Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering (AJASE)

Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering, Volume 2, No 2 (2013) ISSN 2305-915X

Copyright © 2012, Asian Business Consortium | AJASE Page 1

ABC Journals Online Submission

Peer Reviewed

Open Access

Online Archives

Paperless Review

Prompt Feedback

Well Indexed

Global Circulation

International Authorship



Asian Business Consortium realizes the meaning of fast publication to researchers, particularly to those working in competitive and dynamic fields. Hence, we offer an exceptionally fast publication schedule including web based & paper less prompt peer-review by the experts in the field and immediate publication upon acceptance.



ASIAN JOURNAL OF APPLIED SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

International Standard Serial Number: 2305-915X (Print) International Standard Serial Number: 2307-9584 (Online)

Established: 2012

www.ajase.weebly.com

Review Process: Blind peer-review

Volume 2, Number 2/2013 (Forth Issue)

Published by

Asian Business Consortium

Copyright

Reproduction in any form or by any means of any part of this production requires the written permission of the publishers.

All communication should be addressed to the Managing Editor, AJASE Email: [email protected]

Asian Business Consortium www.abcreorg.weebly.com

http://www.ajase.weebly.com/

http://www.abcreorg.weebly.com/



www.ajase.weebly.com

We are working closely with

many other major databases to get AJASE indexed, including

AcademicOne, EBSCO, EI Compendex, CAS, ProQuest,

DOAJ, and etc. We will gradually publish the index

information of the journal and try to have a high ISI impact factor for AJASE. AJASE is

under the indexing process with ISI, Ulrich’s, EBSCO, Scopus,

DOAJ and JournalSeek.



EDITORIAL BOARD

Editor-in-chief

Dr. Asma Ahmad Shariff Center for Foundation Studies in Science, University of Malaya, Malaysia

Managing Editor

Dr. Alim Al Ayub Ahmed

Faculty of Business, ASA University Bangladesh Vice Chairman, Asian Business Consortium

Consulting Editor

Dr. Md. Amin Uddin Mridha

King Saud University, Saudi Arabia (Plant Production)

Dr. Bensafi Abd-El-Hamid

Abou Bekr Belkaid University of Tlemcen, Algeria (Chemical Engineering & Polymer Chemistry)

Dr. Iqbal Hossain ASA University Bamgladesh, Bangladesh (Statistics)

Dr. Vinai K. Singh

Raj Kumar Goel Engineering College, INDIA (Bio mathematics & Remedial Mathematics)

Dr. Shahzad Ali Khan

Quaid-e-Azam University, Pakistan (Health Systems & Policy)

Dr. Hasan Mahmud Reza

North South University, Bangladesh (Pharmacy)

Dr Pankaj

Indus International University, India (Mathematics)

Dr. Mohammad Anwar Hossain

Bangladesh Agricultural University, Bangladesh (Genetics & Plant Breeding)

Dr. Gulzar A. Khuwaja

King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia (Computer Engineering)

Dr. Halenar Igor

Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Slovakia (Architecture)

Dr. Mohammad Hadi Dehghani

Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran (Environmental Toxicology & Nanotechnology)

Dr. Suresh B. Rana

University of Oklahoma, USA (Medical Physics)

Dr. Osman Goni Talukdar

Varendra University, Bangladesh (Theoretical Physics)

Dr. Lutfar Rahman

Rajshahi University Bangladesh (Mathematics)

Dr. Vuda Sreenivasarao Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia (Electrical Engineering)

Dr. Mojtaba Moradi

University of Guilan, Iran (Stochastic Processes)

Dr. Arun Kumar Gupta

University of Roorkee, India (Computer Programing)

Dr Sudhir K Samantaray

Panjab University, India (Psychology)

Dr. M. Abul Kalam Azad

Rajshahi University, Bangladesh (Applied Mathematics)

Dr. Md. Fazlul Babi

University Sains Malaysia (USM), Malaysia (Material Science)

Dr. Mohammad Ali Shariati

Isfahan University of Technology, Iran (Food Science and Technology)

Dr. Nguyen Thanh Hao

Industrial University of HoChiMinh City, HoChiMinh, Vietnam (Heat and Refrigeration)

The Editorial Board assumes no responsibility for the content of the published articles.

http://umexpert.um.edu.my/papar_cv.php?id=AAAJxnAAQAAAF93AAX



AJASE adopt a blinded review policy. Authors are blind to reviewers. Typically, the review period is within 6 weeks. If authors do not receive a decision letter by email in 8 weeks after the submission, the corresponding author may send an email to inquire the status of their submission. If you need a shorter review period due to special circumstances, you may request such along with your explanation of the situation by email; however, AJASE cannot guarantee granting the request because high quality judgment of scientific work in short time is a challenge.



Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering

Blind Peer-Reviewed Journal

Volume 2, Number 2/2013 (Forth Issue)

Contents

1. CRN Application to Predict the NOx Emissions for Industrial Combustion Chamber 09-26

Nguyen Thanh Hao, & Park Jungkyu

2. Design and Fabrication of Line Follower Robot 27-32

M. S. Islam, & M. A. Rahman

3. Determination of Optimum Height for Counter Flow Cooling Tower 33-47

Ashraf Kotb

4. Accessibility Analysis of Parks at Urban Neighborhood: The Case of Dhaka 48-61

Saniya Tabassum, & Faria Sharmin

5. Change in Temperature over Bangladesh Associated with Degrees of Global Warming 62-75

A.B.M. Shamim Ul Hasan, & M. Zillurr Rahman

6. Regional Differentials of Age at First Marriage among Women in Bangladesh 76-83

Mohammad Nazmul Hoq

7. Integrated Geophysical Characterization of Subsurface conditions around Ilesha

Dumpsite: Case of Southwestern Nigeria

84-95

Fajana Akindeji Opeyemi

8. Wireless Internet Service and Customer Satisfaction: A Case Study on Young

Generation in Bangladesh

96-102

Papri Shanchita Roy

9. Potentiality of Biomass Energy for Electricity Generation in Bangladesh 103-110

M. S. Islam & T. Mondal

10. E-Governance and E-Government in Bangladesh: Performance, Challenges and

Remedies

111-117

Md. Rizwan Hassan

11. Implication of Islamic Law of Inheritance: Ultimate Solution to Family Conflict 118-126

Afroza Bulbul

Call for Papers - Volume 2, Number 3/2013 (Fifth Issue) 101-103

Asian Business Consortium

http://ajase.weebly.com/uploads/1/3/4/5/13455174/42_1_template.pdf






http://ajase.weebly.com/uploads/1/3/4/5/13455174/43_7_template-1.pdf

http://ajase.weebly.com/uploads/1/3/4/5/13455174/43_7_template-1.pdf









Asian Business Consortium is a

self supporting organization and

does not receive funding from any

institution/government. Hence, the

operation of the journal is solely

financed by the processing fees

received from authors. The

processing fees are required to meet

operations expenses such as

employee salaries, internet services,

electricity etc. Being an Open

Access Journal, AJASE does not

receive payment for online

subscription as the journals are

freely accessible over the internet. It

costs money to produce a peer-

reviewed, edited, and formatted

article that is ready for online and

print publication, and to host it on a

server that is freely accessible

without barriers around the clock.



CRN Application to Predict the NOx Emissions

for Industrial Combustion Chamber

Nguyen Thanh Hao1 & Park Jungkyu2 1Heat and Refrigeration Faculty, Industrial University of HoChiMinh City, HoChiMinh, VIETNAM

2Department of mechanical Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul, KOREA

ABSTRACT

The development of chemical reactor network (CRN) models to predict the NOx emissions is very important for the modern combustion system design. In this study, the new chemical reactor network models are constructed based on the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to simulate the burning process of the industrial combustor. The boundary and the operating conditions used for these CRN models reflect the typical operating conditions of the industrial combustor. The global mechanism has been developed by GRI 3.0 in the UW chemical reactor code. For the reliability of the predictive models, the models were analyzed and compared to the experimental industrial combustor research.The results of the CRN application to predict the NOx emissions show very goodagreement with the experimental data from Korea Electric Power Research Institute. Finally, the CRN models have shown to be efficient estimating accurately NOx emissions with a very short response time.

Key words: Industrial Combustion Chamber, NOx Emissions, Chemical Reactor Networks (CRN), Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD).

1 INTRODUCTION

ontrolling the remaining pollutant emission is one of the most important design goal in developing combustion system. Detailed knowledge of NOx formation in the flame is required for the ultra-low NOx lean premixed combustors. Relatively small

changes in the system boundary conditions can lead to a large emission increase. Therefore, the modeling of the combustion process becomes an integral part of the industrial combustor design process. A concept of modeling combustor using chemical reactor such as PSR, PFR and MIX was introduced by S. L. Bragg [1]. Zonal combustion modeling was proposed by Swithenbank as an improvement for combustor design via correlation parameters, and followed experimental testing [2]. In the zonal modeling, the combustor volume is divided into zones represented by idealized reactor elements. Rubins and Pratt applied the zonal model to study emissions control in gas turbine combustion [3]. The chemical reactor modeling of combustion systems are not necessarily limited to the use of extensive chemical reactor networks. Recently, Rutar et al. [4], Rutar and Malte [5], Park, J. K. [6, 7], and Lee et al. [8] have shown a methodology for modeling the pollutant emissions of the experimental jet

C



stirred reactor with a simple idealized reactor scheme (two- or three-idealizedreactor scheme). A hybrid CFD-CRN model for the gas turbine combustors was proposed by Sturgess and Shouse [9]. The post-processing of the CFD simulations was employed for the development of CRN model. Roby et al. modeled the experimental results of Mellor by using a CRN with the main combustion zone split into two streams to account for imperfect fuel-air premixing [10, 11]. Novesselov also employed a CRN for emissions prediction of the lean premixed gas turbine combustor [12]. The chemical reactor modeling is found to be a valuable tool in the evaluation of pollutant formation and blow-out the performance of combustion systems. The methodologies of the development vary between authors. Different methods have been presented in the mechanical literature for modeling the turbulent combustion process. However, there are no computer models available to incorporate the full set of chemical kinetic reactions coupled with turbulent flow modeling. In order to model complex combustions, various simplified global kinetic mechanisms are developed. Even the use of a simplified chemistry in conjunction with CFD for an industrial combustor can take a long time for a combustor designer. An intelligently designed CRN can provide answers regarding the quantitative NOx behavior of the industrial combustor. In this work, the CRN approach is applied to predict NOx for the industrial combustor. The prediction of NOx by the CRN approach is compared with the experimental data for the verification of the model. The effects of equivalence ratio, swirl angle, pilot fuel ratio are investigated.

