Biology

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First Name Last Name

Date: Month/Day/Year Class PeriodName of Assignment

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a

• What is biology?

• Living things interact with their environment and depend upon other living (biotic) & nonliving (abiotic) things to aid their survival.

• Branches of ScienceNatural Science

Physical Science

Earth & Space Science

Life Science(Biology)

Physics

Chemistry

Geology Astronomy

Meteorology Oceanography

Botany Zoology

Ecology Genetics

Chapter.Section

1.1Page that section begins on.

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Scientific Method

Observation

Question

Hypothesis

Experiment

Analyze/Draw conclusions

HypothesisIs supported

Test hypothesis with further experiments

HypothesisIs NOT supported

Revise hypothesis

Theory

Scientific Method

• Defined: An organized plan for gathering, organizing, and communicating information.

• Goal: To solve a problem or to better understand an observed event.

• Used for: Provides a useful strategy for solving problems.

1.2 Pg. 11

Scientific Method

• Make an observation. (Info obtained through senses)

• Ask a question. (How does speed affect how wet you get when you are caught in rain)

• Form a hypothesis – a proposed answer to your question. (The faster your speed, the drier you will stay)

• Test your hypothesis ♧ manipulated (independent) variable (Speed) ♧ responding (dependent) variable (amount of water you accumulate) ♧ controlled experiment

• Analyze data then draw conclusions.• If hypothesis is supported with further

experiments, then develop a theory.

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Pg. 17

Complete the Frayer Diagram

Scientific Method

Define Goal

Parts in order Why is it usedMake Observations

An organized plan for gathering, organizing, and communicating information.

To solve a problem or to better understand an observed event.

Ask a question, Develop a hypothesis, Test hypothesisAnalyze data & draw conclusions (test/revise), Develop theory

Provides a useful strategy for solving problems.

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Theories

• A theory is based on an abundance of evidence & developed once a hypothesis has been supported in repeated experiments.

• The fact that a theory is supported by experimental data does not mean that the theory is correct.

• They are never proved, only become stronger if the facts continue to support them.

• Theories are judged by how they fit with other theories, the range of observations they explain, and how well they explain observations.

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Laws• A statement that summarizes a pattern

found in nature is a scientific law.

• They describe an observed pattern in nature without attempting to explain it. The explanation of such a pattern is provided by a scientific theory.

• Theories are well supported explanations and laws are well supported descriptions.

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Empirical Evidence - A cumulative body of observations.

• The word empirical denotes information gained by means of observation or experiments. Empirical data is data produced by an experiment or observation.

• A central concept in modern science and the scientific method is that all evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is, dependent on evidence or consequences that are observable by the senses.

• Competing interpretations of empirical evidence can lead to alternative explanations or support existing explanations.

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Models

• Scientific models make it easier to understand things that might be too difficult to observe directly.

• Models are a visual or mathematical representation of an object or process.

• Models are typically used when it is either impossible or impractical to create experimental conditions in which scientists can directly measure outcomes.

• Example: Street Map, Globe

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Answer these questions in pairs (each person writes on own paper)

1) What is the difference between a hypothesis, scientific theory, and scientific law?

2) What is an example of a scientific model?

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• Scientists need to be creative as they pose new questions, design investigations and develop explanations.

• Scientists around the world have replicated similar investigations/experiments and obtained similar results. (checks & balances)

• Scientists use critical and logical thinking, open-mindedness, objectivity and skepticism as they examine a scientific claim.

• Scientists accept the notion that scientific knowledge is always open to improvement and can never be declared absolutely certain.

• Scientific knowledge is subject to modifications as new information challenges prevailing theories and as a new theory leads to looking at old observations in a new way.

• The varied backgrounds, talents, goals and interests of scientists influence the development of scientific knowledge.

• Science influences society through its knowledge and world view.

• New ideas in science are limited by the context in which they are conceived; are often rejected by the scientific establishment; sometimes spring from unexpected findings; and usually grow slowly, through contributions from many investigators.

Observations• Example, "Upon magnification, the painted lady

eggs appear bluish and barrel-shaped." Observations are direct enough that most would make the same observation in the same situation.

Inferences• When we bring our past experience into making

a judgment based on an observation, it is an inference. For example, "The caterpillar appears as if it is about to form its chrysalis" is an inference, because you are interpreting observations according to knowledge from past experience.

