Ass.

ChemistryFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Chemistry (disambiguation).

Chemistry is the science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions.

During chemical reactions, bonds between atoms break and form, resulting in different substances with different properties. In a blast furnace, iron oxide, a compound, reacts with carbon monoxide to form iron, one of the chemical elements, and carbon dioxide.

Chemistry (the etymology of the word has been much disputed)[1] is the science of matter and the changes it undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed by physics, but while physics takes a more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, being concerned with the composition, behavior (or reaction), structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions.[2] It is a physical science which studies various substances, atoms, molecules, crystals and other aggregates of matter whether in isolation or combination, and which incorporates the concepts of energy and entropy in relation to the spontaneity of chemical processes.

Disciplines within chemistry are traditionally grouped by the type of matter being studied or the kind of study. These include inorganic chemistry, the study of inorganic matter; organic chemistry, the study of organic (carbon based) matter; biochemistry, the study of substances found in biological organisms; physical chemistry, the study of chemical processes using

physical concepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics; and analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry the chemical study of the nervous system (see subdisciplines).

Different Branches of ChemistryChemistry, a study of the fundamental units of matter, is subdivided into branches that deal with specialized spheres of chemistry. Let us look at the different branches of chemistry.

Chemistry is the science that deals with the structure and composition of matter and the chemical reactions that are responsible for changing the state and properties of matter. Chemistry is the science of atoms, molecules, crystals and other aggregates of matter and the chemical processes that change their energy and entropy levels as also their structure and composition. Chemistry has been subdivided into distinct disciplines that deal with specific branches of chemistry. The different branches of chemistry deal with different fields of study of matter. Take a look at them.

Different Branches of Chemistry

Organic Chemistry: This branch of chemistry deals with the study of the organic matter. The substances that primarily consist of carbon and hydrogen are termed as organic. The discipline that deals with the study of the structure, composition and the chemical properties of organic compounds is known as organic chemistry. This branch also deals with the chemical reactions that are used in the preparation of organic chemical compounds.

Inorganic Chemistry: It is the branch of chemistry that relates to the structure, composition and behavior of inorganic compounds. All the substances other than the carbon-hydrogen compounds

are classified under the group of inorganic substances. Oxides, sulphides and carbonates form the important classes of inorganic compounds. Industrial inorganic chemistry deals with the branch of applied science such as the manufacture of fertilizers, while the descriptive inorganic chemistry deals with the classification of compounds based on their properties.

Analytical Chemistry: This is a very important branch of chemistry that deals with the analysis of the chemical properties of natural and man-made materials. The study does not restrict itself to any particular type of chemical compounds. Instrumental analysis is a prominent part of modern analytical chemistry. Analytical chemistry primarily deals with the study of the chemicals present in a substance, in what quantity they are, and how they define the chemical properties of the substance.

Physical Chemistry: This branch of chemistry applies the theories of physics to atoms and subatomic particles. When physical chemistry is applied to the chemical interaction between atoms and subatomic particles, the study is known by the name, quantum mechanics. It is a relatively vast field that deals with intermolecular forces, rates of chemical reactions as well the conductivity of different materials.

Biochemistry: This discipline of chemistry represents a peep of biology into chemistry. It deals with the structure and behavior of the components of cells and the chemical processes in living beings. The complex and large biomolecules are usually composed of similar units that repeat. The complex molecules are known as polymers and the basic units they are composed of, are known as monomers. Biochemistry deals with the study of cellular constituents like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids as also the chemical processes that occur in cells.

Nuclear Chemistry: It is a popular and one of the very important branches of chemistry that studies radioactivity. It revolves around the study of the nuclear properties of and the chemical processes in radioactive substances. This branch also covers the study of the equipment used for the performance of nuclear processes. The effects of the absorption of radiation, the production and use of radioactive materials and radiotherapy come under this branch of chemistry. Nuclear chemistry also deals with the non-radioactive areas of life.

These were some of the different branches of chemistry. Chemistry is a very vast subject as it delves into the enormity of the universe. While dealing with the study of the structure and behavior of matter, it makes an attempt to encompass the study of the fundamental units that make up the universe.

The central scienceFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search

Partial ordering of the sciences proposed by Balaban and Klein.