2 DESCRIPTION OF MODELS

Figure 1 shows the experiment and the schematic diagram of the combustor which is used in experiment. The model system is composed with a combustor liner and an injector which has a pre-mixer and a pilot. Cooling air is supplied through a hole to impact the combustor liner. For the measurement of emission density, Testo 360 gas analyzer was used. This equipment extracts the emission gas sample. Also, the R-type thermocouple probe, which is possible to use from the room temperature up to 1700K, was used for measuring the combustor exit temperature. The measurement location was from R/2 points of radius direction. The pre-heated air temperature was fixed at 650K and the pressure condition is 1atm. The overall fuel-air equivalence ratio was changed from 0.5 to 0.7. Three different swirl

angles of 30, 45, and 60 were used. Pilot fuel-air mixture ratio varied from 0 to 10% of the injector flow rate; the rich pilot corresponds to the lower premixed equivalence ratio than the normal one.

(a) Schematic Diagram of Industrial Combustor



(b) Experimental Model of Industrial Combustor

Figure 1. Experimental Industrial Combustor Model

CFD modeling provides a basic insight of the flow, the temperature and the species of fields/profiles in the industrial combustor. These fields/profiles aid the visualization, the interpretation of the industrial combustor flow and the reaction space. They are also necessary for constructing an accurate CRN. In this study, the model combustor is modeled by using STAR-CCM software version 4.02, which is a commercial CFD code. For a turbulent model, the k-ε model which has a good convergence is used [7]. Combustion reactions were analyzed with the Eddy Break-Up combustion model.

Figure 2. The Geometry of Swirl Angle and Chamber

The model industrial combustor shown in Figure 2 is a 3D partial model of the swirl angle and the combustor, which was designed by simplifying the experimental combustor for a rapid calculation. The main swirl piece and the injector which has pilot fuel nozzle piece. The combustor used in the actual experiment is more complex, but it is simplified for modeling. A five-million cell, sector geometry with a periodic boundary condition is used. The fuel used in the CFD modeling is assumed as Methane for the actual natural gas used in the engine rig testing. A representative temperature field in the combustor is shown in Figure 3. This figure shows the zone with a 20% CO concentration compared with its maximum, which assumes the main flame, the zone where the axial velocity is zero, and the temperature field in the combustor at the equivalence ratio 0.6 for three different swirl angles of 30°, 45°, and 60° without a pilot fuel injection. The flame zone was identified with the criteria of 20% of CO concentration (as dotted line in Figure 3), and the other parts as post flame zones. The recirculation zone on the wall surface of the liner is the dome recirculation zone where the temperature distribution is



at the lowest due to the forced cooling in the entire combustion zone. The main recirculation zone is the recirculation zone at the center of the combustor, and is highly affected by the swirl at the entrance. Also, Figure 3 shows that the swirl has an effect on the size of the flame zone, the recirculation zone.

Figure 3. The Temperature Contours Plot from Star-CCM Software Showing the Presence of

the Different Swirl Angles at Equivalence Ratio of 0.6 for Non-Pilot Injection Case

The CFD analysis was also carried out for the combustor with the pilot fuel injection. In this pilot fuel injection case the swirl number is zero in the main fuel entrance, because the swirl is not attached. The calculation was performed for the pilot ratios of 2%, 6%, and 10%. Figure 4 shows the results of the temperature and 20% CO concentration compared with its maximum in case of the equivalence ratio of 0.6 for three different pilot ratios of 2%, 6%, and 10%. The main flame shape is straight and long because the swirl is not used. The temperature in the pilot flame increases as the pilot fuel ratio increases. Although the entire temperature distribution has a similar pattern in all cases, the size of the pilot flame and the main recirculation zone is varied. The length of pilot flame increases abruptly with the increase of the pilot ratio.



Figure 4. The Temperature Contours Plot from Star-CCM Software Showing the Presence of the Different Pilots at Equivalence Ratio of 0.6 for Pilot Fuel Injection CaseChemical Reactor

Network Modeling

The CRN for the industrial combustor without a pilot fuel injection is developed herein. The chemical reactor code, CHEMKIN software with the detailed chemical kinetic mechanism GRI 3.0 is used for the modeling. The fuel used in the modeling is Methane. The industrial combustor can be divided into zones based on the flow temperature, the velocity, and the chemical species concentrations from the CFD analysis. Figure 5(a) shows the flame shape and location, the entrainment of gas from the dome recirculation zone and the main recirculation zone into the flame, the gas flow from the flame into the dome recirculation zone and the post flame zone, and the gas flow from the post flame zone into the main recirculation zone, etc. Figure 5(b) shows the layout of the 6-element CRN which is constructed based on the CFD-predicted results. The network consists of one MIX, four PSRs and one PFR elements. PSR is generally defined as a reactor where mixing to the molecular is assumed to happen instantaneously compared to the chemical reaction. The combustion occurs homogeneously in the reactor. A Plug Flow Reactor (PFR) is a reactor where the flow is assumed to move as a plug and the chemical reaction proceeds one-dimensionally, longitudinal mixing in the reactor is assumed to be zero. MIX stands for an element in which the entering streams are uniformly mixed without the chemical reaction. The first element in the CRN arrangement is the MIX, which represents the cone shape zone of the inlet mixture where the mixture is not ignited yet. The flame zone, the dome recirculation zone, the main recirculation zone, and the immediate post flame zone are modeled by using the PSR., while the post flame zones is modeled by using the PFR. The main flame volume in the CFD simulation can be estimated by calculating the volume confined by iso-CO surface (the value is 20% of the maximum CO concentration). The volume of the dome recirculation zone and the main recirculation zone can be determined from the flow pattern and the temperature field. The volume of the post flame where the flow is assumed to be the plug flow is determined by the flow result. Then, the volume of the



immediate post flame is finally determined. The flow splits between the elements in the 6-element CRN are chosen based on the CFD results for the industrial combustor as shown in Figure 5(a). The mass flow rates toward each reactor were calculated at the boundary of each reactor by taking a surface integral of mass flux over the surface. The cooling of the combustion liner is achieved by a convection heat transfer. The averaged heat transfer coefficient is used in this study even though the heat flux varies along the liner. The heat loss in the PSR which contacts with the combustor liner is calculated by using the averaged heat transfer coefficient.

(a) The Flame Zone Mapping Based on CFD Result with Swirl Angle of 45 and =0.6

(b) The Schematic Layout of the 6-Element CRN Model

(c) The 6-Element CRN Model for Evaluating the NOx Emissions Based on CHEMKIN

Software Figure 5. The CRN Modeling for Non-Pilot Injection Case

The CRN modeling was also conducted for the industrial combustor with the pilot fuel injection. Figure 6(a) shows the main and the pilot flame shape and location, the entrainment



of gas from the dome recirculation zone and the pilot flame zone into the flame, the gas flow from the flame into the immediate post main flame zone and the pilot flame zone, and the gas flow from the post main flame zone into the dome recirculation zone and the post flame, the gas flow from the pilot flame to the immediate post pilot flame zone, and the gas flow from the immediate post main flame zone and the immediate post pilot flame into the post flame zone. Figure 6(b) shows the layout of the 8-element CRN developed for the industrial combustor with the pilot fuel injection. The main flame zone, the recirculation zone and the immediate post flame zone are modeled by using the PSR. The immediate post flame zone is divided into the immediate post main flame zone and the immediate post pilot flame zone because of a big temperature difference. The flow splits between the elements in the 8-element CRN are chosen based on the CFD results for the industrial combustor as shown in Figure 6(a).

(a) The Flame Zone Mapping Based on CFD Result with Pilot Fuel Ratio of 6% and Φ=0.6

(b) The Schematic Layout of the 8-Element CRN model

(c) The 8-Element CRN Model for Evaluating the NOx Emissions Based on CHEMKIN

Software Figure 6. The CRN Modeling for Pilot Fuel Injection Case



3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Figure 7 shows the NOx predictions with three different equivalence ratios of 0.5, 0.6, and 0.7

for three different swirl angles of 30, 45, and 60 without the pilot fuel injection for Methane

as the fuel by using the 6-element CRN as shown in Figure 5, and the comparison of the

predicted results to the experimental data for natural gas as fuel. The lines denote the

predicted results, and the dots denote the experimental data. The CRN predicted NOx

emissions results show the reasonably good agreement with the experimental data. Both the

CRN predicted results and the experimental data show that the NOx increase as the

equivalence ratio increases. The CRN model under-predicted is compared to experimental

data when the equivalence ratio is low (<0.6), and over-predicted is compared to the

experimental data when the equivalence ratio is high (>0.6). The effects of the swirl angle on

the NOx emissions is not as strong as the one which can be seen in the Figure 7, but both the

CRN predicted results and the experimental data show that the lowest NOx emission is found

at the swirl angle of 45, while the higher NOx emissions are found at the larger swirl angle of

60, and the smaller swirl angle of 30.

Figure 8 shows the mole fraction of NOx at each reactor zone for three different equivalence

ratios of 0.5, 0.6, and 0.7 at the swirl angle of 30 without the pilot fuel injection. The mole

fraction of NOx in each of reactor zones (the main flame zone, the main recirculation zone, the

dome recirculation zone, and the immediate post flame zone) increases as the equivalence

ratio increases, because the temperature in each reactor zone increases with the increase of the

equivalence ratio as shown in Figure 9. The temperature in the dome recirculation zone is the

lowest among the reactor zones due to the heat transfer in the wall. The increase of mole

fraction of NOx from the equivalence ratio between 0.6 and 0.7 is much larger than the

increase of the mole fraction of NOx from the equivalence ratio between 0.5 and 0.6, because

the NOx formation increases exponentially as the temperature increases.

Figure 10 shows the mole fraction of NOx at each reactor zone for the three different

equivalence ratios of 0.5, 0.6, and 0.7 at the swirl angle of 45 without the pilot fuel injection

and Figure 12 shows the mole fraction of NOx at each reactor zone for the three different

equivalence ratios of 0.5, 0.6, and 0.7 at the swirl angle of 60 without pilot fuel injection. The

mole fraction of the NOx distribution in this case is similar to the swirl angle of 30° case.