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Inference

• Inferring is the process of making an inference, an interpretation based on observations and prior knowledge

• An incorrect inference is known as a fallacy. • Inference vs. Prediction: predicting is about the

future, whereas inferring is about the present

a

In pairs, fill out the chart.

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Science

• Science is a limited discipline that studies only naturally occurring events, while offering natural explanations for the phenomenon under study. The data must be consistent, observable, predictable, and testable, while any conclusions or theories must be tentative.

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Non-Science

• Non-Science Defined: Non-science may be defined as an area of knowledge which does not meet the criteria of science.

• Non-science topic areas may be very logical and based on good reasoning, but simply do not fall within the realm of science. They would include any belief system, e.g., philosophy, personal opinions or attitudes, a sense of esthetics, or ethics.

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Pseudoscience

• False science (pseudoscience) may be defined as a non-science which is portrayed and advertised as a legitimate science by its followers and supporters. Good examples of a pseudoscience would include  reflexology, applied kinesthetic, astrology, and extrasensory perception (ESP).

• Conclusions may be based on faulty logic or lack substantial support from valid scientific data. Pseudoscience claims often lack the ability to be supported or refuted, investigations may lack unbiased peer review.

1.2

Elements

• Can not be broken down into simpler chemical substances.

Gold Calcium

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Atoms

• The smallest particles of an element that has the characteristics of that element.

• The basic building blocks of all matter.

• Electron (e-) energy levels1st : 2 e-2nd : 8 e-3rd : 18e-

• Atoms contain equal numbers of electrons & protons. This means they have no net charge.

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Electron energy levels (e- cloud) & periodic tableHydrogen

Copper

Gold

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Atoms

a

Activity

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Na Sodium

Answer the following questions about

carbon in pairs:

1. What is the atomic number?2. What is the atomic mass?3. How many electrons does

this element have?4. How many protons does

this element have?5. What is the elements’

symbol?6. Draw the element with it’s

electron energy levels.

612.011

6

6

C

→

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Isotopes are variants of atoms of a particular chemical element, which have differing numbers of neutrons. Atoms of a particular element by definition must contain the same number of protons but may have a distinct number of neutrons which differs from atom to atom, without changing the designation of the atom as a particular element.

A compound is a substance that is composed of atoms two or more different element that are chemically combined. Table salt (NaCl) is a

compound . It is composed of sodium and chlorine.

Pg 144

Covalent bond: the force that holds the two atoms sharing electrons. (example below: water)

Molecule: a group of atoms held together by covalent bonds. (H2O)

Ion: a charged particle made of atoms.

Ionic bond: the attractive force between two ions of opposite charge.

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Bonds

Covalent bond

Ionic bonds

Chemical Reactions• Occur when bonds are formed or broken,

causing substances to recombine into different substances.

• This happens inside our cells.

• All the chemical reactions (rxns) that occur within an organism are call the organism’s metabolism.

• Substances that undergo chemical reactions are called reactants, and substances formed by the chemical rxns are called products.

A coefficient is a number placed in front of a term in a chemical equation to indicate how many molecules (or atoms) take part in the reaction.

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Mixtures

• Heterogeneous Mixtures: Parts of the mixture are noticeably different from one another.

Example - Sand

• Homogeneous mixture: Substances that are so evenly distributed that it is difficult to distinguish one substance in the mixture from another.

Example – serving spoon is made of stainless steel (a mixture of iron, chromium, and nickel)

• Solution: the mixture formed when substances dissolve and form a homogeneous mixture.

• Example: spoonful of sugar in glass of hot water (stirred)

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a

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Sleet refers to two distinct forms of precipitation.

pH: a measure of how acidic or basic a solution is. A solution is neutral if its’ pH = 7.

Acid: any substance that forms hydrogen ions (H+) in water. (ex.: hydrochloric acid) pH is below 7.

Base: any substance that forms hydroxide ions (OH-) in water. pH is above 7.

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acids/bases/pH

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Water

• Most life processes can occur only when molecules and ions are free to move and collide with one another.

• Serves to transport materials in organisms. (blood, plant sap)

• Polarity: when atoms form covalent bonds, they do not share the electrons equally.

• Polar water molecules attract ions as well as other polar molecules. B/c of this, water can dissolve many ionic compounds (salt) and many other polar molecules (sugar).