Chemistry is often called the central science because of its role in connecting the physical sciences,[1] which include chemistry, with the life sciences and applied sciences such as medicine and engineering. The nature of this relationship is one of the main topics in the philosophy of chemistry and in scientometrics. The phrase was popularized by its use in a textbook by Theodore L. Brown and H. Eugene LeMay, titled Chemistry: The Central Science, which was first published in 1977, with a twelfth edition published in 2011.[2]

The central role of chemistry can be seen in the systematic and hierarchical classification of the sciences by Auguste Comte in which each discipline provides a more general framework for the area it precedes (mathematics → astronomy → physics → chemistry → physiology and medicine → social sciences).[3] Balaban and Klein have more recently proposed a diagram showing partial ordering of sciences in which chemistry may be argued is “the central science” since it provides a significant degree of branching.[4] In forming these connections the lower field cannot be fully reduced to the higher ones. It is recognized that the lower fields possess emergent ideas and concepts that do not exist in the higher fields of science.

Thus chemistry is built on an understanding of laws of physics that govern particles such as atoms, protons, electrons, thermodynamics, etc. although it has been shown that it cannot be

“fully 'reduced' to quantum mechanics”.[5][6] Concepts such as the periodicity of the elements and chemical bonds in chemistry are emergent in that they are more than the underlying forces that are defined by physics.

In the same way biology cannot be fully reduced to chemistry despite the fact that the machinery that is responsible for life is composed of molecules.[7] For instance, the machinery of evolution may be described in terms of chemistry by the understanding that it is a mutation in the order of genetic base pairs in the DNA of an organism. However chemistry cannot fully describe the process since it does not contain concepts, such as natural selection that are responsible for driving evolution. Chemistry is fundamental to biology since it provides methodology to study and understand the molecules that compose cells.

Connections made by chemistry are formed through various sub-disciplines that utilize concepts from multiple scientific disciplines. Chemistry and physics are both needed in the areas of physical chemistry, nuclear chemistry, and theoretical chemistry. Chemistry and biology intersect in the areas of biochemistry, medicinal chemistry, molecular biology, chemical biology, molecular genetics, and immunochemistry. Chemistry and the earth sciences intersect in areas like geochemistry and hydrology.

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History of Totalisators  by Brian Conlon.

Hitmill.com's blog for students

History of Computers

The development of the modern day computer was the result of advances in technologies and man's need to quantify. Papyrus helped early man to record language and numbers. The abacus was one of the first counting machines.. Some of the earlier mechanical counting machines lacked the technology to make the design work. For instance, some had parts

made of wood prior to metal manipulation and manufacturing. Imagine the wear on wooden gears. This history of computers site includes the names of early pioneers of math and computing and links to related sites about the History of Computers, for further study. This site would be a good Web adjunct to accompany any book on the History of Computers or Introduction to Computers. The "H" Section includes a link to the History of the Web Beginning at CERN which includes Bibliography and Related Links. Hitmill.com strives to always include related links for a broader educational experience. The material was originally divided into

Part 2

A]  [B]  [C]  [D]  [E]  [F]  [G]  [H]  [I]  [J]  [K]  [L]  [M] 

N]  [O]  [P]  [Q]  [R]  [S]  [T]  [U]  [V]  [W]  [X]  [Y]  [Z]

8-Bit Operating Systems (Armory.Com)Classic 8-bit Computers

A-A Brief History of Computers and Networks (GoldenInk.Com)A Chronology of Computer History (Cyberstreet.Com)A Chronology of Personal Computers (kpolsson - islandnet.com)A Few Quotes from Silicon Valley HistoryA Journey Through the History of Information TechnologyPhotos: History of Computing InformationArtificial Intelligence, History ofA Timeline of Computer and Internet History

ABACUSThe Abacus  (Hitmill.com: Good pictures, overview, brief history, definition, counting boards, bibliography, and links for further study)

ADAAda was a US governmental (DoD) developed programming language. The standard was originally known as Ada83, but this is now obsolete, as it was

Real Knowledge - Your Online Source For Computer Information

 Learn another language with Rosetta

Stone

recently "overhauled" and re-born as Ada95. This is now the preferred standard and implementation of the Ada programming language. Read more about it: Ada Programming at U. of Mich.Ada Programming Resources (Hitmill.com) Introduction to Ada95 (embedded.com)Mission Critical Programming Concepts with Ada95: Introduction to the Ada Programming Language Training Class (ddci.com)AIKEN, HOWARD HATHAWAYHoward Hathaway Aiken and the Mark IHoward Aiken: Makin' A Computer WonderHoward Hathaway Aiken, Computer PioneerHoward Aiken's Harvard Mark I

