a good or a service in the construction or
strengthening of links between persons, past or present, real or
imagined." Thus, to satisfy their desire for
community, postmodern individuals are more looking for product
and services for their linking value than for
their use value, whether functional or symbolic (Godbout and
Caille, 1992 in Badot and Cova, 1995). Tribalism
seems to command a redefinition of products and services value.
They play the role of cult product and place
supporting link and interdependence between persons.
The cult item is a product or a service that acts as a support
for the strengthening of neo-tribal
relationships (Badot and Cova, 2003; Cova and Cova, 2001). It
represents a vector of communion such as the
totem for primitive tribes. The cult item serves as a magnet for
the postmodern tribes and as a support for their
rituals (Badot and Cova, 1995; Cova, 1997). The valorization of
social aspects is a relatively new phenomenon.
Hence, products that enable to connect and be close are rare.
Consequently, postmodern individuals try to found
vectors of link out of the market or to turn away vectors in the
market from their original purpose (Badot and
Cova, 1995). Similarly to the cult objects, places play the role
of social ties support. These distribution sites
can be perceived and conceived as favorite territory for tribes
to practice their rituals. They become both
servuction places and ritualization places (Badot and Cova,
1995; Cova, 1997) or "living space" (Remy, 2001).
In cult places, consumers can develop social link with sellers
or other clients (Badot and Cova, 2003). Thus, to
give to the modern places of distribution a hint of link value,
some propose to put the emphasis on the funfair
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others propose a set of micro-community-based events. All those
initiatives tend to promote intimate contact
between customers in a space designed to enable the conduct of
ritual activities around an ethic theme (Badot
and Cova, 1995). To do this, the Latin school proposes to go
beyond the proximity state advocated by the
Nordic School, to that of intimacy (Cova, 199; Rmy, 2002). In
other words, not just to be close to customers
without sharing anything with them.
3.2.2. Epistemological and methodological contributions
Tribal marketing belongs to the affirmative postmodern paradigm
and joins its epistemological
evolution with the shift from positivism to interpretativism.
This is called by Sherry (1991, in Merle, 2003) the
"interpretativist turn in consumer behavior research." Tribal
marketing fits in the interpretative thought (Cova
and Roncaglio, 1999) which focuses on the consumer experiences
to observe and interpret them through many
views as offered by different theories and methods (Arnould and
Price, 1993 and Roncaglio in Cova, 1999;
Arnould and Thompson, 2005). Thus, most of the research on
communities and subcultures, when trying to
enroll in a postmodern epistemological position, use
ethnographic investigations (Belk et al., 1988; Kates 2000,
2002; Schouten and Mc Alexander, 1995).
The researcher becomes at the same time an instrument of
collection and of analysis as he has to immerse in the
studied phenomenon. Introspection is a methodological approach
advocated by Latin postmodernist, as
deconstruction and interpretation (Rosenau, 1992).
To understand consumer, Cova opts for the ethnosociological view
which mitigates the psychological
view adopted by the majority of marketing researchers (Cova and
Roncaglio, 1999). Psychology focuses on the
influence of A on B (A being an individual or a group), the
power of A over B, the contamination of B by A or
imitation of A by B. however, ethno sociology is interested in
what makes the link between A and B or better to
the being together AB, to the emotion shared between A and B.
(Cova and Roncaglio; Cova, 1999; Cova and
Cova, 2002). So, to be included within the Latin postmodern
paradigm, researches on groups behavior should
focus on the how rather than the why. In other terms they should
focus on the link rather than on its
psychological and social antecedents. Similarly, methods of
analysis should focus and even be limited to what is
qualitative (Merle, 2003). Thus, some Nordic research like those
of Bagozzi et al. (2002, 2006) although they
are interested in the study of consumers as members of virtual
communities, are not considered by the Latin as
falling within the postmodern paradigm (Merle, 2003) insofar
they tend to mathematically model the behavior
of a postmodern person defined as volatile and
unpredictable.
4. Convergence between the individualistic and the tribal
approach of postmodern marketing: Towards a
temperate (moderate) Vision
The characteristics of individualistic and tribal approaches can
raise many points of divergence, which
supports the lack of consensus between advocates of the two
schools.