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1. Which will diffuse more quickly:a. concentrated orange juice in cold waterb. concentrated orange juice in warm water

2. Water is a ___________molecule.

3. Water can creep up thin tubes in ______________.

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polar

capillary action

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• Water molecules attract other water molecules. The positively charged hydrogen atoms of one water molecule attract the negatively water molecule.

• Capillary action: waterhaving the unique propertyof being able to creep upthin tubes.

• Water requires more heat to increase its temperature than most liquids because water resists changes in temperature.

• Water loses a lot of heat when it cools.

• Water is like an insulator that helps maintain a steady environment when conditions fluctuate.

Water

• Water expands when it freezes, which means ice is less dense than liquid water (that’s why it floats).

• Water expands as it freezes inside the cracks of rocks. As it expands, it often breaks apart the rocks which over long periods of time helps form soil.

• Water carries substance in living systems.

• Diffusion: the net movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration in order to achieve dynamic equilibrium.

• 3 key factors that affect the rate of diffusion: concentration, temperature, and pressure.

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a

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Concentration gradient: the difference in concentration of a substance across space.

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1. Water _______ when it freezes.

2. Diffusion is the net _________ of particles from an area of _______concentration to an area of ______ concentration in order to achieve dynamic _________.

3. What are 3 key factors that affect the rate of diffusion? concentration, temperature, and pressure

expands

movementhigher lower

equilibrium

Macromolecules

• Molecular chains• Biomolecules – large organic compounds (made

of many carbon atoms) Example: proteins

• Cells build biomolecules by bonding small molecules together to form chains called polymers.

• Polymer is a large molecule formed when many smaller molecules bond together.

• Condensation

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Plastic 2:08

Carbohydrate – a biomolecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

• Example: simple sugar (monosaccharide)

• Largest: polysaccharides (starch)

Lipids – large biomolecules that are made mostly of carbon and hydrogen with a small amount of oxygen.

• Fats, oils, waxes

Protein – a large, complex polymer composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur.

• Amino Acids – building blocks of proteins.

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• Enzymes

66.3 Pg. 157

Nucleic Acid – a complex compound that stores cellular information in the form of a code.

• Nucleotides

• DNA

• RNA

1. Long-term energy storage, insulation, protective coatings

2. In condensation, one monomer loses an H+ ion and another loses an OH- to form water. A covalent bond forms between the monomers.

3. A disaccharide is made of two simple sugars called monosaccharaides.

4. Like other nucleic acids, DNA is composed of smaller nucleotides consisting of a phosphate group, a simple sugar, and a nitrogenous base.

5. Enzymes; protein; nucleic acids; nucleotides

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Do problems 1 – 5 in the section assessment on page 163.

5th

Cells

Robert Hooke: observed small geometric shapes in cork & named them cells.

Matthias Schleiden: observed cells in plants.

Theodor Schwann: observed cells in animals.

Cell Theory: 1. All organisms are composed of one or more

cells2. The cell is the basic unit of organization

within an organism3. All cells come from preexisting cells

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Cells

♧ Cells contain small, specialized structures called organelles. Each organelle has a specific function in the cell.

♧ Prokaryotes: do not have membrane-bound organelles & most are unicellular.

♧ Eukaryotes: cells that contain membrane-bound organelles & most are multicellular.

7.1 Pg. 171

6th

3 cell types

E

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Cell ActivityWrite on your own paper!• You are given an index card with an organelle name

on it.• Write on your own paper, what type of cell your

organelle is in (plant/animal), it’s function, where it is located, and draw what it looks like.

• Then wait for me to give you further instructions• Create your cell with your classmates.• There should be an animal cell, and a plant cell.• If your organelle can be either an animal OR a plant

cell, then there should be at least one in EACH cell/group.

• Now take turns reading what your organelle is, what it’s function is, where it is located, and what it looks like. (as classmates are explaining their organelle, write it down on YOUR paper so you have a complete set!)

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Plasma membrane ♧Selective permeability: allows some molecules pass through, but keeping others out.

Phospholipid bilayer♧Polarity: 2 tails are non-polar, phosphate group head is polar♧Barrier is created: stops water-soluble molecules (makes it hard for them to move through)♧Fluid mosaic model♧Cholesterol: helps stabilize phospholipids by preventing their tails from sticking together.♧Proteins (transport): move needed substances or waste materials through the plasma membrane.

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Membrane

Phospholipid bilayer

Eukaryotic Cell♣ Cell wall – support/protection (in plant cell)♣ Nucleus: manages/controls cellular functions.