ALTAIR ComputerAltair 8800 (Wikipedia)Introduction The Revolution Begins (David Bunnell)The Altair 8800 and Ed RobertsAltair History (onlineethics.org)Early History of the Personal Computer (by Thayer Watkins at San Jose State University)Brief History of the Altair (highgate.comm.sfu.ca)The Virtual Altair Museum"Ed Roberts Interview (virualaltair.com)What Good is a Computer Without Software? (virtualaltair.com)How the Personal Computer Was Born (sas.org)Looking Back on Nearly Three Decades of Personal Computing (by Forrest M. Mims III)Ed Roberts and the MITS AltairHow the Altair Began (by Stan Veit, the Computer Editor of Popular Electronics Magazine)Chronology of Personal Computers 1975Open Letter to Hobbyists from Bill Gates, February 3, 1976PDF copy of An Open Letter To HobbyistsRamblings From Ed Roberts, March 1976

ANALYTICAL ENGINEThe Analytical Engine, Table of Contents

Analytical Engine/Babbage

APPLE/MACINTOSHApple Computer history (apple-history.com)Steve Jobs Information PageWoz.orgMaking the Macintosh (stanford.edu)The Apple Museum (theapplemuseum.com)Books on Apple HistoryMacPicks (Mac News, Reviews, E-zines)MacPlaces

ARPA, Forerunner of ARPANET and the InternetARPA: The Early Days of ARPA, Forerunner of the Internet

ATANASOFF, JOHN VINCENTThe John Vincent Atanasoff Virtual ArchiveIowa State University Department of Computer Science, birthplace of the electronic digital computer.Atanasoff Biography (Hien Chris Do)Washington Post ObituarySecret of a Genius: Drive Fast and Don't Look Back(This is an article about John Atanasoff.)Inventors of the Modern ComputerThis article from the Minining Company discusses the Atanasoff-Berry Computer,John Vincent Atanasoff, and Clifford Berry.ATANASOFF-BERRY COMPUTERReconstruction of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer(Article from Ames Lab)ABC Public Showings: November 1996 and October 1997

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BABBAGE, CHARLESCharles Babbage (1791-1871 was born 26 Dec 1791, the son of a London banker. In his youth he had his own private instructor in algebra and by the time he attended Trinity College, Cambridge, he was advanced in

knowledge beyond his tutors in mathematics. In 1811, he co-founded the Analytical Society to promote continental mathematics and to reform the mathematics of Newton taught at the University at that time. He worked on the calculus of functions in his twenties. After being elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1816, Babbage played a role in the development of the Astronomical Society in 1820. In 1821 he invented the Difference Engine to compile mathematical tables. The Difference Engine was completed in 1832. Then he began work on a machine that could do any type of calculation, and this machine was the Analytical Engine completed about 1856. To learn more about Charles Babbage and his contributions to society, mathetics, engineering, astronomy, and more.... see the following links:Pioneers: Charles BabbageCharles Babbage Biographical NotesThe Babbage Pges: BiographyBabbage's Analytical EngineCharles Babbage Institute (U. of Minn.)Charles Babbage - Bibliographical notes  (cs.vt.edu)Picture of Charles Babbage (cs.vt.edu)

BACKUS, JOHNBiography of John Backus  Leader of the team that developed Fortran programming languageJohn Backus, Recipient of Alan M. Turing Award

BELL, GORDONGordon Bell Microsoft Bay Area Research Center; worked on design of PDP-6 at DEC, an antecedent of the PDP-10, one of the first mPs and the first time-sharing computer.MyLifeBits Project: Vannevar Bush's 1945 Memex Vision Fulfilled (research.microsoft.com)

BOOLE, GEORGEGeorge Boole - Genius of Lincoln (Roger Parsons)The Calculus of Logic by George Boole (maths.tcd.ie)Papers by George Boole (ucc.ie - University Library County Cork, Ireland)George Boole Invents Boolean AlgebraGeorge Boole, Biographical Notes (st-and.ac.uk)

