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Becoming an Effective Literacy TeacherFourth Edition
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Teaching Children to Read and Write
Copyright (c) 2006 by Allyn and Bacon
Influential Teachers
Use clearly formulated instructional strategies.
Have in-depth knowledge of reading and writing processes as well as content knowledge.
Tap students’ internal motivation by stimulating students’ intellectual curiosity and desire to solve problems. 1.1
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National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
1992-2003
Achievement Differences
Reading Interest
Instructional Approaches
Skills Emphasis
1.2
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Effective Instructional Approaches
Basal Reader Approach
Literature-Based Approach
Language-Based Approach
Technology-Based Approach1.3
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Features of Basal Reader Approach
Program uses a predetermined skill sequence
Instruction relies on student basal text with lesson plans provided
Directed Reading Activity (DRA) is predominate group reading strategy
1.4
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Features of Literature-Based Approach
Highly individualistic and rely heavily on teacher initiative and decisions
Group sets of core literature books used so children read and respond to the same book.
Teacher guides reading-response groups and students maintain individual response logs
End-of-book summary and synthesis activitiesAssessment through informal teacher
observations
1.5
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Features of Language-Based Approach
Teacher makes instructional decisions.Children are immersed in language
and are actively involved and responsible for their own learning.
Language and literacy used for real-life purposes.
Ongoing informal teacher observation
1.6
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Features of Technology-Based Approach
Assist students in moving easily among and across symbol systems to construct meaning.
Serve as an engaging resource. Support a cooperative-learning environment.Provide a means for popular culture to
become part of the classroom.Provide opportunities for children to engage
in three key processes–inquiry, authorship, and ownership.
1.7
Technology can:
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Reading and Writing History 1607-1910
Hornbook
New England Primer
McGuffey Eclectic Readers
Basal Readers
1.8
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Reading and Writing History 1910-2006
Basal Reader
Language-Based Programs
Literature-Based Programs
Computer-Based Instruction
1.9
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Expert Reader Competencies
Word analysisMeaning cluesStory schemataMotivationHypothesizingComprehension strategies
2.1
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Oral Language Development
Mastering Phonology
Mastering Grammar
Mastering Syntax
Developing Vocabulary
2.2
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Invented Spelling and DevelopmentalSpelling Patterns
Prephonemic Spelling
Phonemic Spelling
Letter-name Spelling
Transitional Spelling
Derivational Spelling
2.3
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Writing Development
Primary Grades
Early writing development resembles spoken language
K-1 writing content is egocentric-social, self, family, friends and environment
Intermediate Grades
Increased awareness of characterization and plot
Move from simple to compound/complex sentences 2.4
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Reading AcquisitionPrimary Grades
Phonics and Other Word-Identification Skills
Word Identification
Phonics, Phonemes, and Phonemic Segmentation
Comprehension
Concepts
Word Knowledge
Developing Sense of Story Chronology and Plot
Story Reading2.5
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Reading AcquisitionIntermediate and Middle School Grades
Word Identification in Grades 4-8
Analyze larger words using syllable generalizations
Fluency and near-automatic word identification
Story Comprehension in Grades 4-8
Refined sense of narrative
Expository
Content Area Reading in Grades 4-8
Developing understanding of text organization
Expanding vocabulary load
2.6
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Learning Functions of Language
2.7
Instrumental “I want” Regulatory “do as I tell you” Interactional “me and you” Personal “here I come” Heuristic “tell me why” Imaginative “let’s pretend” Informative “I’ve got something to tell you
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Sociocognitive Theory of Language and Literacy Development
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Vygotsky’s Theory: Zone of Proximal Development
Schema Theory
2.8
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The Reading Comprehension Process: A Synthesis
Activating Background Knowledge
Activating and Applying Monitoring Strategies
Using Constructed Meaning for Expected Outcomes
Helping Students Develop Expert Reader Competencies
2.9
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Optimal Conditions for Literacy Learning
Children are immersed in languageChildren and teachers are involved in
meaningful demonstrations of languageLanguage is employed for real life purposesChildren assume responsibility for their
learningAdults expect that all children will learnApproximation is encouragedOn-going feedback is given to learners
3.1
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Teaching Specific Language of Instruction
Direction words: right, left, top, under
Ordering words: front, middle, first
Color words: red, green, blue
Geometric shape:circle, square, triangle
3.2
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Concepts about Pictures and Print
Picture knowledge
Print knowledge
Page knowledge
Book knowledge 3.3
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Skill Sequence for Phonemic Awareness
Identify word unit
Identify syllable unit
Identify rhyme
Identify phoneme3.4
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Teaching Observation and Writing Awareness
Expression Through ArtDescriptive Language from
ObservationDescriptive Language from Sensory
ExperienceLanguage Experience StoriesCollection and Recording Words and
Images 3.5
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How to Do… Spelling Instruction
Encourage invented spelling. “Spell it the way you think it should be spelled.”