First of all Nordic and Latin school disagree about the unit of
analysis. Indeed, while the first focuses on the
study of individuals, even if they may be considered in the
context of their community membership, the second
focuses on the group dimension as an object of study. At this
level, it is important to note that the
conceptualization of communities or tribes as called by southern
school is different from their Anglo-Saxon
counterparts. This difference is more salient in the context of
virtual communities. In fact, Bernard (2004) was
inspired by Rheingolds definition (1995) to elicit two
conditions necessary in order to qualify a group of
virtual community. These conditions are: members number and
interactions continuity in time. However,
Latin researchers are prudent in their use of virtual community
nomination and consider that these two criteria
are necessary but not sufficient. So, they add the conditions
put forward by Muniz and O'Guinn (2001), namely
consciousness of communities members to form a group, the
existence of rituals and traditions and a sense of
moral responsibility.
Secondly, Nordic and Latin school differ according to
consumption. Whereas the first one focuses on
individuals, the second one is based on the study of postmodern
consumers grouped around a common passion
or ethos. This new sight opens the door to the so called
community approaches of consumption (Badot and
Cova, 1995; Cova, 1997; Cova and Pace, 2005). On the other hand,
the Latin approach is thus distinguished by
its holistic vision of consumption (Cova and Cova, 2002). It is
interested in the person as a member of a tribe,
and not as an independent being trying to gather as much
experience as possible. This side is relatively
neglected by Nordic approaches (Ostergaard and Jantzen, 2000, in
Cova and Cova, 2002). We spend so "the
study of consumer behavior" to that of "the study of consumption
behavior" (Ostergaard and Jantzen, 2000, in
Cova and Cova, 2002). In this context, the meanings and symbols
associated to products and services are built
within the tribal culture.
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Thus, we observe a significant divergence between the two
schools in the overall vision of marketing.
The Anglo-Saxons (Firat and Venkatesh, 1993) perceive marketing
as a system reducing the lack of community.
So, they set in the society representations and meanings to
compensate for the individuals isolation. Whereas,
southern researchers consider marketing as community link vector
by setting in the society objects and places
designed to support multiple tribal affiliations. However,
despite the differences between the two schools, many
common points could be identified advocating a moderate
approach. These points of convergence are analyzed
according to three aspects: theoretical, epistemological and
methodological.
4.1. The theoretical convergence
Anglo-Saxon approach differs from its Latin counterpart by its
emphasis on functionality of the offer
and customer service. It also focuses on the establishment of a
personal relation between the company and its
customers. Latin researchers go beside those aspects by
according importance to the sharing link and the
reinforcement of relations between the customers themselves
(Badot and Cova, 1995). But despite differences
between the two approaches, they have on the theoretical level
one thing in common: they closely study
consumers (Brown, 1993, 1994) that are either alone or in
groups. A better understanding of the consumer is, in
fact, the ultimate goal of both approaches.
According to the unit of analysis (individual versus group), we
can also shed the light on a second point
of convergence between the two approaches. Indeed, Anglo-Saxons
are more flexible and their research on
virtual communities include chat rooms, bulletin boards,
discussion groups (Dholakia et al., 2004; From Valck
et al., 2009; Pentina, 2008) and online forums in general. This
perspective opens the opportunity to study a
larger number of groups influencing online consumer behavior. It
may, however, overestimate their potential by
the excessive use under the label "virtual communities". While
Latin are very restrictive in their use of the term
virtual communities as a unit of analysis and its application is
only plausible under certain brand communities
called "cult" (Badot and Cova, 1995; Cova, 1997). Thus,
researches remain limited in this regard to some brand
communities as "Harley Davidson" and "Apple". In this research
we can bring closer the two perspectives in
favor of a moderate position. It considers that a group is
described as a community only if: (1) it contains a
sufficient number of people (2) interacting for a sufficient and
enough time (3) for human relationships to be
forged.
On the other hand, whether Latin or Nordic, both schools agree
on what they call the "re-enchantment
of consumption" (Firat and Venkatesh, 1995), indicating the
liberation from rationalist (meeting consumer
needs) and assert a sensualist claim (Badot and Cova, 2003).