BRICKLIN, DANIEL (Co-Creator of VisiCalc)Daniel Bricklin, First Spreadsheet,VisiCalcDaniel Bricklin's Web PageDaniel Bricklin Biography, Long Form

BUNNELL, DAVID (Altair, MITS, PC Mag., PC World, MacWorld)The Third Culture: David Bunnell (edge.org)Prosumer MediaUpside Tech Magazine's Downside (S.F. Chronicle)

BUSH, VANNEVARAs We May Think (by permission of theatlantic.com)Article of 1945 by Vannevar BushVannevar Bush Biographical Notes (www.iath.virginia.edu)Vannevar Bush (livinginternet.com)

BYRON, LADY AUGUSTA ADAAda Byron (Yale.edu, contributed by Dr. Betty Toole)Ada's Notes Contributed by Dr. Betty Toole, Yale.EduThe Birth of the Computer Revolution Yale.eduPictures of Lady Augusta Ada Byron, Countess of Lovelace

C-

Calculator Reference, Research PageChronology of Computer History (cyberstreet.com)Chronology of Personal Computers (Ken Polsson)Computing Science, History ofComputers: From the Past to the Present

C++ Programming LanguageHistory of the C++ Programming Language (hitmill.com)History of C++ (cplusplus.com)

CALCULATORSTimeline History of Calculators

CERF, VINTON G. Co-inventor of TCP/IP Protocol for the InternetICANN Biographical Notes about Vinton G. CerfVint's Personal Home Page Read about the first 35 years of the "Internet"How the Internet Came to Be as told by Vinton CerfVinton G. Cerf (isoc.org)Vinton G. Cerf (Wikipedia page)Vinton Cerf on the future of e-mail (ComputerWorld: 2001 article)From Inventing the Enterprise: Vinton G. Cerf (cio.com)

CODD, EDGAR F. Database Pioneer, Key Theorist of DatabasesEdgar Codd, Database Pioneer, Dead at 79 (usatoday.com)Edgar Codd, Key Theorist of Databases Dies at 79 in Florida

COLOSSUSThe Colossus Rebuild Project (codesandciphers.org.uk)The Colossus Rebuild Project (project-x.org.uk)Lorenz Ciphers and the Colossus1940-1944 The ColossusColossus Electronic Programmable (to a limited extent) ComputerColossus Computer

Computer Conservation SocietyComputer Conservation Society

D-DIJKSTRA, EDSGER WYBE Mathematician, Computer Scientist,  Shortest Path Algorithm, Computer Programmer, EducatorBiographical Notes: Edsger W. Dijkstra (Wipikedia.org)Edsger Dijkstra, The shortest-path algorithmDijkstra's Algorith (Wikipedia.org)E. W. Dijkstra Archive (utexas.edu)Dijkstra's Algorith (uwa.edu.au)GoTo Statement Considered Harmful by Edsger Dijkstra, 1968;   Article began the structured programming movement.How Do We Tell Truths that Might Hurt? by Edsger Dijkstra, 1975:  On old problems in programming

Edsger Dijkstra on universitiesEdsger Dijkstra:RIP (death notice)

DIGITAL IMAGINGMona Lisa, Digital Image from 1965A Brief History of Digital Imaging

E-ECKERT, J. PRESPERJ. Presper Eckert InterviewThe Eckert/ENIAC Collection

ENGLEBART, DOUGLAS C.AUGMENTING HUMAN INTELLECT: A Conceptual Framework A summary report prepared by Douglas C. Englebart for the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, October 1962.Original Computer Mouse PatentComputer Mouse Demo (video info.)Facts About the Invention of the Computer MouseThe Computer MouseThe Mousesite - a resource for exploring the history of human computer interaction beginning with the pioneering work of Douglas Engelbart and his colleagues at Stanford Research Institute in the 1960s.

ENIAC The ENIAC Story (army.mil)A Report on the ENAIC (army.mil)ENAIC - The Army Sponsored Revolution (army.mil)John W. Mauchly and the Development of the ENIAC Computer (upenn.edu)The Eniac (about.com)ENIAC Computer Invention (ideafinder.com)Jean Bartik, The First ENIAC Programmer

EthernetNetworking With Ethernet (entertainmentdesignmag.com)

F-

Fibonnaci NumbersFibonnaci Numbers DefinitionFibonnaci Numbers and the Golden Section

F, G-First, Second, Third, and Fourth Generation ComputersFeatures of each generation are discussed.

