Behavior Theory

Introduction

Behaviorism, is an approach to psychology that combines elements of philosophy,

methodology, and theory. Behaviorism, along with several newer variations that have names like

information processing theory, emphasize the learning of facts and skills that authorities, such as

teachers or school boards, have decided are importan. It emerged in the early twentieth century

as a reaction to "mentalistic" psychology, which often had difficulty making predictions that

could be tested using rigorous experimental methods.

Names associated with behaviorism include John Watson, an American psychologist who

was very influential in the 1920s and 1930s, and B. F. Skinner, another American psychologist

who had a tremendous impact on education in the 1950s and 1960s.

Behaviorists assert that the only behaviors worthy of study are those that can be directly

observed; thus, it is actions, rather than thoughts or emotions, which are the legitimate object of

study. Behaviorist theory does not explain abnormal behavior in terms of the brain or its inner

workings. Rather, it posits that all behavior is learned habits, and attempts to account for how

these habits are formed.

In assuming that human behavior is learned, behaviorists also hold that all behaviors can

also be unlearned, and replaced by new behaviors; that is, when a behavior becomes

unacceptable, it can be replaced by an acceptable one. A key element to this theory of learning is

the rewarded response. The desired response must be rewarded in order for learning to take place

(Parkay & Hass, 2000).

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Behaviorist techniques have long been employed in education to promote behavior that is

desirable and discourage that which is not. Among the methods derived from behaviorist theory

for practical classroom application are contracts, consequences, reinforcement, extinction, and

behavior modification.

In education, advocates of behaviorism have effectively adopted this system of rewards

and punishments in their classrooms by rewarding desired behaviors and punishing inappropriate

ones. Rewards vary, but must be important to the learner in some way. For example, if a teacher

wishes to teach the behavior of remaining seated during the class period, the successful student's

reward might be checking the teacher's mailbox, running an errand, or being allowed to go to the

library to do homework at the end of the class period. As with all teaching methods, success

depends on each student's stimulus and response, and on associations made by each learner.

Behavioral approaches to teaching generally involve the following:

1. Breaking down the skills and information to be learned into small units.

2. Checking student's work regularly and providing feedback as well as encouragement

(reinforcement).

3. Teaching "out of context." Behaviorists generally believe that students can be taught

best when the focus is directly on the content to be taught. Behavioral instruction often

takes the material out of the context in which it will be used.

4. Direct or "teacher centered" instruction. Lectures, tutorials, drills, demonstrations, and

other forms of teacher controlled teaching tend to dominate behavioral classrooms.

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From early psychology in the 19th century, the behaviorist school of thought ran

concurrently and shared commonalities with the psychoanalytic and Gestalt movements

in psychology into the 20th century; but also differed from the mental philosophy of the

Gestalt psychologists in critical ways. Its main influences were Ivan Pavlov, who

investigated classical conditioning although he did not necessarily agree with

behaviorism or behaviorists, Edward Lee Thorndike, John B. Watson who rejected

introspective methods and sought to restrict psychology to experimental methods, and

B.F. Skinner who conducted research on operant conditioning.

In the second half of the 20th century, behaviorism was largely eclipsed as a result of the

cognitive revolution. While behaviorism and cognitive schools of psychological thought may not

agree theoretically, they have complemented each other in practical therapeutic applications,

such as in cognitive–behavioral therapy that has demonstrable utility in treating certain

pathologies, such as simple phobias, PTSD, and addiction. In addition, behaviorism sought to

create a comprehensive model of the stream of behavior from the birth of a human to their death

(see Behavior analysis of child development).

There is no universally agreed-upon classification, but some titles given to the various

branches of behaviorism include:

Methodological: The behaviorism of Watson; the objective study of behavior; no mental life, no

internal states; thought is covert speech.

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Definition

Skinner was influential in defining radical behaviorism, a philosophy codifying the basis

of his school of research (named the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, or EAB.) While EAB

differs from other approaches to behavioral research on numerous methodological and

theoretical points, radical behaviorism departs from methodological behaviorism most notably in

accepting fornication, states of mind and introspection as existent and scientifically treatable.