Figure 14 shows the mole fraction of NOx at each reactor zone for the three different swirl

angles of 30, 45, and 60at the equivalence ratio of 0.5 without the pilot fuel injection. The

smallest mole fraction of the NOx emissions is found at the swirl angle of 45, while the larger

mole fraction of the NOx emission is found at the swirl angles of 30, 60, because the

temperatures in all the reactor zones increase to the higher temperatures at the swirl angles of

30, 60 as shown in Figure 15. Figure 16 shows the mole fraction of NOx at each reactor zone

for the three different swirl angles of 30, 45, and 60at the equivalence ratio 0.6 without the

pilot fuel injection and Figure 18 shows the mole fraction of NOx at each reactor zone for the

three different swirl angles of 30, 45, and 60at the equivalence ratio of 0.7 without the pilot

fuel injection. The mole fraction of the NOx distribution in this case is similar to the



equivalence ratio of 0.5.

Figure 7. The Mole Fraction of NOx Emissions with Equivalence Ratio for Non-Pilot Injection Case

Figure 8. The Mole Fraction of NOx in each Reaction Zone for Non-Pilot Injection Case at

Swirl Angle of 30°



Figure 9. The Temperature in each Reaction Zone for Non-Pilot Injection Case at Swirl

Angle of 30°


Swirl Angle of 45°




Angle of 45°


Swirl Angle of 60°




Angle of 60°


Equivalence Ratio of 0.5



Figure 15. The Temperature in each Reaction Zone for Non-Pilot Injection Case at Equivalence

Ratio of 0.5






Ratio of 0.6






Ratio of 0.7

Figure 20. The Mole Fraction of NOx Emission with Equivalence Ratio for Pilot Fuel

Injection Case



Figure 21. The Mole Fraction of NOx in each Reaction Zone for Pilot Fuel Injection Case at


Figure 22. The Temperature in each Reaction Zone for Pilot Injection Case at Equivalence

Ratio of 0.7

Figure 20 shows the NOx predictions with the different equivalence ratios of 0.5, 0.6, and 0.7

for the three different pilot fuel ratios of 2%, 6%, and 10% without the swirl by using the 8-

element CRN model as shown in Figure 6, and comparison of the predicted results with the

experimental data. The predicted results of the NOx emission show the reasonably good

agreement with the experimental data. Both the CRN predicted results and the experimental



data show that the NOx increases with increase of the overall equivalence ratio and the pilot

fuel ratio.

Figure 21 shows the mole fraction of NOx at each of reactor zones (the main flame zone, the

pilot flame zone, the immediate post flame zone, the dome recirculation zone, and the

immediate post pilot flame zone) for the three different pilot fuel ratios of 2%, 6%, and 10 %at

the equivalence ratio of 0.6. When the pilot fuel ratio is small, the mole fraction of NOx in each

reactor is almost the same except for the post pilot flame zone. However, if the pilot fuel ratio

increases, the mole fractions of NOx in the pilot flame zone and the post pilot flame zone

increase much more than other reactors because the temperature increases to a very high

temperature above 2000K as shown in Figure 22. The amount of the NOx emissions produced

in an industrial combustor is strongly linked to the time that the combustion products spend

at high temperatures. In the design of industrial combustor, therefore, the temperature-

versus-time relationship for the gas flow may compromise the useful operation of the

industrial combustion device.

Figure 22 also shows the fuel-energy specific NOx emissions for simple methane-air jet flame.

We observe that the characteristic trend with heat release rate varies with zones. These trends

are explained by temperature. Thus, we see that for the more luminous flames and the larger

flames, temperature effects prevailing, causing an increasing trend of the NOx emissions with

the heat release.

4 CONCLUSIONS

This research shows that the use of the combined CFD and CRN approach has ability to

accurately predict the NOx emissions for the industrial combustion chamber applications.

The CRN can be useful in analyzing the formation and the reduction of the NOx emissions.

The CRN for the industrial combustion chamber consists of two models as shown in Figure 5

and Figure 6. However, the main difficulty in developing such a CRN is obtaining the reliable

CFD simulations for the industrial combustion chamber. The CFD simulations shows that

even for the overall equivalence ratio locally rich conditions exit in the core of the flame as

shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4.

The flow field information from the industrial combustion chamber CFD has been analyzed

to determine the combustion zones in the combustor. These zones are modeled as the

chemical reactor elements in CRN. The methodology of CRN development is determined

based on the agreement between CFD and CRN models.

The diagram of the CRN for the case of non-pilot fuel injection is shown less NOx emissions

than the diagram of the CRN for the case of pilot fuel injection. The CRN developed herein

can be used to explore the effects of the zone temperature and the equivalence ratio on the

NOx emissions. The results of the CRN modeling are presented below:

The predicted NOx emission by CRN model based on CFD agrees reasonably well

with experimental data of test combustor.

The effect of the swirl on the NOx emission is not large, but it was found that the

NOx emission is the lowest at the swirl vane angle of 45.



The NOx emission increases as the pilot fuel ratio increases due to the increase of

temperature at the pilot flame and the post pilot flame zone.

The CRN tool may be used as a means for parametric analyses and design. It shows a very

good capability for predicting the NOx emissions. The use of the CRN provides a

significant insight into the NOx formation behavior. The CRN can handle the most

complex chemical mechanisms at the relative ease. It can be used as the means for

parametric analyses and be conveniently integrated into the combustor design, because of

its small computational time requirement. The CRN can also be used for evaluating the

truncated and the global chemical mechanisms for the use in CFD.

REFERENCES

[1] Bragg, S. L.(1953). Application reaction rate theory to combustion chamber analysis, aeronautical research council pub. ARC 16170, Ministry of Defense, London, England, 1629-1633.

[2] Swithenbank, J. (1970). Combustion fundamentals. AFOSR 70-2110 TR.

[3] Rubin, P. M. and Pratt, D. T. (1991). Zone combustion model development and use: Application to emissions control. American Sosiety of Mechanical Engineers, 91-JPGC-FACT-25.

[4] Ruta, T., Malte, P. C., and Kramlich, J. C. (2000). Investigation of NOx and CO formation in lean premixed, methane-air, high-intensity, confined flames at elevated pressures, Proc. Combust. Inst., 28, 2435-2441.

[5] Rutar, T. and Malte, P. C. (2002). NOx formation in high-pressure jet-stirred reactors with significance to lean-premixed combustion turbines, ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, 124, 776-783.

[6] Park, J. K. (2006). Modelling study of the effect of chemical additives on soot precursors reaction, International Journal of Automotive Technology, 7, 4, 501-508.

[7] Nguyen Thanh Hao, Nguyen Thanh Nam, Jungkyu Park (2011). A CRN simulation for emission pollutants prediction in lean premixed gas turbine combustor. Asean Engineering Journal, vol.1.

[8] Lee, B. R (2009). A study on NOx formation pathway of methane-air lean premixed combustion by using PSR model, Transaction of KSAE, 17, 5, 46-52.

[9] Sturgess, G. and Shouse, D. T. (1996). A hybrid model for calculating lean blow-outs in practical combustors. AIAA Paper No. 96-3125.

[10] Mellor, A. M., Editor. (1996). NOx and CO emissions models for gas-fired, lean premixed combustion turbine: Final report. Vanderbit University, Nashville, TN.

[11] Roby, R. J.; Klassen, M. S.; Vashistat, D.; Joklik, R.; Marshall, A. (2003). High fuel-air ratio (FAR) combustor modeling. Report to Naval Air Warfare Center.

[12] Novosselov, I. V. (2002). Eight-step global kinetic mechanism of methane oxidation with nitric oxide formation for lean premixed combustion turbines. MSME Thesis, University of Washington, Seattle, WA.



Design and Fabrication of Line Follower Robot

M. S. Islam & M. A. Rahman

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology, Rajshahi-6204, BANGLADESH

ABSTRACT

Line follower robot is a robo car that can follow a path. The path can be visible like a black line on the white surface (or vice-verse). It is an integrated design from the knowledge of Mechanical, Electrical and Computer engineering. This paper presents a 700gm weight of a 9W LDR sensor based line follower robot design and fabrication procedure which always directs along the black mark on the white surface. The

electromechanical robot dimension is 5.257 cubic inches with a cost of BDT 1150. This low cost fundamental electronic component based line sensing robot can carry a load of about 500gm without getting off the line. Key Words: Line Follower, Robot, Electromechanical.

1 INTRODUCTION

n the early 1800‟s mechanical puppets were first built in Europe, just for entertainment value. And these were called robots since their parts were driven by linkage and cams and controlled by rotating drum selectors. In 1801 Joseph Maria Jacquard made the next

great change and invented the automatic draw loom. The draw looms would punch cards and was used to control the lifting of thread in fabric factories. This was the first to be able to store a program and control a machine. After that there were many small changes in robotics. The first industrial robots were Unimates developed by George Devol and Joe Engelberger in the late 50‟s and early 60‟s. The first patent was by Devol but Engelberger formed Unimation which was the first market robots. So Engelberger has been called the “father of robotics”. For a while the economic viability of these robots proved disastrous and thing slowed down for robotics. But the industry recovered and by the mid-80‟s robotics was back on track. George DevolJr, in 1954 developed the multi jointed artificial arms which lead to the modern robots. But mechanical engineer Victor Scheinman developed the truly flexible arm known as the Programmable Universal Manipulation Arm (PUMA) [1]. In 1950 Isaac Asimov came up with laws for robots and these were: i. A robot may not injure a human being, or through inaction allow a human being to

come to harm. ii. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings, except where such orders

would conflict with the first law.

I



iii. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the first or second law.[2]

Mobile Robotics moved into its own in 1983 when Odetics introduced this six-legged vehicle which was capable of climbing over objects. This robot could lift over 5.6 times its own weight parked and 2.3 times it weight moving. [3] In 2000 Sony unveils humanoid robots, the Sony Dream Robots (SDR) at Robodex. SDR is able to recognize 10 different faces, expresses emotion through speech and body language, and can walk on flat as well as irregular surfaces. In 2005 the Korean Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), creates HUBO, and claims it is the smartest robot in the world. This robot is linked to a computer via a high-speed wireless connection; the computer does all of the thinking for the robot. Line follower Line follower is a machine that can follow a path. The path can be visible like a black line on a white surface (or vice-versa) or it can be invisible like a magnetic field. [4]

Fig: Line follower robot

Application area

Line followers can be used to deliver mail within an office building and deliver medications in a hospital. The technology has been suggested for running buses and other mass transit systems,

and may end up as part of autonomous cars navigating the freeway. The line follower can be used in guidance system for industrial robots moving on shop floor. An example might be in a warehouse where the robots follow 'tracks' to and from the shelves they stock and retrieve from. A line follower robot can be used in military as spy kids or in many other applications.