G-

Google.Com's Computer History LinksGreat Microprocessors of the Past and PresentGreatest Engineering Achievements of the 20th Century

GATES, WILLIAM H IIIAn Open Letter To Hobbyists, by Bill GatesBill Gate's Web Page at MicrosoftBill Gates: Biog. notes and p;ictureThe "Unofficial" Bill Gates pageFocus Magazine's Interview with Bill GatesBill and Melinda Gates FoundationAn Open Letter to Hobbyists - by Bill Gates, 1976 (blinkenlights.com)William H. Gates III Before MicrosoftBill Gates Wealth Index

GOOD, IRVING JOHN (JACK)Roanoke Times Article about Jack Good, a memeber of the team that broke the ENIGMA code during WWIIIrving John (Jack) Good Cryptologist, statistician

GORE, ALAl Gore's Support of the Internet   by Robert E. Kahn and Vinton G. CerfGore to Get Lifetime Award for InternetGore Never Did Claim That He Invented the Internet

GOSLING, JAMES wrote the Java programming language From

Inventing the Enterprise: James Gosling (cio.com)James Gosling, On the Java RoadJava - James Gosling (about.com)

Graphical User InterfaceGraphical User InterfaceHistory of the Graphical User InterfaceGraphical User Interface, GUI (apple-history.com)Mac OS XAqua Human Interface Guidelines (developer.apple.com)GUI GalleryThe History of Graphical User Interfaces

H-

Historic Computer Images (army.mil)History of Computers Article by aleembawany.comHistory of Computer Viruses and Attacks (securityfocus.com)History of Computing (ei.cs.vt.edu)A compiled directory of categorical links.History of Computing: Virtual Museum of Computing (VMoC)This site is a virtual museum which includes an eclectic collection of WWW hyperlinks connected with the history of computing and on-line computer-based exhibits.History of the Internet (Roads and Crossroads of Internet History (Gregory Gromov's site)History of the Web Beginning at CERN

HOPPER, GRACEGrace HopperThe Wit and Wisdom of Grace HopperInventing the Enterprise: Grace Murray Hopper (cio.com)

Hewlett-PackardHewlett-Packard, History -- Founding FathersThe Making of Hewlitt-PackardDave Packard's 11 Simple Rules

I-

IEEE Annals of the History of ComputingInternet History: Roads and Crossroads of Internet History (Gregory Gromov)

IBMIBM Vintage Personal Computers

IEEEIEEE/ISTO Industry Standards and Technology OrganizationIEEE Computer Society Home PortalIEEE Computer Society History of ComputingIEEE Annals of Computer HistoryIEEE 802.11b - Wireless Ethernet Article by Al Petrick, Vice Chairman of the IEEE 802.11 Standards Committee

Internet ExplorerThe History of Internet Explorer

J-JACQUARD, JOSEPH-MARIEBook:  Jacquard's Web: How a Hand Loom Led to the Birth of the Information Age by James Essinger. Read about this book at Amazon.comJacquard LoomThe Jacquard Loom (columbia.edu)Jacquard's Punched CardIndustrial Revolution: Timeline of Textile MachineryBiographical Note on Joseph-Marie JacquardBiography of Joseph-Marie Jacquard

JOBS, STEVE PAULSteve Paul Jobs Bio.

K-KAHN, ROBERT E (co-inventor of TCP/IP Technology for Internet)Robert E. Kahn Biographical NotesRobert E. Kahn Awarded National Medal of Technology

KING, ADA BYRON(See BYRON, AUGUSTA ADA)

KLEINROCK, LEONARDLeonard Kleinrock Biography: The Birth of the Internet (ucla.edu)Leonard Kleinrock was the inventor of the Internet technology known as packet-switching.Leonard Kleinrock's home page

L-LEIBNITZ, GOTFRIED vonGottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716)

LICKLIDER, J.C.R.Man-Computer Symbiosis by J.C.R. Licklider (PDF file, Memex.org)The Computer as a Communication Device (PDF file, Memex.org)by J.C.R. Licklider and Robert Taylor (of ARPA)JCR Licklider (columbia.edu)J.C.R. Licklider Biography (thocp.net)J.C.R. Licklider (livinginternet.com)Six degrees of J.C.R. Licklider traces computer evolution (St.Louis Post Dispatch/wustl.edu)J.C.R. Licklider in Memoriam (MIT.edu)The Dream Machine: J.C.R. Licklider and the Revolution That Made Computing Personal (book, by M. Mitchell Waldrop -- see Amazon.com book site)