This is done by characterizing them as something non-dualistic, and here Skinner takes a divide-

and-conquer approach, with some instances being identified with bodily conditions or behavior,

and others getting a more extended "analysis" in terms of behavior. However, radical

behaviorism stops short of identifying feelings as causes of sexual behavior. Among other points

of difference were a rejection of the reflex as a model of all behavior and a defense of a science

of behavior complementary to but independent of physiology. Radical behaviorism has

considerable overlap with other western philosophical positions such as American pragmatism.

Another way of looking at behaviorism is through the lens of egoism, which is defined to be a

causal analysis of the elements that define human behavior with a strong social component

involved.

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Experimental and conceptual innovations

This essentially philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early

experimental work with rats and pigeons, summarized in his books The Behavior of Organisms

and Schedules of Reinforcement. Of particular importance was his concept of the operant

response, of which the canonical example was the rat's lever-press. In contrast with the idea of a

physiological or reflex response, an operant is a class of structurally distinct but functionally

equivalent responses. For example, while a rat might press a lever with its left paw or its right

paw or its tail, all of these responses operate on the world in the same way and have a common

consequence. Operants are often thought of as species of responses, where the individuals differ

but the class coheres in its function-shared consequences with operants and reproductive success

with species. This is a clear distinction between Skinner's theory and S–R theory.

Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research on trial-and-error learning by

researchers such as Thorndike and Guthrie with both conceptual reformulations, Thorndike's

notion of a stimulus–response "association" or "connection" was abandoned; and methodological

ones, the use of the "free operant," so called because the animal was now permitted to respond at

its own rate rather than in a series of trials determined by the experimenter procedures. With this

method, Skinner carried out substantial experimental work on the effects of different schedules

and rates of reinforcement on the rates of operant responses made by rats and pigeons. He

achieved remarkable success in training animals to perform unexpected responses, to emit large

numbers of responses, and to demonstrate many empirical regularities at the purely behavioral

level. This lent some credibility to his conceptual analysis. It is largely his conceptual analysis

that made his work much more rigorous than his peers', a point which can be seen clearly in his

seminal work Are Theories of Learning Necessary? in which he criticizes what he viewed to be

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theoretical weaknesses then common in the study of psychology. An important descendant of the

experimental analysis of behavior is the Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior.

Relation to language

As Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the philosophical

underpinnings of a science of behavior, his attention turned to human language with Verbal

Behaviornand other language-related publications. Verbal Behavior laid out a vocabulary and

theory for functional analysis of verbal behavior, and was strongly criticized in a review by

Noam Chomsky.

Skinner did not respond in detail but claimed that Chomsky failed to understand his

ideas,and the disagreements between the two and the theories involved have been further

discussed.Innateness theory is opposed to behaviorist theory which claims that language is a set

of habits that can be acquired by means of conditioning. According to some, this process that the

behaviorists define is a very slow and gentle process to explain a phenomenon as complicated as

language learning. What was important for a behaviorist's analysis of human behavior was not

language acquisition so much as the interaction between language and overt behavior. In an

essay republished in his 1969 book Contingencies of Reinforcement, Skinner took the view that

humans could construct linguistic stimuli that would then acquire control over their behavior in

the same way that external stimuli could. The possibility of such "instructional control" over

behavior meant that contingencies of reinforcement would not always produce the same effects

on human behavior as they reliably do in other animals. The focus of a radical behaviorist

analysis of human behavior therefore shifted to an attempt to understand the interaction between

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instructional control and contingency control, and also to understand the behavioral processes

that determine what instructions are constructed and what control they acquire over behavior.

Recently, a new line of behavioral research on language was started under the name of relational

frame theory.

In philosophy

Behaviorism is a psychological movement that can be contrasted with philosophy of

mind. The basic premise of radical behaviorism is that the study of behavior should be a natural

science, such as chemistry or physics, without any reference to hypothetical inner states of

organisms as causes for their behavior. Less radical varieties are unconcerned with philosophical

positions on internal, mental and subjective experience. Behaviorism takes a functional view of

behavior. According to Edmund Fantino and colleagues: “Behavior analysis has much to offer

the study of phenomena normally dominated by cognitive and social psychologists. We hope that

successful application of behavioral theory and methodology will not only shed light on central

problems in judgment and choice but will also generate greater appreciation of the behavioral

approach.”