2 DESIGN AND FABRICATION

Block Diagram Once the main configuration is chosen, the first thing to do seems to be to make a functional block diagram. Although it might grow or change later, I always like to have “the big picture” available. As Microsoft Visio is design software that it decides to make a Block Diagram in Visio. Just looking at this drawing really gets brings up a host of ideas

and questions. Hardware, logic, motor control and many other thoughts come rushing in. I need to slow down and compartmentalized.

Fig: Block diagram of line follower robot

Motor1

Motor2

Sensor array

Motor ControlComparator

LM741



Since this project is the basic of beginner‟s robotics projects. The robot which is be able to follow a line on the ground without getting off the line too much. The robot has sensors installed underneath the front part of the body and two DC motors drive wheels moving forward. A circuit inside takes input signal from sensors and controls the speed of wheels‟ rotation. The control is done in such a way that when a sensor senses a black line, the motor slows down or even stops. Then the difference of rotation speed makes it possible to make turns. Line sensing The basic principle of the line follower robot actually almost the same as the light follower robot, but instead of tracking the light the LFR sensor is used to track the line. Therefore by differentiating the line color and its surrounding (black over white or vice verse) any light sensitive sensor could be used to navigate the robot to follow this track.

Fig: Module of Line Sensing

3 COMPLETE CIRCUIT

DIAGRAM

In the line follower Robot when the sensor is above the white surface, the light reflected. Hence the LDR resistance decreases and the signal voltage is about 1.1V across the LDR terminal results high signal to the op-amp comparator to turn on the motor.

Fig: Circuit Diagram of line follower Robot



On the other hand when light falls into black surface then there is no light reflection or small reflection. So the LDR resistance increases and the signal voltage is about 2.7V across the LDR terminal results low signal to the op-amp comparator to turn off the motor. The two motor runs when light reflect through the white surface. When a black line finds by the sensors then the corresponding motor turns off. The experimental values are : Here, the sensor output voltage at white surface =1.1V. The sensor output voltage at black surface =2.7V. The reference voltage = (1.1+2.7)/2=1.9V So, when the sensor voltage is less than the reference voltage, then comparator signal is high and when the voltage is higher than the reference voltage then comparator signal is low. This high and low signal switches the transistors to turn on or turn off the motors.

4 CIRCUITS

Line sensor For the line follower robot the line sensors are made using LDR and white LED.A 1K resistor across the LED.A series connection of 10K resistor and 10K variable are with the LDR . After soldering the image of the line sensor is shown below. It is powered by 9V battery.

Fig: Line sensor Comparator circuit

The comparator using LM741 op-amps, compare the sensor signal, with a reference voltage supplied in the pin no 3. So there the output signal is either high or low to drive the transistor based motor control circuit. Fig: Comparator circuit



Motor control Circuit In this line follower robot the motors are controlled by small power transistor BD135.There is a 4.7KΩ and 1KΩ resistor divider across the base of the transistor. Where high signal voltage from the op-amp is approximately 5.9V turns the base emitter junction in forward bias and the low signal voltage from the op-amp is approximately 1.8V also known as offset voltage which is not enough to turn on the base emitter junction. So the motor is off.

Fig: Motor control Circuit

Robot Image

5 COST AND POWER CALCULATION

Power

1. Maximum power by the motors 300mA*12V *2 7.2W

2. Power absorbed by LEDs 10mA*9V*4 0.36W

3.Power consumed by op-amps 100mA*9*2 1.8W

Maximum Power needed 9.36W

So the maximum power needed for this Robot is 9.36 W.



Cost for fabrication

Equipments Quantity Cost

Dc geared motor 2 700

Mechanical body 1 200

Vero Board 2 50

Led and resistors - 50

Op-amp LM741 2 20

Transistor 2 15

Others - 100

Total 1135

For the line follower robot the highest cost is about BDT 1135.

6 CONCLUSIONS

The Line follower robot works successfully to track on the black line. Above the white surface (art paper) there are some black lines in different directions. The robot still good enough to sense the line and follows the track. Also the robot is capable to carry some load likely 500gm.

7 FUTURE WORK

The line follower robot is made by op-amps and transistors, where the motor is directly on or off using the signal of the comparator. Now the techniques can be replaced by PWM using more sensor, microcontroller and H-Bridge motor controller IC i.e. L293D. I want to try it earlier but failure in some cases. I have compiled some programs of microcontroller. Also instead of LDR it can be used phototransistor whose response is much better than LDR. There are 2 line sensors used here so the fluctuation of line is a fact. Using more than 2 sensor likely 5 sensor array may be used to detect the black line quickly. Also using microcontroller it can draw the reverse direction as well as obstacle avoiding turning the motor 180º. The block diagram may be represented as follows. Also using color sensors the robot can sense different colors. It can be used in the robotic game competition and other fields. So the development features in brief: • Appling PWM technique • Use of Microcontroller • Use of color sensor • Obstacle avoiding

REFERENCES

[1] Edwin Wise, Robotics Demystified. McGraw-Hill.

[2] Mike Williams, History of Robotics. A class assignment, Ball University. ITDPT 303

Manufacturing Systems. http://www.bsu.edu/web/mawilliams/history.html.

[3] Visual Journal, Robotic Timeline,

http://pages.cpsc.ucalgray.ca/~jaeger/visualMedia/robotHistory.html

[4] Priyank Patil- Line Following Robot. Depertment of Information Technology, K. J Somaiya College of Engineering. India, http://www.kmitl.ac.th/~kswichit/ROBOT/Follower.pdf

http://www.bsu.edu/web/mawilliams/history.html

http://pages.cpsc.ucalgray.ca/~jaeger/visualMedia/robotHistory.html

http://www.kmitl.ac.th/~kswichit/ROBOT/Follower.pdf



Determination of Optimum Height for Counter

Flow Cooling Tower

Ashraf Kotb

Department of Mechanical Power Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, EGYPT

ABSTRACT

A model for counter flow cooling tower is present with treatments to recover the simplifications in the literature. The Bosnjakovic formula, mutative water and air properties are used to relax the constraints. The finite volumes of water and moist air are defined separately in opposite flow directions. Mass and energy balances are evaluated for control volume; heat and mass transfer are considered between control volumes. The model is validated with experimental data from literature. The model determines the cooling tower optimum height, evaporation rate and distribution of air and water temperatures, humidity, water flow and Lewis factor along the tower height. It is concluded that: the height is affected by the inlet air humidity; the heat transfer mode is dominated by evaporation, and Lewis factor ranges from 0.91 to 0.924. Key Words: Cooling Tower, Height, Evaporation Rate, Lewis Factor, One Dimensional

1 INTRODUCTION

cooling tower is heat rejection equipment. Its main function is to extract waste heat from warm water to the atmosphere. Heat rejection in cooling tower is specified as convection between the fine droplets of water and the surrounding air, and also as

evaporation which allows a small portion of water to evaporate into moving air, the process involves both heat and mass transfer. Cooling towers are widely used in the power generation units, refrigeration and air conditioning industries [1]. Cooling towers can be classified by the movement of water and air as counter-flow and cross-flow types. Moreover, they can also be classified by means of air flow into mechanical draft and natural draft types. A lot of work has been done for modeling cooling towers mathematically in the past century. Walker [22] proposed a basic theory of cooling tower operation. Merkel [15] developed the first practical theory including the differential equations of heat and mass transfer, which has been well received as the basis for most work on cooling tower modeling and analysis [1-10-5-18-14]. In Merkel‟ smodel, the Lew is factor is assumed as unity, this assumption may cause Merkel‟s model to underestimate the effective tower volume by 5-15% [20].The influence of the Lewis factor diminishes when the inlet ambient air is relatively hot and humid [8]. For

A



increasing Lewis factor, the heat rejection rate increases, the water outlet temperature decreases and the water evaporation rate decreases [12]. Kroger [12] expressed the equation for the tower performance calculation using the Poppe method, which was developed for actual unsaturated and supersaturated air before exiting cooling towers. Furthermore, the influence of Lewis factor on the performance of wet cooling towers was proposed [8]. The results showed that it decreased when the inlet air was relatively hot and humid. The Lewis factor is proportional to the heat transfer rate. Jameel [7] and Thirapong [21] assumed Lewis factor to be unity, constant specific heats of air and water and constant heat and mass transfer coefficients. In Merkel‟s model, the water loss of evaporation is neglected in energy balance and saturated air at the exit. These assumptions made the results inaccurate. Zubair [24] investigated the performance characteristics through the counter-flow cooling tower, the results showed that a majority mode of heat transfer rate is evaporation, where it was 62.5% of the total heat transfer rate at the bottom and about 90% of that at the top of the tower. Since evaporation is by far the most effective factor in cooling towers, the accuracy of the predicted conditions are directly dependent on it. For this purpose, it is quite common to include the evaporation term in the model [16]. Most of the modeling results in the literature were validated with the experimental work of Simpson [19]; Xiao [23] validated the results with those of Simpson [19] for five experimental data. In this study, a mathematical model for the counter-flow cooling tower is introduced with several distinctive treatments to recover the most of the simplifications in the literature. First, the mutative water and air specific heats are used to relax the constraints. Second, instead of considering the Lew is factor to be unity, the formulation in Bosnjakovic [3] is applied. Thirdly, the finite volume method is applied, where the control volumes of water and moist air are defined separately, with opposite flow directions. Mass and energy balances are evaluated for each control volume, and the heat and mass transfer are considered between each pair of the water and moist-air control volumes. The steady-state performance of the proposed model is validated with experimental data from literature. The mathematical model solution determines the optimum height of the cooling tower, evaporation rate and distribution of air temperature, relative humidity, water temperature, water flow rate and Lewis factor along the cooling tower height.

2 MATHEMATICAL MODEL

The processes of heat and mass transfer through the counter-flow cooling tower (Figure 1 A) are mathematically modeled with the finite volume method. The control volume is shown in Figure1 B, C for water and moist air where the flows are in opposite directions. The modeling methodology is governed by the following assumptions [2-9-13]:

1. One-dimensional flow. 2. Steady-state and steady flow conditions. 3. Uniform cross-sectional area. 4. Heat and mass transfer are in the direction normal to the water/air flow only. 5. Heat and mass transfer through the tower walls to the surroundings are negligible. 6. Heat transfer from the forced/induced draft fan to air and water is neglected. 7. Water loss by drift is negligible. 8. The process is isobaric at standard atmospheric value. 9. Potential and kinetic energies are neglected.



Figure 1:

A. Schematic Representation of Cooling Tower. B. Model of Cooling Tower.

C. Control volume of counter flow cooling tower

2.1 GOVERNING EQUATIONS

The conservation of mass flow rates for the dry air, moisture content and water through the control volume yields:

)md-m(mdx)(xmmmxm w

.

w

.

a

.

a

.

w

.

a

.

a

.