Distribution and consumption while leaving their
economic function and status would go to replace the religions
(Patterson, 1998; Badot and Cova, 2003). In
addition, the redefinition of postmodern consumption by the two
approaches as "re enchanted" or "experiential"
emphasizes the importance of taking into account the affective
dimension. A long neglected aspect by
modernism in favor of the rational individual acting to maximize
his profit. At the end of this observation, the
Nordic propose to be close to new experiences essentially
created by postmodern people. While Latin try to
overstep this state of proximity to that of intimacy through
placing in the market products and spaces that
support the link between group members. That helps living
extraordinary experiences in the terms of Arnould
and Price (1993). Therefore, whatever it is proximity value or
link value, the two definitions tend in the new
conceptualization of consumption to focus on the hedonistic
dimension with varied degrees of interventions
from companies.
4.2. The epistemological and methodological convergence
In theory, postmodern epistemology applied to social sciences is
post-positivist and anti-positivist
(Rosenau 1992). Linked to the refusal of "metanarratives"
(Lyotard 1979), epistemology shows the need for
contextualized theories until there is no objective reality, but
realities corresponding to the meanings attributed
by those who perceive them (Rosenau 1992). On the other hand,
the historical reality was that postmodernism
had several aspects. One aspect of postmodernism is that it is a
state of knowledge and expression of theoretical
thought. The thinker who reasons about this aspect of
postmodernity will therefore focus on expression of
theoretical thought. In other words, they are discourse
(theoretical) which constitute the object of his analysis.
He expressed them in a metalanguage, that is to say, a language
of second degree referred to an object (Bauman,
1992).
According to the individualistic approach, although it uses
interpretativism and existing epistemologies
in order to have a richer scientific production on consumer and
consumption. In one hand, it tends to favor
positivism in the majority of its work. On the other hand, it
uses within a given research either interpretativism
and narrative discourse or statistical tools, but not a
combination of both.
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Depending on to the tribal approach of postmodern marketing,
changes in the nature of knowledge
sought for, is naturally accompanied by upheavals in research
methodologies: with the passage from social
psychology, which focuses on the individual in society, to more
ethnographic methods, focusing on groups as
the unit of analysis (Cova and Cova, 2001).
Various studies under the postmodern marketing clearly show that
both individualistic and tribal
approaches have used multiple epistemologies (positivism,
constructivism and interpretativism). At this level of
analysis, we consider that in order to understand the persons
behavior in all its complexity, it is useful to use
multiple methods and modes of investigation: qualitative,
quantitative, but also mixed without departing from
the scope of postmodern analysis. This research tries to
advocate a moderate vision between the Latin school
and the Nordic School of postmodernism. It opens the way for the
study of individuals with the ethnology tools.
It also allows the study of postmodern groups by tools of social
psychology. Not to mention the possibility of
combining two different analytical methods within the same
search. Indeed, in the postmodern perspective,
marketing researcher can handle anything that arouses their
interest and they can implement with their acquired
knowledge. The researcher can deepen areas already studied
before. When he adopts a different perspective or if
he manages to expose different conclusions or even more detailed
than the previous results, it then produces
new scientific knowledge. It is a revolutionary interpretation:
modernism invited researchers to investigate only
what we already knew, while postmodernism does not pay attention
to the research field, but only to the theory
generated. This implication relative to the field of inquiry is
closely related to postmodernism effects on possible
methods of investigation adopted. It is not the adoption of a
particular method which makes scientific a
discipline, but the theory generated. Then, the researcher has
the right to use any method. Of course, the
quantitative methods are valid, but qualitative methods can be
used in conjunction therewith, from ethnography
to the narrative and discourse analysis (Addis and Podesta,
2005). Thus we can conclude that, as a methodology
of social sciences in general and marketing in particular, the
postmodern is not a set of operating rules, but
rather a set of innovations whose content remains to be
explained (Bourdieu, 1993). The postmodern
epistemology seems rather bring the researcher to what Bourdieu
(1993) calls a combination of various
fragments of epistemology. At this level we agree with Cova
(2004) to say there are as many forms of
postmodernism as there are postmodernists provided that the
various attempts bring more into the explanation
of the person in all its complexity.
5. Conclusion
The table 2 summarizes the different elements that we have just
discussed by drawing the points of
divergence between the Latin and the Nordic schools of thought.
It highlights the convergence which can
combine the two individualistic and tribal approaches in a
moderate vision.
The purpose of this research was to reduce the debate on the
differences between the individualistic
approach and the tribal approach which tends to prevail the most
appropriate approach to better conduct studies
and research undertaken within the postmodern marketing
framework. Following a study of the contributions of
each approach, several points of differences were highlighted.