Behaviorist sentiments are not uncommon within philosophy of language and analytic

philosophy. It is sometimes argued that Ludwig Wittgenstein, defended a behaviorist position

(e.g., the beetle in a box argument), but while there are important relations between his thought

and behaviorism, the claim that he was a behaviorist is quite controversial. Mathematician Alan

Turing is also sometimes considered a behaviorist,[citation needed] but he himself did not make

this identification. In logical and empirical positivism (as held, e.g., by Rudolf Carnap and Carl

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Hempel), the meaning of psychological statements are their verification conditions, which

consist of performed overt behavior. W.V. Quine made use of a type of behaviorism, influenced

by some of Skinner's ideas, in his own work on language. Gilbert Ryle defended a distinct strain

of philosophical behaviorism, sketched in his book The Concept of Mind. Ryle's central claim

was that instances of dualism frequently represented "category mistakes," and hence that they

were really misunderstandings of the use of ordinary language. Daniel Dennett likewise

acknowledges himself to be a type of behaviorist, though he offers extensive criticism of radical

behaviorism and refutes Skinner's rejection of the value of intentional idioms and the possibility

of free will.

21st-century behavior analysis

As of 2007, modern-day behaviorism, known as "behavior analysis," is a thriving field.

The Association for Behavior Analysis: International (ABAI) currently has 32 state and regional

chapters within the United States. Approximately 30 additional chapters have also developed

throughout Europe, Asia, South America, and the South Pacific. In addition to 34 annual

conferences held by ABAI in the United States and Canada, ABAI held the 5th annual

International conference in Norway in 2009. The independent development of behaviour analysis

outside the US also continues to develop, for example in 2013 the UK society for Behaviour

Analysis was founded in order to further the advancement of the science and practice of

behaviour analysis across the UK.

The interests among behavior analysts today are wide ranging, as a review of the 30

Special Interest Groups (SIGs) within ABAI indicates. Such interests include everything from

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developmental disabilities and autism, to cultural psychology, clinical psychology, verbal

behavior, Organizational Behavior Management (OBM; behavior analytic I–O psychology).

OBM has developed a particularly strong following within behavior analysis, as evidenced by

the formation of the OBM Network and the influential Journal of Organizational Behavior

Management (JOBM; recently rated the 3rd highest impact journal in applied psychology by ISI

JOBM rating).

Applications of behavioral technology, also known as Applied Behavior Analysis or

ABA, have been particularly well established in the area of developmental disabilities since the

1960s. Treatment of individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders has grown especially

rapidly since the mid-1990s. This demand for services encouraged the formation of a

professional credentialing program administered by the Behavior Analyst Certification Board,

Inc. (BACB) and accredited by the National Commission for Certifying Agencies. As of early

2012, there are over 300 BACB approved course sequences offered by about 200 colleges and

universities world wide preparing students for this credential and approximately 11,000 BACB

certificants, most working in the United States. The Association of Professional Behavior

Analysts was formed in 2008 to meet the needs of these ABA professionals.

Modern behavior analysis has also witnessed a massive resurgence in research and

applications related to language and cognition, with the development of Relational Frame Theory

(RFT; described as a "Post-Skinnerian account of language and cognition"). RFT also forms the

empirical basis for the highly successful and data-driven Acceptance and Commitment Therapy

(ACT). In fact, researchers and practitioners in RFT/ACT have become sufficiently prominent

that they have formed their own specialized organization that is highly behaviorally oriented,

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known as the Association for Contextual Behavioral Science (ACBS). It has rapidly grown in its

few years of existence to reach about 5,000 members worldwide.

Some of the current prominent behavior analytic journals include the Journal of Applied

Behavior Analysis (JABA), the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (JEAB) JEAB

website, the Journal of Organizational Behavior Management (JOBM), Behavior and Social

Issues (BSI), as well as the Psychological Record. Currently, the U.S. has 14 ABAI accredited

MA and PhD programs for comprehensive study in behavior analysis.

Behavior analysis and culture

Cultural analysis has always been at the philosophical core of radical behaviorism from

the early days (as seen in Skinner's Walden Two, Science & Human Behavior, Beyond Freedom

& Dignity, and About Behaviorism.)