♧ Chromatin: strands of DNA; the master set of directions for making proteins is contained here.

♧ Nucleolus: makes ribosomes♧ Ribosomes: sites where the cell produces

proteins according to the directions of DNA.♣ Cytoplasm: site of numerous chemical reactions

& suspends the cell’s organelles.

♣ ER: site of cellular chemical reactions (rxns)♧ Rough ER: ER that ribosomes are attached to

– carries out function of protein synthesis.

Animal cell

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Eukaryotic Cell ♧ Smooth ER: involved in biochemical activities

including the production and storage of lipids.♧ Golgi apparatus: modifies proteins (sorts proteins

into packages and packs them into membrane-bound structures called vesicles to be sent off).

♧ Vacuoles: a sac used to temporarily store food, enzymes, and other materials needed for the cell. (typically in a plant cell)

♧ Lysosomes: contain digestive enzymes – digest excess or worn out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria. (in animals cells)

Pg. 1797.3

Eukaryotic Cell♧ Chloroplasts: capture light energy and convert it

to chemical energy. (in plants only) ♧ Plastids: group of plant organelles used to store

starches, lipids, or pigments. (including chloroplasts)

♧ Chlorophyll – traps light energy and gives leaves and stems their green color. (contained in chloroplasts)

♧ Mitochondria: transform energy for the cell. (powerhouse)

♧ Cytoskeleton: support structure/protection♧ Microtubules: thin, hollow cylinders made of

protein.♧ Microfilaments: smaller, solid protein fibers.

♧ Centrioles: made up of microtubules, and play an important role in cell division. (in animal cells)

♧ Cilia & flagella: aid the cell in locomotion or feeding.

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Chloroplasts

Match words to definition:

Pg. 1416.1

c.

b.

a.

d.

Cellular Transport♧ Osmosis: the diffusion of water across a

selectively permeable membrane.

♧ Concentration gradient: unequal distribution of particles. (one factor that controls osmosis)

♧ Isotonic solution: the concentration of dissolved substances in the solution is the same as the concentration of dissolved substances inside the cell.

♧ Hypotonic solution: the concentration of dissolved substances is lower in the solution outside the cell than the concentration inside the cells.

♧ There is more water outside the cell than inside.

Pg. 1958.1

• Hypertonic solution: the concentration of dissolved substances outside the cell is higher than the concentration inside the cell. (causes water to flow out)

• Passive Transport: movement of particles across cell membranes b diffusion or osmosis; the cell uses no energy to move particles across the membrane.

• Facilitated diffusion• Transport proteins• Carrier proteins with concentration

gradient

Passive & Active transport

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• Active transport: energy expending process by which cells transport materials across the cell membrane against a concentration gradient.

• Carrier proteins against concentration gradient

• Endocytosis: active transport process where a cell engulfs materials with a portion of the cell’s plasma membrane and releases the content inside of the cell.

• Exocytosis: active transport process by which materials are secreted or expelled from a cell.

How do animal cells and plant cells react differently in a hypotonic solution?

Pg. 2018.2

• Animal cell: the extra water may cause the plasma membrane to burst. Plant cell: the plasma membrane pushes against the cell wall, providing added support.

Cell size limitations

• Diffusion: efficient process over short distances, it becomes slow and inefficient as the distances become larger.

• DNA limits cell size: in larger cells where an increased amount of cytoplasm requires increased supplies of enzymes, more than one nucleus is present.

• Surface area-to-volume ratio: volume faster than its surface area.

Pg. 2018.2

• Chromosomes: the carriers of the genetic material that is copied and passed from generation to generation of cells.

• Cell Cycle: the sequence of growth and division of a cell.• Interphase: cell grows in size and carries on

metabolism (busiest phase of the cell cycle)• Chromosomes are duplicated in

preparation for the period of division.• 1.) rapid growth & metabolic activity; 2.)

DNA synthesis & replication; 3.) centrioles replicate & cell prepares for division.

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cell cycle

Mitosis: process by which 2 daughter cells are formed.

Interphase

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

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Mitosis

Cytokinesis – cell’s cytoplasm divides

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Mitosis vs Meiosis

Control of the cell cycle

Proteins (cyclin) & enzymes: interactions controls the cell cycle.

• Gene: segment of DNA that controls the production of a protein.

• Cancer: malignant growth resulting from uncontrolled cell division.