(1)

The conservation of mass flow rates for the control volume verifies that; the mass transfer appears in decreasing the water flow rate and increasing the moisture content of the air as a result of evaporation as in Equation (2):

dxmmd a

.

w

.

(2)

Also, the mass transfer flow rate from the water as a result of evaporation into the air is re-expressed by the definition of the mass transfer coefficient and the difference in the concentrations of the moisture content of the air as in Equation (3) [16]:

dV x)-(x a ρ hdxm satcama

.

(3)

Since, the control volume is defined as:dH AdV , Then Equation (3) is simplified to

be in the form of Equation (4):

x)-(x

m

A a ρ h

dH

dxsat

a

.

cam (4)

The conservation of energy rates for moist air and water through the control volume yields:



)dh)(hmdm()dh(hmhmhm www

.

w

.

aaa

.

aa

.

ww

.

(5)

Neglecting the second order derivatives )0dh m(d ww

.

which simplify Equation (5)

to Equation (6):

w

.

www

.

aa

.

mdhdhmdhm (6)

By inserting Equation (2) into Equation (6) leads to Equation (7).

dx mhdhmdhm a

.

www

.

aa

.

(7)

Equation (7) contains three terms, the first term aa

.

dh mwhich represents the total rate of

heat transferred to the moist air, while the second term ww

.

dh m represents the rate of

heat transfer from the water to the air and appears as sensible heating, on the other hand,

the third term dx m h a

.

w represents the rate of heat transfer from the water to the air and appears as a humidification. Therefore, one can say that; the rate of heat transferred from the falling water to uprising air is transferred as a result of convection and is associated with mass transfer from water to air as in Equation (8):

mcaa

.

dQdQdhm (8)

While, the rates of heats transfer by convection and evaporation are re-written as in Equation (9):

dV h x)(x a ρ hdV )T(T a hdhm vsatcamawccaa

.

(9)

Equation (9) is simplified to be:

x)(x

m

h A a ρ h )T(T

m

A a h

dH

dhsat

a

.

vcamaw

a

.

cca (10)

Using both Lewis factor aam

c

Cp ρ h

hLe

and the cooling tower characteristics

cam a ρ hKa , then Equations (4) and (10) are re-written as follows:

x)-(x

m

AKa

dH

dxsat

a

.

(11)



vsatawa

a

.

a h x)(x )T(T Cp Le

m

AKa

dH

dh

(12)

Equation (7) is re-written as follows:

dxhdh

C m

mdT wa

ww

.

a

.

w (13)

The set of Equations (2), (11), (12) and (13) govern the processes of heat and mass transfer through the counter-flow cooling tower. 2.2 Lewis Factor and Cooling Tower Characteristics The governing Equations (11) and (12) contain both Lewis factor and the cooling tower characteristics. 2.2.1 Lewis Factor

Lewis factor is an indication of the relative rates of heat and mass transfer in an evaporative process. Bosnjakovic [3] developed an empirical relation for the Lewis factor for unsaturated air–water vapor systems as in Equation (14).

0.622x/0.622xln

10.622x/0.622x865.0Le

sat

sat667.0

(14)

2.2.2 Cooling Tower Characteristics The cooling tower characteristic, a “degree of difficulty” to cooling is represented by the Merkel Equation [4]as in Equation (14):

HWT

CWT aa\

w

.

whh

dT

m

VKa

(15)

The Merkel Equation primarily says that at any point in the tower, heat and water vapor are transferred into the air due to (approximately) the difference in the enthalpy of the air at the surface of the water and the main stream of the air. Thus, the driving force at any point is the vertical distance between the two operating lines. Therefore, the performance demanded from the cooling tower is the inverse of this difference. 2.3 Psychometrics and Thermo physical Properties

The cooling tower is an air breathing thermodynamic system, where its performance is affected by the conditions of the ambient air. Mathematical modeling of cooling tower has to consider the psychometrics of air, for both the dry air and its associated water vapor; the main properties such as pressures; temperatures, and enthalpies have to be well defined also the relative humidity and moisture content.



The saturation pressure (Pa) of water vapor in the dry air at the given temperature is a function only of temperature (K) and can be calculated from Equation (16) [6]:

5i

0i6

1iis ln(T)CTC)ln(P

(16)

For the temperature range of 173.16 T 273.15 K

Co C1 C2 C3

-5.6745359x103 6.3925247 -9.6778430x10-3 6.2215701x10-7

C4 C5 C6

2.0747825x10-9 -9.4840240x10-13 4.1630159

For the temperature range of 273.16 T 473.15 K

Co C1 C2 C3

-5.8002206x103 1.3914993 -4.8640239x10-2 4.1764768x10-5

C4 C5 C6

-1.4452093x10-8 0 6.5459673

Relative humidity (%) is the ratio of the moist air‟s absolute humidity to the absolute humidity of saturated air at the same temperature and it is formulated as in Equation (17).

s

v

P

P 100

(17)

The moisture content of a given moist air sample is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air contained in the sample as in Equation (18).

v

v

P-P

P 62198.0x

(18)

For lower pressures, the specific enthalpy of water vapor (J/kg) is approximately linear function of temperature (oC) as in Equation (19) [17]:

T Cp2501300h vv (19)

The specific heat of water vapor(J/kg.K) is a function of temperature as follows [11]. 6-135-103

v Tx1091332.5 Tx1046784.2T 31334.210x 1.3605 Cp

The specific enthalpy of moist air (J/kg) is approximately linear function of temperature (oC) as in Equation (20) [17]:

vaa hx T Cph

(20) The specific heat of dry air(J/kg.K) is a function of temperature as follows [11].

3-72-4-13a T02.705209x1- T07.083814x1T 10x 3.161783-10x 1.045356 Cp

Also, the specific heat of water (J/kg.K) is a function of temperature as follows [11]. 6-132-23

w T2.17582x10 T5.11283x10T 2.80627x10108.15599x C



2.3 Numerical Formulation The mathematical model is numerically formulated based on the explicit scheme. Where the cooling tower is divided into equal numbers of control volumes (nmax), the first control volume (I=1) represents the lower boundary conditions at the air entrance level; the last control (I=nmax) represents the upper boundary conditions at the air exit level. Therefore, Equations (2), (11), (12) and (13) are respectively numerically formulated as follows:

1-I1-Isat

a

.1-II x-x

m

ΔH AKa x x

(21)

1Iv1-I1Isat1-Ia1Iw1-Ia1-I

a

.1Ia Ia h xx TT Cp Le

m

ΔH AKa hh

(22)

xxhhh

C m

mTT 1II1Iw1IaIa

w

1-I

w

.

a

.

1IwIw

(23)

1IIa

.

1I

w

.

I

w

.

xxmmm

(24)

Equations (21), (22), (23) and (24) are applied for the control volumes where (I) varies from (2) to (nmax-1). The solution procedure is based on the problem statement, where for the known design and operating conditions as illustrated in Table (1) are well known, while the solution is prepared and proceeds to determine the optimum height of the cooling tower, evaporation rate and distribution of air temperature, relative humidity, water temperature, water flow rate and Lewis factor along the cooling tower height. Therefore, the flow chart of the solution procedure is shown in Figure 2, and a computer program is constructed in VISUAL FORTRAN environment.

Table 1: Illustration of Design and Operating Conditions

Design Conditions Operating Conditions

A Ka

a

.

m aiT iφ iw

.

m wiT weT



Figure2: Flow Chart of the Solution Procedure



3 MODEL SOLUTION

The steady-state performance of the proposed mathematical model is validated with the experimental data from [19], with four cases shown in Table (2). Table 2: Design and Operating Conditions [19]

A 1.057 m2

Ka 3.025 kg/m3.s

Parameter Exp. 1 Exp. 2 Exp. 3 Exp. 4 Units

a

.

m 1.187 1.187 1.265 1.250 kg/s

aiT 29.0 30.5 35.0 35.0 oC

iφ 49.7 43.4 52.6 26.67 %

iw

.

m 1.259 1.259 1.008 1.008 kg/s

wiT 28.72 34.5 38.78 38.78 oC

weT 24.22 26.22 29.33 29.23 oC

Cooling Load

23.66 43.57 39.8 40.23 kW

For the data in Table (2), the mathematical model solution determines the optimum height of the cooling tower, evaporation rate and distribution of air temperature, relative humidity, water temperature, water flow rate and Lewis factor along the cooling tower height. Firstly it has to note that, the experimental work [19] was based on cooling tower height of 115 cm. The variations in operating conditions as in Table (2) results variable exit air conditions as listed in Table (3). Table 3: Exit Air Conditions for Different Experiments

Exp. 1 Exp. 2 Exp. 3 Exp. 4

Temperature (oC) 26.67 30.27 33.27 33.27

Relative Humidity (%) 96.2 97.94 97.4 97.4

The present mathematical model determines the optimum cooling tower height to satisfy the cooling requirements as the flow rate of water, both inlet and exit temperatures as in Table (2) for the same inlet air conditions also as in Table (2).Where the height of the control volume is increased by 1 mm. Figure (3) illustrates the obtained cooling tower height corresponding to each operating conditions for each experiment. The operating conditions for experiment (Exp. 1) requires cooling tower of height of 68.6 cm, 65.6 cm for (Exp. 2), 60.2 cm for (Exp. 3) and 28.1 for (Exp. 4). Regarding to the variations in the operating conditions, it is concluded that; the cooling load itself does not affect primarily the cooling tower height. For (Exp. 1) where the minimum cooling load occurred, the obtained height is the maximum one over the rest of experiments. While for the (Exp. 2), (Exp. 3) and (Exp. 4) where the cooling loads are in order of magnitude, it is found that, the height varies in unscheduled manner.