“How do you think the spelling starts?”“Here’s how we usually spell. Look how
close you came.”Convert invented spellings to conventional
during revision and polishing stages of writing.
Keep a “word bank” from words students want to learn. 3.6
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Teaching Concepts of Story and Narrative
Basic to developing a sense of story and narrative: Stories have characters, settings, events, and a plot A sense of sequence as story events unfold Ability to make inferences and predictions about events and
outcomes Ability to retell and create simple stories
Shared Book ExperiencesPredictable BooksThe Directed Listening-Thinking Activity (DL-TA)
3.7
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Home TablesCircle Area TablesReading-Center TablesWriting CenterArt, Activity, and Play Centers
3.8
Organization of K-1 Classrooms
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Organization of the Kindergarten Day
Managing the classroom
Establishing rules and routines
Showing children how to “do” school
3.9
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Early Reading and Writing Assessment
Understands language of instruction and group participation
Has picture- and print-awarenessKnows how to use observing, recording,
and writing knowledgeDemonstrates sense of story and narrativeDemonstrates positive attitude toward
literacy activities
3.10
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Four Levels of Thinking
Factual level
Interpretive level
Applicative level
Transactive level
4.1
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Seven Comprehension Skills
Identifying DetailsEstablishing Sequence of EventsAssociating Cause and EffectDetermining Main IdeaPredicting OutcomesValuingProblem Solving
4.2
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Comprehension Questioning and Discussion Strategies
Focusing
Extending
Clarifying
Raising
Receiving
Controlling
Ignoring
Wait time
4.3
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Directed Reading Activity(DRA)
Preparation for reading
Guided silent reading
Comprehension development & discussion
Purposeful rereading
Follow-up activities and skill extension4.4
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Directed Reading-Thinking Activity (DR-TA)
Phase one: Directing and guiding children’s thinking processes throughout the story
Phase two: Extension, follow-up activities, and skills development based on student needs
Teachers use observations from the three steps of the instructional phase to determine if students have sufficient prior knowledge.
Students with little prior knowledge about a concept tend to respond with irrelevant words and may need direct instruction.
4.8
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Question-Answer Relationship (QAR)
Right There
Think and Search
Author and You
On My Own4.9
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Reciprocal Questioning (ReQuest)
IntroductionInitial reading and student
questioningTeacher questioning and modelingContinued reciprocal questioningSetting a purpose for readingSilent readingFollow-up discussion 4.10
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Reciprocal Teaching
Predicting
Question generation
Clarifying
Summarizing4.11
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Group Mapping Activity (GMA)
Creating story maps
Displaying and sharing story maps
4.12
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Goals in Vocabulary Development
Help children develop new vocabulary knowledge in the context of reading material
Develop children’s background knowledge of concepts and word labels
Teach children how to understand new word meanings independently
Develop and activate vocabulary processing strategies
Build positive attitudes toward vocabulary learning and encourage independent word learning
5.1
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Six Vocabulary- Learning Tasks (Graves)
Learning to read known wordsLearning new meanings for known wordsLearning new words representing known
conceptsLearning new words representing new conceptsClarifying and enriching the meanings of known
wordsMoving words from receptive to expressive
vocabularies5.2
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Key Principles of Vocabulary Instruction
Use a variety of instructional approaches. Use instruction that provides for active learning. Develop new words by relating them to semantically
similar words through contrast and comparison. Vocabulary learning is a social process. Base selection of new vocabulary for instruction on the
importance of the words to the story or content material. Consider the objectives of your instruction to determine
when to develop vocabulary--before, during or after reading.
5.3
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Motivation for Word LearningThe word has an appealing, interesting
sound and is adult-like in usage.The word involves strong emotion or
could be embarrassing if mispronounced.
The word has immediate usefulness.The word is common in peer-group
usage.