M-

Mind Machine Museum (SFSU.edu)

MAUCHLY, JOHN W.John W. Mauchly and the Development of the ENIAC Computer

METCALF, ROBERT M. EthernetFrom Inventing the Enterprise: Robert M. Metcalf (cio.com)

Ethernet (acm.org)Ethernet PDF Paper: IEEE 802.3

Mouse(See also: Englebart, Douglas)The Mouse Site

N-NELSON, TEDProject XanaduThe original hypertext project...Ted Nelson home page

NYGAARD, KRISTENNotes About Kristen Nygaard

O-

P-

Past Notable Women of Computing and MathematicsPC Computers, Pre-IBMPioneers (Wired Magazine's List of Pioneers of Computing)Pioneers of Computing

PASCAL, BLAISEBlaise Pascal Quotes to Inspire YouBlaise Pascal Biography

PDP ComputersPDP11's on the Bribane Project for Totalisators by Brian ConlanWhat is a PDP? (Ken Olson/DEC)PDP-8 (pdp8.net)PDP-11 History (telnet.hu)

Q-

R-RITCHIE, DENNISDennis Ritchie Home PageInterview with Dennis M. RitchieDennis M. Ritchie timelineDennis M. Ritchie: From Inventing the Enterprise

S-

Shareware, History ofSilicon Valley History (netvalley.com)Smithsonian Institute's Computer History Collection

Shortest Path AlgorithSee Dijkstra, Edsger

STIBITZ, GEORGE R.George R. Stibitz, Computer Inventor (1904-1995)George R. Stibitz in Inventors Hall of FameGeorge R. Stibitz Curriculum VitaeGeorge R. Stibitz, BiographyGeorge R. Stibitz, 1904-1995

SYSTEM RSystem R (mcjones.org)System R led to the introduction of the SQL language

T-

Tech. History (si.edu)The Charles Babbage InstituteThis is located at the University of MinnesotaMany computer subjects including the history of computers...The Evolution of the ComputerThe History of SharewareThe IEEE Annals of the History of ComputingThe Revolutionaries

The Smithsonian Computer History and Information TechnologyTimeline: The History of Computers (Maxmon.com)Well done! Events influencing the history and development of computing.Tools for Thought (Howard Rheingold)

TOTALISATORSHistory of Totalisators by Brian Conlon.

TURING, ALANThe Alan Turing Home PageAlan Mathison Turing (1912-1954)Alan Turing and COLOSSUS

-U-UNIVAC COMPUTERUnivac Memories (fourmilab.ch)Book: The Unsung Heroes of the PC Age

-V-

Virtual Museum of ComputingViruses: History of Computer VirusesWearable Computing at media.MIT.eduWhat was the first computer and who built it?"Wired Magazine:Browse by PersonThis is a list not to be missed. Enjoy.

von NEUMANN, JOHN LOUISJohn Lewis von Neumann (1903-1957)John von Neumann(Click on hardware in the background of this next reference)von Neumann Digital Computer

-W-WANG, ANDr. An Wang (Magnetic Core Memory) (mit.edu)An Wang, Hall of Fame Inventor ProfileBook: Dr. an Wang Computer Pioneer

The Doctor and His CalculatorsAbout WangAn Wang: The Core of the Computer EraWang system photosPhoto 1968 Wang CalculatorWang 363E CalculatorWang BASIC vs. Microsoft BASIC

WILKES, MAURICE VINCENTMaurice Vincent Wilkes (vt.edu)Maurice Vincent Wilkes, Brief Biography

WIRTH, NIKLAUSNiklaus Wirth (kzoo.edu)Niklaus Wirth was the inventor of Pascal, and other languages.