• Result of changes in one or more of the genes that produce substances that are involved in controlling the cell cycle. (something prompts the damaged genes into action)

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• Tumors deprive normal cells of nutrients.• Environmental factors: cigarette smoke, air & water

pollution, UV radiation from sun…

• Cancer prevention • Diets low in fat & high in fiber content can

reduce the risk of many kinds of cancer.• Vitamins & minerals• Daily exercise

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Cell Energy

♧ ATP: energy-storing molecule in cells; energy stored in the molecule’s chemical bonds and can be used quickly and easily by cells.

♧ ADP molecule formed from the breaking off of a phosphate group fro ATP; results in a release of energy that is used for biological reactions (rxns).

♧ Formation/breakdown recycling activity

♧ Cells use energy in making new molecules, and to maintain homeostasis.

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Photosynthesis: process by which autotrophs trap energy from sunlight with chlorophyll and use this energy to convert CO2 and H2O into simple sugars.

♧ Light–dependent rxns occur at the thylakoid membrane

♧ Pigment♧ Chlorophyll

♧ Light–independent rxns ♧ These reactions occur in the stroma, the fluid-

filled area of a chloroplasts outside of the thylakoid membranes. These reactions take the light-dependent reactions and perform further chemical processes on them. There are three phases to the light-independent reactions, collectively called the Calvin Cycle.

Pg. 2259.2

Photosynthesis

Calvin cycle

Cellular Respiration: the process by which mitochondria break down food molecules to produce ATP.

♧ Glycolysis: a series of chemical rxns in the cytoplasm of a cell that break down glucose into molecules of pyruvic acid.

♧ Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle): series of chemical rxns that break down glucose and produce ATP; energizes e- carriers that pass the energized electrons on to the e- transport chain.

♧ Electron transport chain: The e- are passed from protein to protein within the membrane, slowly releasing their energy in steps.

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Krebs cycle (citric acid)

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♧ Fermentation: provides a means to continue producing ATP when oxygen is not available.

♧ Lactic acid fermentation♧ Alcoholic fermentation

Comparing photosynthesis and cellular respiration

Genetics: branch of biology that studies heredity.♧Heredity: the passing on of characteristics from parents to offspring.

♧ Traits: the characteristics that are inherited.

Gregor Mendel: the father of modern genetics.

♧His study showed that one in four pea plants had purebred recessive alleles, two out of four were hybrid and one out of four were purebred dominant. His experiments led him to make two generalizations, the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment, which later became known as Mendel's Laws of Inheritance.

♧ Gametes, Fertilization, Zygote, Pollination

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Mendel’s Monohybrid Crosses♧ Hybrid: the offspring of parents that have

different forms of a trait (such as tall and short height)

♧ P stands for “parent”(P1)

♧ 1st generation: (F1) F = filial (son or daughter)

♧ 2nd generation: (F2)

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(P1)

(F1)

(F1) (F2)

Phenotype: the way an organism looks & behaves.

Genotype: combination of genes in an organism.

Homozygous (for a trait): if its 2 alleles for the trait are the same (TT or tt)

Heterozygous (for a trait): if its 2 alleles for the trait differ from each other. (Tt)

Punnett Square: way of finding the expected proportions of possible genotypes in the offspring of a cross.

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E

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Dihybrid Crosses

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E

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E

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Work in pairs: pg. 186

• Everyone will be assigned an organelle.

• Write on the lined portion of your index card what the function of your organelle is and where it is located (in cytoplasm, on ER…)

• Then on the non-lined side of index card, draw what your organelle looks like.

• You must get with other organelles and create a cell.1. Animal cell2. Plant cell

• Once you have created your cell, take turns teaching each other. Read your cards one-by-one in your groups.

7.1 Pg. 171

1) Define:

a) manipulated variable

b) responding variable

c) controlled experiment

2) What do you do if the data does not support your hypothesis?

3) What is the difference between an observation, inference, and empirical evidence? (hint: use notes from last class)

Define the following:

1. accuracy

2. inferring

3. empirical evidence

4. precision

Welcome to Biology I with Mrs. Monies

•Begin filling out the paper work.

• Fill out as much of paper work as you can, then take it home for your parents to sign. Please keep it in your 3 ring binder.

• Attendance

• Code of Ethics

• Classroom Rules & Expectations

• Lab Safety

• Lab Equipment

• Pre-test (outcome will not affect your grade)

• Introduction to Science