One can deduce that, the parameter that mainly affects the cooling tower height is the relative humidity of the inlet air. It is illustrated from the operating conditions that for the first three experiments; the inlet air relative humidity are close, but the case is different for (Exp. 4), where the inlet air relative humidity is 26.67 % which is much lower than the corresponding values for the first three experiments and the corresponding obtained height is the much lower and it is 28.1 cm. Therefore, the present results recommend designers to have much more attention about the sensitivity of the cooling tower height to the inlet air relative humidity. Figure (4) illustrates the distribution of the dry bulb temperature of air along the cooling tower height for the four experiments. The distribution profile shows that, the temperature is decreased to certain height of the cooling tower followed by an increase till the exit of the cooling tower. The obtained profile for the temperature distribution along the height of cooling tower is identical to that found in the literature [21] as in Figure (5). Figure (6) illustrates the distribution of the water temperature along the cooling tower height for the four experiments. The distribution profile shows that, the temperature is decreased from the inlet to exit follows the counter flow schedules. It is noted that, the present model obeys the operating conditions such as the inlet and exit water temperatures. Figure (7) combines both Figure (4) and Figure (6) together, for each experiment, both the air and water temperature profiles intersect at a point somewhere through the cooling tower height. This intersection causes the profile of air temperature as in Figure (4). Before this intersection point, the water temperature is less than the air temperature, which causes transfer of heat from air to water. While after this intersection point, the water temperature is higher than the air temperature, which causes transfer of heat from water to air. Then, one can say that, the convection heat transfer may occur in both opposite and normal directions. But as the convection heat varies in the transfer direction, the evaporation heat transfer which is indicated in terms of relative humidity of air recovers the convection effect when the transfer is in the opposite direction. This is illustrated in Figure (8), which illustrates the increase in the air relative humidity of air along over the cooling tower height. Then, it is concluded that the heat transfer mode in the cooling tower is dominated by the evaporation heat transfer. Figure (9) illustrates the distribution of water flow rate along the cooling tower height, as illustrated the water flow rate is decreased from its inlet at the top of the cooling tower to the exit from the bottom of the cooling tower. This decrease occurs as a result of continuous evaporation from the water to the air. The total rate of evaporated water to the air is shown in Figure (10) for the four experiments. As mentioned in the literature, one of the modeling enhancements is to consider the variation in Lewis number which shown in Figure (11) along the cooling tower height for the four experiments. But it is also noted that, the one dimensional consideration of Lewis number and for the operating conditions, one can deduce that, the Lewis number is in the range of 0.91 to 0.924.



Figure 3: Cooling Water Height for Different Experimental Conditions.

Figure 4: Distribution of Air Temperature along the Height of the Cooling Tower for Different Experimental Conditions.

Figure 5: Temperature Profiles of Water and Air, and Humidity Ratio throughthe Cooling Tower [23] Tdb: Dry bulb Temperature Twb: Wet Bulb Temperature Tw: Water Temperature : Humidity ratio



Figure 6: Distribution of Water Temperature along the Height of the Cooling Tower for Different Experimental Conditions.

Figure 7: Distribution of Air and Water Temperature along the Height of the Cooling Tower for Different Experimental Conditions.



Figure8: Distribution of Air Relative Humidity along the Height of the Cooling Tower for Different Experimental Conditions.

Figure9: Distribution of Water Flow Rate along the Height of the Cooling Tower for Different Experimental Conditions.

Figure 10: Water Evaporation Rate for Different Experimental Conditions.



Figure11: Distribution of Lewis Number along the Height of the Cooling Tower for Different Experimental Conditions.

4 CONCLUSIONS

The present mathematical model for the counter-flow cooling tower is validated with experimental data and it is concluded that: 1. The cooling load does not affect primarily the cooling tower height. 2. The cooling tower height is mainly affected by the relative humidity of the inlet air. 3. The heat transfer mode in the cooling tower is dominated by the evaporation heat

transfer. 4. Lewis factor is in the range from 0.91 to 0.924.

REFERENCES

[1] ASHRAE Handbook, “HVAC Systems and Equipment (SI)”, American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc.. ASHRAE (2008).

[2] Bendapudi, S., Braun, J. E., and Groll, E. A.,“A Comparison of Moving-Boundary and Finite-Volume Formulations for Transients in Centrifugal Chillers”, International Journal of Refrigeration 31: 1437-1452. (2008).

[3] Bosnjakovic F., “Technische Thermodinamik”, Theodor Steinkopf, Dresden, (1965). [4] Donald R. Baker, Howard A. Shryock, „A Comprehensive Approach to the Analysis of

Cooling Tower Performance”, Technical Bulletin, R-61-P-13, Journal o Heat Transfer, August (1961).

[5] Elsarrag, E., “Experimental Study and Predictions of An Induced Draft Ceramic Tile Packing Cooling Tower”, Energy Conversion and Management 47: 2034-2043. (2006).

[6] Hyland R. W., Wexler J., “Formulations for the Thermodynamic Properties of the Saturated Phases of H2O from 173.15 K to 473.15 K”, ASHRAE Transactions, 89(2A), 500–519, (1983).

[7] Jameel Ur, Rehman Khan, M. Yaqub, Syed M. Zubair,“Performance Characteristics of Counter Flow Wet Cooling Towers”, Energy Conversion andManagement 44 2073–2091,(2003).

[8] Johannes C. Kloppers, Detlev G. Kröger, “The Lewis factor and its influence on the performance prediction of wet-cooling towers”, International Journal of Thermal Sciences 44 879–884, (2005).



[9] Khan JR, Zubair SM., “An improved design and rating analyses of counter flow wet cooling towers”. ASME J Heat Transf;123:770–8,(2001)

[10] Khan, J.-U.-R., Yaqub, M., and Zubair, S. M., “Performance Characteristics of Counter Flow Wet Cooling Towers”. Energy Conversion and Management 44: 2073-2091. (2003).

[11] Kroger D. G., “Air Cooled Heat Exchangers and Cooling Towers”, PennWell Corp., Tulsa, Oklahoma, 2004.

[12] Kroger D.G., Kloppers J.C., “Cooling tower performance evaluation: markel, poppe, and e-NTU methods of analysis”, ASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power 127 (2005) 1–7.

[13] Kuehn T. H., Ramsey J. W., Threlkeld J. L., “Thermal Environmental Engineering”, third ed., Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1998.

[14] Lucas, M., Martinez, P. J., and Viedma, A., Experimental Study on The Thermal Performance of A Mechanical Cooling Tower with Different Drift Eliminators. Energy Conversion and Management 50: 490-497. (2009).

[15] Merkel, F. Verdunstungskuhlung, VDI Forschungsarbeiten, Berlin, No. 275. (1925). [16] Osterle F., “On the analysis of counter-flow cooling towers”, International Journal of Heat

and Mass Transfer 34 (1991) 1316–1318. [17] PSYCHROMETRICS, IN ASHRAE HANDBOOK, 1989. [18] Qureshi, B. A. and S. M. Zubair “A Complete Model of Wet Cooling Towers with Fouling

in Fills”. Applied Thermal Engineering 26: 1982-1989. (2006). [19] Simpson, W. M. and T. K. Sherwood Performance of Small Mechanical Draft Cooling

Towers. Refrigerating Engineering 52(6): 535-543, 574-576. (1946). [20] Sutherland, J. W. Analysis of Mechanical-Draught Counterflow Air/Water Cooling

Towers. ASME Transactions Journal of Heat Transfer 105:576-583. (1983). [21] Thirapong Muangoi, WanchaiAsvapoositkul, SomachaiWongwises, “An Exergy Analysis

on the Performance of a Counterflow Wet Cooling Tower”, Elsevier, 2006. [22] Walker, W. H., Lewis, W. K., and Mcadams, W. H., “Principles of Chemical Engineering”.

New York, McGraw-Hill (1923).. [23] Xiao Li1, Yaoyu Li, and John E. Seem, “DYNAMIC MODELING OF MECHANICAL

DRAFT COUNTER-FLOW WET COOLING TOWER WITH MODELICA” Fourth National Conference of IBPSA-USA New York City, New York August 11 – 13, 2010 SimBuild 193:200

[24] Zubair S. M., Khan J.R., Yaqub M., “Performance characteristics of counter flow wet cooling towers”, Energy Conversion and Management 44 (13) (2003) 2073–2091.

Asian Business Consortium is an independent research house committed to publishing and delivering superior, Peer-reviewed standard research

AJASE? www.ajase.weebly.com

High quality editorial board

Rigorous and rapid peer review

Open Access & high citation rate

Will apply for ISI track in the near future



Accessibility Analysis of Parks at Urban

Neighborhood: The Case of Dhaka

Saniya Tabassum1 & Faria Sharmin2 1Assistant Professor, Department of Architecture, Stamford University Bangladesh, Dhaka, BANGLADESH 2Senior Lecturer, Department of Architecture, Stamford University Bangladesh, Dhaka, BANGLADESH

ABSTRACT

The city and urban environment will become extremely important in the daily lives of the increasing number of people. Parks and open spaces are one aspect of urban environment that is of great importance in daily life as well as social life for people who live in urban areas. Often their importance is forgotten in the debate about architecture and built form. Parks and open spaces might be considered as non-essential in the less developed countries – but their importance lies in many different benefits and opportunities that they can provide. Urban parks if properly accessible and well connected with its surrounding area can improve urban environment by enhancing community development and social bondage. This paper focused on the accessibility of urban parks many ways as we know that without adequate accessibility the provision of good quality or quantity of open spaces would be of very limited value. Therefore It investigates the current situation of accessibility of urban parks at planned and unplanned neighborhood of the city. This study examines different variables affecting the accessibility of the urban parks. The paper also suggested some recommendation to enhance further quality of accessibility. From the detail discussion of this paper it is concluded that parks of Dhaka city should be immediately restored maintained and preserves to enhance the image of the capital. Keywords: urban park, accessibility, planned and unplanned neighborhoods

1 INTRODUCTION

he era of pavement and concrete is an era of the past. We want to grow smart. We want to grow green and we want to enhance the quality of life for our citizens. (Antonio Villaraigosa, Los Angeles, California Mayor, March 7, 2006).

Due to rapid urbanization, there is huge encroachment upon open spaces which contributes towards deforestation, water logging, flooding, and pollution of water, soil and air. This is particularly evident in the developing countries where cities sprawl extensively. Like any other sustainable city, Dhaka needs a huge stock of open spaces for urban services or utilities and circulation and for environmental stability.

T



Parks and open spaces are one of the most significant components of urban environment that is of great importance for the people who live in urban areas. Parks and open spaces if properly more accessible can improve social cohesion and interaction as more people patronize them. Better accessibility to facilities also ensures economic efficiency in the use of such facilities because when they service more people, they would be more cost effective. Open green spaces, playgrounds, parks in the city acts like its lungs besides being used as active recreational and leisure areas for its citizens. Accordingly this paper rationalize the accessibility issues of our open space to make most successful open space respondent to people and its effect in our built environment and intends to examine the present conditions of some parks at Dhaka city studying some selected samples to get an overview. The paper focuses on the development of open space that is successful and public responsive in urban area. Accessibility, as a key attribute to ensure responsiveness, it is also the main issue of our study. The scope of the study is limited within the framework of fact finding towards identifying the characteristics of accessibility of responsive open space. And it evaluates the accessibility of some open areas of Dhaka city, not all of the category of open space.