WOZNIAK, STEVENSteven Wozniak Bio. (cs.vt.edu)Official Website of the "WOZ"Apple Computer history

-X-XANADUProject XanaduThe original hypertext project...Xanadu Australia: Problem DefinitionXanadu Secrets Become Udanax Open-Source (1999)Marc Steigler's 1989 Article Published in the February 1990 Edition of Unix Review is about Hypertext Publishing

-Y--Z-ZUSE, KONRADKonrad Zuse(Use the search engine at this next site to put in the name of Konrad Zuse, in order to navigate to this topic.)A photograph of Konrad ZuseKonrad Zuse's Z3 Computer

Konrad Zuse And His Computers

Related Links Having Computer History Significance

Hitmill.com has a blog for students about Computers, Internet, Digital Graphics, and the History of Computers, with weekly blogs at http://galcalia.wordpress.com. The I.T. Twitter where we tweet to students is http://www.twitter.com/Calgalia. Why we are not on Facebook: Facebook has huge security issues in which personal security of each individual is frequently breeched and in protest, we are not participating by having a Facebook link... people running the company need more coursework in ethics, and computer server security, and how to protect the indivdual information of their clients. A company should never ask a user to opt out of a general plan when the user may not even be aware of the change. The company has a committment to allow a user to "opt-in" to the plan instead, and to advertise the availability of the plan, once, to users. Facebook is not allowing the user to decide who gets their personal information. If you have a friend's list and any member of that list is gaming, facebook states they can use your personal information and photographs, by association. Read privacy rules before playing any Facebook game. It is the personal belief of this site, that the Facebook social network is not ethical. We opt to not join Facebook because we disagree with their decisions about people's privacy. Hitmill - History of Computers, Part 2Computing Research LinksFuturistic ComputersHistory of the Web, Beginning at CERN

 How did early California history later impact California settlement in the 20th Century and the growth of Silicon Valley? Read about early California history, geology, geography in the following links:[California History Links] [California Indians]  [California Geography and Geology]

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PanitikanMula sa Tagalog na Wikipedia, ang malayang ensiklopedya

Tumalon sa: nabigasyon, hanapin

Larawan ng mga librong pampanitikan.

Isang aklatang may mga aklat pampanitikan.

Sa pinakapayak na paglalarawan, ang panitikan ay ang pagsulat ng tuwiran o tuluyan at patula. Subalit upang maipagkaiba ito mula sa ibang mga walang saysay na babasahin o patalastas lamang, ang mga panitikan ay ang mainam na pagsulat na may anyo, pananaw, at diwang nakasasanhi ng matagal na pagkawili at gana. Samakatuwid, may hugis, may punto de bista at

nakapagpapahaba ng interes ng mambabasa ang isang sulating pampanitikan.[1] Nagsasalaysay ng buhay, pamumuhay, lipunan, pamahalaan, pananampalataya at mga karanasang kaugnay ng iba't ibang uri ng damdaming tulad ng pag-ibig, kaligayahan, kalungkutan, pag-asa, pagkapoot, paghihiganti, pagkasuklam, sindak at pangamba.[2] Ito ang isang dahilan kung bakit pinag-aaralan ang larangan ng literatura sa mga paaralan. Ang Iliad ni Homer, ang isang halimbawa ng mga mabuting likhaing pampanitikang kanluranin, maging ang Aeneid ni Vergil.[1]

Mga nilalaman[itago]

1 Etimolohiya o ethymology 2 Mga uri ng panitikan

3 Anyo ng Panitikan

4 Mga akdang pampanitikan

5 Kaugnayan sa kalinangan

6 Kaugnayan sa kasaysayan

7 Tingnan din

8 Mga sanggunian

9 Mga talaugnayang panlabas

[baguhin] Etimolohiya o ethymology

Nanggaling ang salitang panitikan mula sa ‘pang|titik|an’, kung saan ikinabit ang unlaping pang- at hulaping -an sa ugat na titik. Ang may-bahid kanluraning salitang literatura ang isa pang katawagan para sa larangan ng panitikan. Nagmula ang salitang literatura sa salitang Wikang Latin - littera - na nangangahulugang "titik".[2]

[baguhin] Mga uri ng panitikan

Sa pinakapayak na paghahati, dalawa ang uri ng panitikan: ang mga kathang-isip (Ingles: fiction) at ang mga hindi kathang-isip (Ingles: non-fiction) na mga sulatin at babasahin. Ginagamit ng mga manunulat ang kanilang imahinasyon para sa pagsulat ng mga akdang bungang-isip lamang. Umiimbento sila ng mga kathang-isip na mga tauhan, pangyayari, sakuna, at pook na pinangyahrihan ng kuwento para sa kanilang mga prosang katulad ng mga nobela at maikling kuwento.[1]