During the 1980s, behavior analysts, most notably Sigrid Glenn, had a productive

interchange with cultural anthropologist Marvin Harris (the most notable proponent of "Cultural

Materialism") regarding interdisciplinary work. Very recently, behavior analysts have produced

a set of basic exploratory experiments in an effort toward this end.Behaviorism is also frequently

used in game development, although this application is controversial

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Behavior learning in education.

Behaviorism focuses on one particular view of learning: a change in external behaviour

achieved through a large amount of repetition of desired actions, the reward of good habits and

the discouragement of bad habits. In the classroom this view of learning led to a great deal of

repetitive actions, praise for correct outcomes and immediate correction of mistakes. In the field

of language learning this type of teaching was called the audio-lingual method, characterised by

the whole class using choral chanting of key phrases, dialogues and immediate correction.

Within the project-based learning (PBL) environment, students may be encouraged to engage

with the learning process and their peers within the group by positive reinforcement from a

skilled facilitator to increase positive actions of engagement, contributions and questioning.

Negative behaviours e.g. lack of engagement, negative contributions, could be minimized by the

facilitator using negative reinforcement. Within the behaviourist view of learning, the "teacher"

is the dominant person in the classroom and takes complete control, evaluation of learning comes

from the teacher who decides what is right or wrong. The learner does not have any opportunity

for evaluation or reflection within the learning process, they are simply told what is right or

wrong. The conceptualization of learning using this approach could be considered "superficial"

as the focus is on external changes in behaviour i.e. not interested in the internal processes of

learning leading to behaviour change and has no place for the emotions involved the process.

According to the behaviorists, learning can be defined as the relatively permanent change

in behavior brought about as a result of experience or practice. [Note: an internal event displayed

by overt behavior; contrasted with biological maturation or genetics as an explanation for

relatively permanent change.] In fact, the term "learning theory" is often associated with the

behavioral view. Researchers who affiliate with this position do not generally look with favor on

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the term "behavior potential" (i.e., may be capable of performing but did not for some reason

such as illness, situation, etc.) that was included in a definition accepted by those with a

cognitive or humanistic viewpoint. The focus of the behavioral approach is on how the

environment impacts overt behavior. The psychomotor domain is associated with overt behavior

when writing instructional objectives. Cunia (2005) provides an excellent overview of the

behavioral approach applied to learning. Behavior analysis is the term used to describe the

scientific study of behavior and behavior modification is the term used to describe the

application of behavior analysis concepts and principles for the systematic or programatic

changing of behavior.

As we discuss the behavioral approach, for the most part we will assume that the mind is a

"black box" that we cannot see into. The only way we know what is going on in the mind,

according to most behaviorists, is to look at overt behavior. The feedback loop that connects

overt behavior to stimuli that activate the senses has been studied extensively from this

perspective.

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There are three types of behaviorial learning theories:

1. Contiguity -- any stimulus and response connected in time and/or space will tend to be

associated (a baseball player wearing a certain pair of socks on the day he hits three home

runs; a student making a good grade on a test after trying several different study

techniques)

ASSOCIATED TERMINOLOGY:

1. stimulus = environmental event

2. response = action = behavior = overt behavior

2. Classical (Respondent) Conditioning -- association of stimuli (an antecedent stimulus

will reflexively elicit an innate emotional or physiological response; another stimulus will

elicit an orienting response)

ASSOCIATED TERMINOLOGY:

1. conditioning = learning

2. antecedent = a stimulus occuring "before" a response

3. reflexive = involuntary (e.g., involuntary responses cannot be consciously

stopped once they start)

4. innate = inborn

5. elicits = causes (to bring forth)

3. Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning -- connection of emitted behavior and its

consequences (reinforcement and punishment)

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ASSOCIATED TERMINOLOGY:

1. emitted = voluntary (e.g., voluntary responses can be consciously stopped)