2 ACCESSIBILITY OF URBAN PARKS

Good neighbourhoods offer a sense of coherence and identity for those living in the cities to make urban life more manageable and meaningful. Parks are one of the important components of neighbourhood landscape, which provide relief from the chaos of the built environment for residents. They may offer a range of facilities (passive or active) with various opportunities for interaction with nature. According to the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA), Standard, Neighbourhood Park should be linked to community pathways and sidewalks, uninterrupted by non-residential roads or other physical barriers, providing easy access, especially for children and senior adults, within at least ¼-½ mile service radius from residences (Mirsch, N.1995). Neighbourhood parks will be successful and responsive when they are characterized by the presence of people, in an often-self reinforcing process. That is why accessibility, regardless of, if it is measured in time, cost, distance, or population, is the most important variable that one must consider in the early stages of neighbourhood planning. Accessibility is derived from the transportation system (distance, cost or time) and the attractiveness of the activity centre (Abubakar et al. 2006). Inclusive access to high quality public spaces is therefore a cornerstone of democracy and social equity and a central issue to make a space responsive (Carmona et al. 2003). Various forces in society purposefully influence the accessibility order to preserve particular environments. The people who live in nearby neighbourhoods play a critical role in how those parks are perceived and used as well as how well they are maintained depending on their cultural, social and economic status and overall living standard (Gobster, 2001). Beside this, managers and owners of quasi-public space have various motives for controlling activity, such as their responsibility for maintenance, liability for what may happen within the space, and concern for marketability. While design strategies can enable and enhance both exclusion and inclusion. Therefore some attributes (comfort and image, access and linkage, uses and activity and sociability) (Carmona et al. 2003) also strengthen the access and responsiveness of parks depending on the neighbourhood (planned and unplanned) (Fig 01). This study is concerned with those issues that influence the accessibility and success of neighbourhood parks in terms of the key physical



attributes. The respondent behaviour (pedestrianised, social interaction) and perceived meanings (identity, accessibility) is also important to clarify the relationship among the variables i.e. the dependent and independent variables (Groat et al. 2002).

Fig 01: Planned and unplanned area of Dhaka City

3 OPEN SPACE SCENARIO AT DHAKA CITY

In order to create natural balanced and sustainable urban environment, up to 75% of urban area needs to be retained for open spaces. Ideally this should be about 40-50%, of the total area, but in a dense situation like Dhaka recommended lower margin is about 25% of urban space. Dhaka structure plan suggests that, open space should be at least 20%. But in Dhaka urban greenery, park greenery or tree-covered spaces constitutes less than 15% of the city landscape. According to the Dhaka Metropolitan Development Plan1995, old Dhaka (unplanned development that grow organically without following any pattern.) has only 5% and new Dhaka (which has some planned development, that followed a

Planned Area

Unplanned Area



gridiron pattern with a land use as prescribed in the master plan) has about 12% open space (Mowla, 2005). There is also no uniformity in open space standards between old and new Dhaka and even within two ends of the same area. With the continued growth in population and housing, the disparity between the amount of open space required for a healthy living and the amount available, continues to increase. So the practical circumstances of parks and open areas in Dhaka city are truly in very deprived condition. It poses a threat to our environment at many ways. This paper carries out survey on some parks of Dhaka city in planned and unplanned residential areas, identifying their potentiality and accessibility (Fig 02 & Fig 03).

Fig 02: Selected Parks at Planned Area of Dhaka City

Gulshan-Baridhara Residential Area (Planned) Gulshan Baridhara Residential area (Gulshan Developed as model town and Baridhara as diplomatic zone) has been chosen as planned development for high-class society of the city. The area originally built with the purpose of being solely residential, but by observing the overall layout we find insufficient open space comparing the standard. In this area only three parks are identified,

05



01. Lake Park beside a main road [ LP] 02. Shahabuddin Park within neighbourhood, surrounded by roads at three sides [SHP] 03. Baridhara Park surrounded by residences [BP]

Fig 03: Selected Parks at Unplanned Area of Dhaka City

Residential Area of Old Dhaka (Unplanned) As unplanned development older part of Dhaka city has been selected. Here the existing stock of open space is not enough to sustain the need of urbanity. Here three parks of similar category of planned area are identified which are, 04. Nabab Sirajoddoula Park, beside a main road [NSP] 05. Sikkatuli Park surrounded by residences [SKP] 06. Victoria Park surrounded by roads at all side [VP]



4 Accessibility Analysis

Location, Road Network and Accessibility In planned residential area park are easily accessible because of regular road layout (Fig 03). As we know that land is subdivided into plot and infrastructure according to the master plan in planned area, therefore parks can be easily accessible from their nearby or surrounding household. But in case of LP, there is a main road at one side of the park reduces accessibility from opposite side of the road. On the other hand it is used by various group of user because of its prominent location.

Fig 04: Location and Road Network and Entry of Parks at Planned Area

In contrast, unplanned area of the city has been developed indigenously to serve neighbourhood need without any approved plan. Here road grows organically without proper zoning, road network and footpath (Fig 04). VP and NSP facing towards the main road. Therefore it has good visual connection which attracts various groups of people at different times of the day. At three cases of old Dhaka overall connection to the residents to the park are very poor. All the roads are dirty, have no footpath and suffer traffic jam almost all the time. Entries are also hidden and occupied by the vendors, which reduce accessibility of people.

LP SHP BP Location: North-west of Gulshan Circle -2, Ward 19 Entry: A01: west (road 63) and A02: Main Road, A03: Pocket gate (road 62).

Location: north-east of Gulshan circle-2, Ward 19 Entry: B01: west (road 83) and B02: east side (road 89).

Location: Park Road, Baridhara Ward 18 Entry: C01: Park Road



VP NSP SKP

Location: Jonson Road, Ward: 78 Entry: D01-Johnson Road

Location: English Road, Ward: 68. Entry: E01- Main road, E02 & E03- Zindabahar lane.

Location: Sikkatuli Road Ward: 69 Entry: F01-Sikkatuli lane

Fig 05: Location and Road Network and Entry of Parks at Unplanned Area

Catchments Population and Park User

Neighbourhood Park should serve ¼ - ½ mile radius and the standard requirement is 2.0 park acres per 1,000 populations and in case of mini park, it should serve ¼ mile radius, and standard requirement is 0.1-0.3 park acres per 1,000 populations [Mirsch, N.1995].Therefore (Table 01) the size of all parks at planned area are almost proper in terms of their catchment‟s population but the actual situation is that it serve a greater radius of population because of the limited numbers of park in that area. However at old Dhaka situation is vulnerable in terms of catchment‟s population and park area ratio.

Table 01: Size and Population of Park and their Surroundings

From a questionnaire Survey it is observed that more people within ¼ mile use the park. Only a small amount of visitors come from a greater distance due to exercise purpose and some for park design features.

Surrounding Context, Physical features and Design Quality of the Parks

LP SHP BP

Fig 06: Park and their surroundings at Planned Area



Lake Park (LP): The Park is surrounded by Residence, at three sides; there are few commercial development and main road at one side. The park has a walkway surrounded by a lake. Beside this bridge on the lake, nursery at one side, different types sitting (shaded and open), trees and overall good maintenance attracts the users most and some amount of visitors comes here for different purpose (Fig 06).

Shahabuddin Park (SHP) is designed with a pond, walkway, sitting and trees of various size and shape. The park is surrounded by mostly residences; there are some schools in this area and Ladies Club beside the park (fig 07).

Baridhara Park (BP) is a pocket park within residential plots and designed with walkway, sitting, play & exercise equipment trees of medium canopy, shrub and grass.

Front Road of LP Front Road of SHP Front Road of BP

Fig 07: Surrounding Road of Parks at Planned Area

NSP SKP VP

Fig 08: Park and their surroundings at Unplanned Area

Front Road of SHP Front Road of SHP Front Road of SKP

Fig 09: Surrounding Road of Parks at Unplanned Area



Nabab Sirajoddoula Park (NSP) is located at the junction point of commercial and residential area and surrounded by residence, commercial development, bus stoppage, mosque, shops. Vendors, street hawkers occupied the surrounding footpath and obstruct visual accessibility. There are various trees of wide and medium canopy, grass and shrubs, walkway sitting a fountain and some play equipment in damaged condition. City Corporation occupies a corner of the park for community water tank. The surrounding context of the park is not suitable for children and students to use the park all the day long.

Sikkatuli Park (SKP) is also pocket park at residential neighbourhood. The park has some Sitting, Play equipment water fountain and a walkway in deplorable condition. Because of its context the park is used as play area for local young and children as there is no play field in nearby location. Therefore the design is more suitable as a field rather than a park and its maintenance as a park is hard.

Victoria Park (VP) is a green island surrounded by roads at all sides. There is residential are at one side and many institutions like schools, college, university, church, Court Bldg at other three sides. The park is well designed with Walkway, Sitting, Play & Exercise equipment, Monument, prayer space and public Toilet at corner. The park offer better opportunity that is why people of different age group and people from a distance come here for a short informal break Activity at the Parks

Lake Park is widely used by the local people particularly at morning and evening for jogging and exercise purpose of health conscious community. Almost 120~150 people daily attend the park only for morning exercise purpose. The park is mostly used from 5.00 am to 9.30 pm. But its accessibility is controlled by the authority, i.e. at morning and evening it is restricted for normal people who want to come here for recreational purpose.

The Baridhara Park is widely responsive to the local people. Like other parks in those areas, it is also famous for the health conscious community. Children also use the park for their evening play. As it occupy some play equipments for children.

SHP is mostly used by the community people for daily exercise purpose at morning and evening. Some guardians of school going children use this park for waiting purpose.

Evening Walk at SHP Children play Equipment

at BP Park Shelter and Lake at LP

Fig 10: Activity of Parks at Planned Area



Morning Exercise at VP Gathering at NSP People takes rest at SKP

Fig 11: Activity of Parks at Unplanned Area

People from different institutions come to visit the VP as it is surrounded by different types of institutions [College, University].Therefore the park remain busy all the time. In spite of this it is also a good space for morning and evening exercise as it is the only park for nearby neighborhood.

NSP used for exercise purpose by the nearby residents. Park remains close all the daylong for maintenance purpose by the order of local management authority. This decision restricts the use of park at day time. In spite of this some local vendors, beggars or street people use the park for sleeping or resting purpose.

SKP located within the neighborhood is used by young and adults for exercise, walking and as a play area.