Para sa pangalawang uri ng panitikan, bumabatay ang may-akda sa mga tunay na balita at iba pang kaganapan, ayon sa kaniyang mga kaalaman hinggil sa paksa. Pinipilit dito ng manunulat na maging tumpak sa mga detalye ng mga pangyayari. Hindi gawa-gawa lamang ang

nakakaingganyong kuwento. Kabilang sa mga hindi-bungang-isip na mga sulatin at babasahin ang mga talambuhay, awtobiyograpiya, talaarawan, sanaysay, at mga akdang pang-kasaysayan.[1]

[baguhin] Anyo ng Panitikan

May dalawang pangunahing anyo ang panitikan:

1. tuluyan o prosa (Ingles: prose) - maluwang na pagsasama-sama ng mga salita sa loob ng pangungusap. Ito ay nasusulat sa karaniwang takbo ng pangungusap o pagpapahayag.

2. patula o panulaan (Ingles: poetry) - pagbuo ng pangungusap sa pamamagitan ng salitang binibilang na pantig sa taludtod na pinagtugma-tugma.

[baguhin] Mga akdang pampanitikan Mga akdang tuluyan

o Alamat

o Anekdota

o Nobela

o Pabula

o Parabula

o Maikling kwento

o Dula

o Sanaysay

o Talambuhay

o Talumpati

o Balita

o Kwentong bayan

o Salawikain

o Kasabihan

Mga akdang patula

o Mga tulang pasalaysay - pinapaksa nito ang mahahalagang mga tagpo o pangyayari sa buhay, ang kagitingan at kabayanihan ng tauhan.

Awit at Korido

Epiko

Balada

Sawikain

Salawikain

Bugtong

Kantahin

Tanaga

Tula

[baguhin] Kaugnayan sa kalinangan

Nag-uugat ang lahat ng likhaing pampanitikan mula sa buhay, at naglalarawan ng kalinangang pinagmulan nito.[1]

[baguhin] Kaugnayan sa kasaysayan

Malaki ang kontribusyon ng Panitikan sa Kasaysayan dahil dito natin makikita kung ano ang buhay ng mga tao noon. Sa pamamagitan ng mga tula, Nobela, Kantahin, o talumpati nalalaman kung ano ang obserbasyon ng mga may-akda sa kanilang paligid at sa kanilang mga buhay.

Ang panitikan din ay nagsisilbing patunay sa mga pangyayari sa nakaraan. Tulad ng mga sulatin ni Jose Rizal na nagpapatunay sa kalupitan na sinapit ng mga Pilipino noong panahon ng kastila.

Isang tradisyonal o nakaugaliang paraan sa pagbasa at pagpapaliwanag ang mga tekstong pampanitikan. Isa itong metodong nagpapakita ng mga bagay, karanasan, at puwersang pangkasaysayan na nagbigay ng impluwensiya tungo sa paggawa, pagsulat, paghubog, at pag-unlad ng panitikan.

[baguhin] Tingnan din Panitikan sa Pilipinas Panitikang pambata

Pagsusuring pampanitikan

[baguhin] Mga sanggunian1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 The New Book of Knowledge (Ang Bagong Aklat ng Kaalaman), nasa wikang Ingles,

Grolier Incorporated, 1977, ISBN 0-7172-0508-82. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Sauco, Consolacion P., Nenita P. Papa, at Jeriny R. Geronimo. Panitikan ng Pilipinas.

[baguhin] Mga talaugnayang panlabas Websayt ng PANITIKAN.com.ph – sityo ng National Commission on Culture and the Arts, Likhaan

Foundation, Inc., at LIKHAAN: The UP Institute of Creative Writing.

Panitikan - Karagdagang mga impormasyon ukol sa panitikan

Ang artikulong ito o mga bahagi nito ay hinango o isinalin mula sa Wikipediang Ingles. Ang katumbas na artikulo nito sa Ingles ay may pamagat na:

Literature

May karagdagang midiya ang Wikimedia Commons na may kaugnayan sa/kay:

Panitikan

Kinuha mula sa "http://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panitikan"

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Huling pagbabago: 15:51, 9 Hunyo 2011.

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