While individualistic approach views
postmodernism as an era of individualism resurgence and
therefore consider the postmodern consumer as
individualistic and suggests to combine several methodologies in
order to study him; The tribal approach judges
the postmodern marketing as a " community link vector" and
consequently sees the postmodern consumer not
asking for products and services to be more free (as recommended
in the North American vision) but he is
looking for objects and services places to connect with others.
And this approach recommends the adoption of
an interpretivist turn in the research related to this
postmodern consumer.
However, a synthesis of the contributions of both approaches in
the postmodern marketing research has
shown that in spite of the differences between the two visions,
they have many points in common. On the
theoretical level, on one hand, both approaches are looking for
better understanding the consumer, on other
hand, they agree on the new role of consumption which is facing
the postmodern individual (either alone or in a
group), a consumption described as "re enchanted." On the
epistemological and methodological level, we found,
firstly, that in the postmodern perspective, the marketing
researcher can get into all subject that attract his
interest and, secondly, we noted that in the social sciences
methodology in general and marketing methodology
in particular, the postmodern researcher is not tied to a set of
fixed rules, but rather a set of epistemologies and
methodologies which may be used separately or simultaneously. It
is in this sense that Goulding (2003 In El
Kamel and Rigaux-Bricmont, 2011) argues that postmodernism is
"amorphous" as far as the pluralism
represents its central feature.
So, the reconciliation between both approaches seems imminent
because their ultimate goal is to get
closer to the consumer. Thus, the postmodern marketing
researcher is no longer obliged to have a positioning
regarding the approach that he will adopt in his research
because, at the end, both approaches converge and may
form a single temperate, moderate or even mixed approach.
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Annexure
Tables
Table 1: Postmodernism and Postmodern Marketing approaches
(Source : Authors Compilation)
Authors Postmodernism
Approach
Position towards
Modernism
Postmodern
Marketing
Approach
Baudrillard (1983)
Jameson (1984)
Ziegler (1991)
Critical
postmodernism /
Skeptical postmodernism
Break
Vattimo (1988)
(Cova and Badot, 1994)
Affirmative postmodernism
/Celebratory postmodernism Redefinition Latin
Firat andVenkatesh
(1995)
Liberatory postmodernism
Extension Anglo-Saxon/Nordic
Table 2: Towards the convergence of the tribal and the
individualistic approach of Postmodern
Marketing (Source: Authors Compilation)
Individualistic approach / Anglo
saxon(Nordic) school of thought
Tribal approach /
Latin school of thought
Analysis object
Analysis unit - Individuals
- Individuals as a community
members
-Affectual tribes
Postmodern groups
Terminology
Are considered only as postmodern
groups and called tribes, the
groups which meet the criteria
advanced by Muniz and O'Guinn
(2001)
Are considered as postmodern group and
interchangeably called tribes or community,
any group of persons overstepping the
modern links to a common passions.
Convergence It is important to exceed the individual analysis
framework to a wider framework
taking into account postmodern groups
Consumption Nature
Consumption analysis
unit
- Purchase Act (selection and
decision criteria)
- Consumption Act
(experiences)
- Consumption Act (experiences)
Consumption analysis
level
- Individual Level
- Studying consumer behavior
whether alone or as a part of a
community belonging
- Micro social level (holistic level)
- Studying consumption behavior within
groups
Products and places
value notion
Customer proximity notion: a
system which enables to fulfill the
lack of community
Intimacy notion or "link value" : a system
which enables to provide the market with
goods and/or places to support community
links (cult objects, cult places and passions
sellers)
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Convergence Need to adapt the consumption conceptualization in
order to reflect its re
enchanted, more hedonic and more experiential character, which
is unanimously
accepted by the two schools of thought.
Epistemology and methodology
Epistemological
fundaments
Post-positivist (extension of
modern positivist methods by
using interpretivist methods)
Anti-positivist (interpretivist turn )
Adopted Disciplines Social psychology
Or
Ethnography,
Anthropology,Sociology
Ethnography, Anthropology, Sociology
Research method statistical tools
Or
Field studies, photography, video,
introspection
Field studies, photography, video,
introspection
Convergence Need to resort to several epistemologies to be able
to understand the postmodern
consumer, the postmodern consumption, the influence mechanisms
as well as the
links mechanisms. In conclusion, using all available disciplines
in order to capture
the multiple facets of the postmodern person and to lead him to
his experiential
quest.