5.4
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Teaching Vocabulary in Context (TVC)
1. Identify New Vocabulary
2. Establish Meaningful Story Context
3. Introduce New Words
4. Evaluate Vocabulary Knowledge5.5
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Context-Structure-Sound- Resource System (CSSR)
ContextStructureSoundResource
5.6
How to figure out a word you don’t know:
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After-Reading Vocabulary Instruction
Meaning manipulation--questions and sentences
Novel situations and questions
Group Design of questions, sentences, and Novel situations
5.7
Semantic Development and Enrichment Instruction (SDEI)
Strategy
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Instruction to Support Word Learning and Build Meaning Connections
Interactive Cloze
Synonyms & Antonyms
Similes & Metaphors
Concept Webs
Semantic Maps
Semantic Features Analysis (SFA)
Vocabulary Logs & Journals
Word Sleuthing Strategies
5.8
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Concept Webs and Semantic Maps
Determine a concept or a topicWrite the topic in center of boardHave children brainstormRecord their ideas on the boardInvite children develop categoriesHave children create their own
Print awareness and letter recognition Phonemic awareness and phonemic segmentation An understanding of and ability to use phonics skills Understanding syllable identification An understanding of context clues Automatic recognition of words Reading fluency High level skill application and automaticity for word-
learning skills and strategies leading to meaning construction.
6.4
Develop:
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Teaching Phonics
Implicit PhonicsAn instructional method in which letter-sound relationships are taught in the context of the words in which they are found
Explicit Phonics An instructional
method in which letter-sound relationships are taught by articulating the sounds in isolation
6.5
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Letter-Sound Relationships
Single consonantsConsonant digraphsConsonant blendsShort vowel soundsLong vowel soundsDiphthongsR-controlled vowels
Fosters high motivation to readDevelops new conceptsHelps students enjoy reading literatureDevelops understanding of selfHelps students to understand the power
of language Increases reading fluencyProvides authentic learning
opportunities7.1
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Reader Motivation andResponse Process
Reader identification
Catharsis
Insight
7.2
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Instructional Stances
Efferent Stance Focuses on reading for content and information Often used when reading subject-matter content to
increase knowledge and information
Aesthetic Stance A transaction between the reader and the text to
experience the story, event, or ambiance created by the text
Involves a reciprocal process between the reader and the text, where the reader synthesizes personal life experience with the text to form a new experience, a process called evocation
7.3
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Internal Reader Motivations
Problem resolutionPrestigeAesthetic appreciationEscapeIntellectual curiosityUnderstanding self
7.4
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External Reader Motivations
Teacher expectations
Peer recommendations
Peer influence
7.5
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Types of Children’s Literature
Fiction
Non-fiction
Poetry, rhymes, and jingles
7.6
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Elements of Fiction
PlotCharacterizationSettingPoint of ViewTheme
7.7
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Text Patterns of Nonfiction
Description
Sequence of events
Cause and effect
Comparison and contrast
Problem solution
7.8
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Selecting Literature
Reading interests in the primary grades
Reading interests in the intermediate grades
Working with librarians
Helping children choose books independently
7.9
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Instructional Strategies for Teaching Literature:
Four Basic Questions
1. What can I conclude about the key interests and motivations of my students on the basis of what I know about them and have observed in my classroom?
7.10
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Instructional Strategies for Teaching Literature:
Four Basic Questions
2. Given these interests and motivations, what literature selections would hold high appeal for my students?
7.11
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Instructional Strategies for Teaching Literature:
Four Basic Questions
3. What internal reader motivations play a role in building reader identification and interest in a particular literature selection?
7.12
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Instructional Strategies for Teaching Literature:
Four Basic Questions
4. What instructional strategy or strategies will be most effective in developing the literature experience?
7.13
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Instructional Strategies for Teaching Literature
Reading aloudStorytellingLiterature
Response Journals
Literature Response Groups
The Book Club
Literature CircleBook Sharing
StrategiesSustained Silent
ReadingReaders TheatreInvestigative
Questioning Procedures 7.14
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The Book Club
Literature selectionCommunity ShareDiscussion GroupsSustained ReadingWriting Activities
Questions that get longer responses are most desirable.
Questions that receive yes/no answers can be followed by “Why?” to obtain more information.
Interview questions often elicit information, a reflection, an evaluation, or a prediction.
A good interview has a variety of question types.