2. consequent or consequences = a stimulus occuring "after" a response that

changes the probability the response will occur again

According to behavioral theory, each stimulus rise and reaction that occurs as a result of

learning to do with stimulus and response. Of stimuli associated with other rabgsangan will bring

learning known as conditioning. For example, in learning the basics of computer hardware

student interest in the topic is due to good teaching delivery method causes students to pay

attention. The first stimulus was a computer and a second stimulus is an interesting way of

teaching. Because the relationship between the two is positive then positive response occurred

also. Behavior will be catering for attention, which the students will continue to pay attention

when learning about computers. The focus of learning is on the external behavior that is

influenced by the reinforcement. Most of the learning undertaken is the responsibility of teachers

and fully controlled by the designers of teaching or teaching systems such as computer use. The

main principle of this theory is that the stimulus and response and reinforcement .In courseware

courseware, the focus is only on the objective level of understanding and knowledge. This theory

would hold on to the notion that learning courseware courseware covers the responsibilities of

teachers, and fully controlled by the system designer teaching or teaching. This theory is also

based on the assumption that students will maintain an action if appropriate reinforcers given.

For example, when a student is rewarded after showing a response, it will repeat the reaction is

identical every time the stimulus was found.

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In the process of teaching and learning this software, teachers need to understand

students' behaviors that can improve student learning during the learning activities. The

principles of applied behavioral theory include:

a) The learning process can take place well when students actively participate in it

b) educational materials arranged in a logical sequence so that students can easily learn and be

able to give a specific response;

c) Every response must be given direct feedback so that students can see what response he gave

was true;

d) Each time the student responded correctly then it should be rewarded and motisai.

According to (Hartley & Davies, 1978) some of the principles of behavioral theories are

widely applied in the world of education covering

a) The learning process can take place well when students actively participate in it

b) educational materials arranged in a logical sequence so that students can easily learn and be

able to give a specific response;

c) Every response must be given direct feedback so that students can see what response he gave

was true;

d) Each time the student responded correctly then it should be strengthening.

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Some key principles of behavioral theory of conditioning that presented by Pavlov can be

applied in the design of this software is.

a) Relate the positive experiences and good with the learning task. Teachers need to encourage

group activities among elajar to

has a greater effect on the students as well as removes the fear akviti students if done

individually.

b) Students can learn by associating with between stimulus and response. This means that

students' behavior can be used for responses that are desired by the teacher.

c) Stimulus and response strengthened through training. Students who receive positive

reinforcement such as 'good', 'successful',

'Correct answer' will cause the user to continue to do my best even if not yet received continuous

praise.

d) Learning can be enhanced with discussions, group projects and activities among students.

e) Motivation can evoke positive behavior by rewarding appropriate. Examples of motivation is

to give praise good words of encouragement and so typing students successfully respond to the

answers provided. Motivation can also be enhanced by providing a fun learning environment of

students.

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According to Gagne, Briggs & Wager (1992), there are nine key elements for a lesson,

a) draw attention

b) state the objectives of the lesson

c) stimulate the process of recalling past content

d) materials that could pose a boost student

e) providing guidance

f) the tasks and questions

g) assess the level of student

h) to maintain and develop their knowledge and skills.

Behavioral theories support a number of different approaches to teaching. Almost all of

them fall under the general category of "direct", or "teacher-centered" instruction. The

approaches include tutorials, drill and practice, behavioral simulations, and programmed

instruction. An approach that combines all these teaching strategies into one "system" is called

an "integrated learning system" or ILS.

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Though the behavioral paradigm still dominates much of our educational practice, we are

moving toward the cognitive paradigm in our schools: whole language reading programs,

cooperative learning methods, student projects and self-managed assignments, and (often but not

always) "extracurricular" student-centered activities such as music, theater, and sports.

In the behavioral paradigm: 

o  Learning is passive.

o  Students must learn the correct response.

o  Learning requires external reward.

o  Knowledge is a matter of remembering information.

o Understanding is a matter of seeing existing patterns.

o Applications require "transfer of training" which requires "common elements" among

problems.

o Teachers must direct the learning process.

In the Cognitive Paradigm: 

o  Learning is active.

o  Students explore various possible response patterns and choose between them.

o  Learning can be intrinsically rewarding.

o  Knowledge is a matter of acquiring information

o  Understanding is a matter of creating new patterns.

o  Applications require the learner to see relationships among problems.

o  Students must direct their own learning.

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