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Guiding Children’s Reading in Content Area Instruction
Content DR-TA
Group Mapping Activity (GMA)
Content Semantic Development and
Enrichment Instruction Strategy (SDEI)
K-W-L Plus
Directed Inquiry Activity (DIA)
8.1
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Content-AreaVocabulary Development Strategies
Concept webs
Semantic maps
Semantic Feature Analysis
8.2
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Principles of the Writing Workshop
Chunks of TimeEnvironment and OrganizationWriting-Workshop InstructionMini-LessonsWriting TimeWriting ConferencesSharing TimeRecord Keeping and Evaluation
Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English (SDAIE)
11.8
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Effective Bilingual Teachers
Provide a language-rich context for learning
Provide reading instruction using varied methods designed for bilingual learners
Use various strategies to develop oral language
Are sensitive to external social and cultural factors affecting learning
11.9
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Developing and Monitoring Meaning Construction for Bilingual
Learners
DL-TADR-TAQuestion-Answer
Relationship (QAR)
ReQuestReciprocal
Teaching
Group Mapping Activity (GMA)
Content Semantic Development and Enrichment (SDEI)
Vocabulary Logs and Journals
11.10
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IEP (Individualized Education Program)
Present level of functioningAnnual goalsMeasurable, short-term instructional
objectivesDate of initiation and duration of
serviceServices neededStrategies for evaluationTransition plan
11.11
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Characteristics of Gifted Learners
Curiosity
Persistence
Critical Thinking
Abstract Thinking
High Verbal Ability
11.12
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Characteristics of Peer and Adult Volunteer Tutors
Ability to convey friendly and supportive attitude to others
Ability to treat others in a respectful manner Awareness that others differ in background
knowledge and rate of learning Desire and motivation to help others Ability to relate to others and offer leadership Ability to work with an individual or group Skill in communicating and relating to the
Instruction relies on student basal text with lesson plans provided
Directed Reading Activity (DRA) is predominate group reading strategy
12.4
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Organization & Management of the Basal Reader Classroom
Reading group instructional areaScheduling reading groupsRoutines and rules for basal reading
groupsEffects of ability groupingStrengths and limitationsAdapting programs to meet the
needs12.5
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Literature-Based Approach
Underlying beliefs and assumptions
Implementing the literature-based approach
Organization and management12.6
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Characteristics of Literature-Based Approach
Highly individualistic and rely heavily on teacher initiative and decisions
Group sets of core literature books used so children read and respond to the same book.
Teacher guides reading-response groups and students maintain individual response logs
End-of-book summary and synthesis activitiesAssessment through informal teacher
observations
12.7
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Organization & Management of the Literature-Based Program
The reading and literature center
Flexible floor space
Working areas and materials
12.8
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Characteristics Language-Based Approach
Underlying beliefs and assumptions
Implementing the Language-Based Approach
Organization and management of the classroom
12.9
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Characteristics of Language-Based Approach
Teacher makes instructional decisions.Children are immersed in language
and are actively involved and responsible for their own learning.
Language and literacy used for real-life purposes.
Ongoing informal teacher observation
12.10
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Organization & Management of the Language-Based Classroom
Large blocks of writing timeReflections, feedback, and goal settingCreating the environment for learningFostering independenceStrengths and limitationsAdapting the Language-Based
Approach
12.11
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Technology-Based Instruction
Underlying beliefs and assumptions
Instructional uses of technology in literacy development
Integrating technology in the classroom
Evaluating software programs12.12
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Features of Technology-Based Approach
Assist students in moving easily among and across symbol systems to construct meaning.
Serve as an engaging resource. Support a cooperative-learning environment.Provide a means for popular culture to
become part of the classroom.Provide opportunities for children to engage
in three key processes–inquiry, authorship, and ownership.
12.13
Technology can:
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Model of Change: A Three Stage Process
Confronting a new idea
Resisting but examining the idea
Negotiating and adapting the idea
13.1
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Five Critical Factors in Acceptance of Change
Advantages
Compatibility
Complexity
Ability to try idea out and observe it
Opportunity to commit, modify or
reject13.2
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Teacher Characteristics
Supportive-Productive
Supportive-Nonproductive
Nonsupportive-Productive
Nonsupportive-Nonproductive13.3
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Important Personal and Professional Support Network for Teachers
Past influential and effective teachers
Background knowledge and skillsEffective peer and mentor teachersSchool administrators and staffStudents’ parentsSchool community 13.4
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Characteristics and Behaviors of Effective and Influential Teachers
Personal characteristics: energy, commitment, passion, flexibility
Understanding of student potentialAttitude toward content and skills
instructionConcern for student’s life adjustment,
through giving personal attentionAbility and willingness to make
instructional content relevant to students13.5
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Professional Organizations
International Reading Association (www.reading.org)
National Council of Teachers of English (www.ncte.org)
13.6
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Continuing Professional Development for Reading and Writing Teachers
Staff Development
Professional Organizations
Internet Resources for Teachers
Continuing Education for Teachers
13.7
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Factors Critical for Becoming an Effective Teacher