Park Name Exercise Visit Children play Meeting place for young and adults

LP 370 180 20 60

SHP 250 60 40 60

BP 320 0 60 50

VP 400 80 70 150

NSP 230 40 0 80

SKP 100 20 80 80

Table 02: Average activity within parks at different times of the day

This study shows only the presence of health conscious people in the park (Table 02). In the planned area although the parks are comparatively better located and maintained but somehow social structure of these high-class residential areas do not allow their children to play in those parks, rather they encourage indoor play facilities. The scenario of socialization at old Dhaka is comparatively better. VP and SP remain lively all day long by the presence of local children, young and adults. Because of social conservative pattern and also due to the location and poor maintenance, participation of the female member of the community is low at old Dhaka. Accessibility Mode

Accessibility may be discussed in terms of transport- means of communication. Environments are inaccessible if their use depends on private mode [usually car] (Carmona et al. 2003). In case of any neighborhood open space if it is easily accessible by walking, without crossing any main road, it will be more useable.



The park whether it located in planned or unplanned area, if it‟s location is within neighborhood, without crossing main street, most of the people like to come by walking. We see that in case of BP, SKP almost all people come to the park by walking. LP, NSP serve the population of three sides[walking], but from one side people have to cross one main road and therefore some people use car or rickshaw to reach park. The situation of VP is different as it is surrounded by thoroughfare at all sides. People use different mode of transports to access this park.

Table 04: Daily average use of transportation to access the selected parks

Frequency of Use

Parks create a sense of place by connecting residents of different age group and background to one another. It is this diverse mix of people who also makes a park successful (Mark, 2006).

Park Name

Avg no of user at 6.00-9.00 am

Avg no of user at 10am-4.00 pm

Avg no of user at 4.00 pm- 9 pm

Daily avg. no. of user

Response level

LP 250 180 200 630 21%

SHP 200 100 150 450 09%

BP 200 10 230 440 12%

VP 200 250 250 700 20%

NSP 160 30 130 320 10%

SKP 60 100 120 280 06%

Table 05: Average uses of parks at different times of the day LP: According to the variable analysis this park works better and its response level is 21%.

Here presence of some visitors is observed at day long due to its better design quality, visual accessibility and easy mode of transport. But the main road at one side and lack of play and recreation facilities, restricted time for visitors reduce its response level at some aspect.

SHP: The daily average response level of this park is 09%, although the park is in a good position according to zoning, size, and physical accessibility. Location of some schools surrounding the park, lack of recreation facilities, poor visual accessibility may be the cause to reduce its response.

BP: This park is in a better position among all the parks of planned area, yet its response level is only 12%. It is the decision of park authority, (park remain closed from 10.00am to 4.00 pm) and social character that reduces the use of the park at daylong.

Location Walk Cycle Car Rickshaw Bus

Planned R/A LP

50% - 40% 8% 2%

SHP

80% - 15% 5% -

BP 100% - - - -

Unplanned R/A

NSP 86% 2% - 10% 2%

SP 95% 5% - - -

VP 75% 5% - 2O% -



VP: The daily average response level of the park is 20%, which is comparatively higher than others of that area. Only because of its different site surroundings, better design quality and maintenance, people from a greater distance come here.

NSP: Although there is a main road and commercial development at one side but it is the only park, which serves huge population beyond catchment area. But due to lack of design quality, ill maintenance, poor accessibility, the daily average response level is only 10%.

SKP: In terms of zoning and road layout the park is in a better position like BP at planned area. But its response level is very poor (only 06%) because of poor maintenance, absence of walkway, sitting even proper greenery. But here children and teenagers gather all the daylong, which prove that by improving the situation its response can be increased many more.

5 OVERALL FINDINGS

In the planned area overall situation in terms of their size, location and accessibility and safety measure are quite suitable but other attributes like comfort, uses and sociability are not satisfactory because of their lacking in amenities (absence of recreation facilities, restaurant, and children play area) and sociocultural background. In LP the average no of users is satisfactory at day long due to its better design quality, visual accessibility, and easy mode of transport, scenic beauty and security. Its response level is 21%. But the main road at one side and lack of play and recreation facilities, restricted time for visitors reduce its response level at some aspect. That‟s why for any recreational purpose some people of that area used to go another spaces neglecting this beautiful park. The daily average response level of SHP is 09%. According to zoning, size, and physical accessibility the park is in a good position. But location of some schools like Scholastica, Green dale, Crescent School in the surrounding road of the park, lack of recreation facilities, poor visual accessibility may be the cause to reduce its response level. Among all the parks of planned area BP is in a better position, yet its response level is only 12%. The park remains close from 10.00am to 4.00 pm due to the decision of the park authority and social character of the surroundings reduces the use of the park at daylong. Mostly local children use the park for their evening play as it occupy some play equipments for children. In case of Old Dhaka, the main issue of accessibility is in a threatening condition, due to its unplanned and ill-maintained vehicular and pedestrian layout. All types of vehicle move around the VP and NSP. Thus there ease of accessibility is questionable in some aspect. NSP serves huge population although there is a main road and commercial development at one side. But due to lack of design quality, ill maintenance, poor accessibility, the daily average response level is only 10%. In terms of zoning and road layout SP is in a better position like BP at planned area. But from survey it is found that the response level is very poor (only 06%), because of poor maintenance, absence of walkway, sitting, even proper greenery. But here children and teenagers gather all the daylong, which prove that by improving the situation its response can be increased many more. The daily average response level of VP is comparatively higher than others of that area which is 20%. People from a greater distance visit here because of its different site surroundings, better design quality and maintenance.



From the surveys we find that, although the parks in the community are not designed properly, but they have a good social impact on people of nearby locality. People come here to make a short break from their city life. These are extensively used for morning and evening exercise of neighborhood people. Inspite of all these, average response level of parks at both area is almost same, which proves that, in a city like ours where there is extreme shortage of parks and open spaces, the accessibility issue is determined not only by the distance but also on many other related issues like zoning, access mode, activity, sociability, security, etc.

6 RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

Parks and open spaces are one aspect of urban environment that is of great importance in daily life as well as social life for people who live in urban areas like Dhaka. At dense urban area parks should be the most vibrant and accessible space. But somehow their importance is often forgotten in the debate about architecture and built form. In Dhaka rapid growth of urban population has caused the huge encroachment of open space due to increasing demand on land for housing and other urbanization need. But still there is enough scope, to rectify the wrongs with planning and design, and thus enhance the accessibility and use of the parks. Few parks that exist within different neighborhoods of Dhaka city have a good social and environmental impact on the neighborhood sustainability. To make the parks successful and more accessible some recommendations have been suggested below:

Enhance the security and maintenance of the park to increase their use. To maintain livability proper maintenance and security is obvious. Vandalism can contribute to perceptions of fear because litter, graffiti and broken furniture all that suggest a place is uncared for and is possibly unsafe. Therefore enhance the security and maintenance of the park to increase their use.

Development of the quality of approach way or route, environment of surroundings and within the park area is necessary in all case. Presence of litter, graffiti and broken furniture all that suggest a place is uncared for. The improvements of quality wiil enhance number of park user.

Variety in the form, color, and texture of landscape elements as well as a range of activities contributes to an interesting environment that attracts users. Some children play equipment, gathering or sitting spaces for younger and adult person, restaurant or cafeteria should be kept within the park and must be conscious that maximum amount of open space is to be preserved within the park area. In this way, activity can be generated in the park which will attract more users.

REFERENCES

[1] Abubakar, I. & Aina, A. (2006). GIS and Space Syntax: An Analysis of Accessibility to Urban Green Areas in Doha District of Dammam Metropolitan Area, Saudi Arabia. www.gisdevelopment.net/.../transportation%20and%20network%20analysis/mm06tra79.htm

[2] Carmona, M., Heath, T., Oc, T. & Tiesdell, S. (2003). Public Spaces- Urban Spaces: The Dimensions of Urban Design. Architectural Press, Elsevier.

[3] Gobster, P.H. (2001). Neighbourhood–open space relationships in metropolitan planning: a look across four scales of concern. Journal of Local Environment 6 (2): 199–212.

http://www.gisdevelopment.net/.../transportation%20and%20network%20analysis/mm06tra79.htm

http://www.gisdevelopment.net/.../transportation%20and%20network%20analysis/mm06tra79.htm



[4] Gobster, P.H. & Dickhut, K.E. (1995). Exploring interspace: open space opportunities in dense urban areas, Urban Ecosystems: Proceedings of the 7th National Urban Forestry Conference. New York, NY. September 12-16. Cheryl. K & Michael. B, American Forests, Washington DC. 70-73

[5] Groat, L. & Wang, D. (2002). Architectural Research Methods. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. USA. [6] Mirsch, N. (1995). Part IV: Park Definitions and Development Standards, NRPA,

www.cottagegrove.org/commdev/parksplan/Part%20IV.pdf down loaded at 2009 [7] Mowla, Q. A. (2005). Eco-design concept in the design and management of Dhaka‟s urban

open spaces. In XXII World Congress of Architecture, uia2005istanbul International seminar on Cities- Grand Bazaar of Architectures (sub-theme: Urban Ecology). 3-7 July 2005, Istanbul, Turkey. 233-238

[8] Mark, F. (2006). Urban Parks as Community Places. FASLA, University of California, Davis, Chuncheon G5 Symposium Talk, Chuncheon, Korea. March 24. 2006. lda.ucdavis.edu/people/websites/francis/korea.pdf

[9] Whyte, H. W. (1980). The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces, Project for Public Spaces, W. DC.

Why Open Access ???

“In the traditional publishing model, readers have limited access to scientific papers; authors do not have copyright for their own papers, and cannot post

their papers on their own websites, which presents a significant barrier to the sharing of knowledge, as well as being unfair to authors. Open access can

overcome the drawbacks of the traditional publishing model and help scholars build on the findings of their colleagues without restriction”

Submit your next manuscript at- www.abcjournals.weebly.com ABC Journals is a unique forum to offer open access to all of its articles. Now ABC Journal‟s portfolio is over eight journals, which publish both online and in print.

www.cottagegrove.org/commdev/parksplan/Part%20IV.pdf%20down%20loaded%20at%202009

http://www.abcjournals.weebly.com/



Change in Temperature over Bangladesh

Associated with Degrees of Global Warming

A.B.M. Shamim Ul Hasan1 & M. Zillurr Rahman2 1Research Student, Department of Applied Mathematics, Rajshahi University, Rajshahi, BANGLADESH 2Professor, Department of Applied Mathematics, Rajshahi University, Rajshahi, BANGLADESH

ABSTRACT

The aim of investigation of the research work is to study the temperature trend in Bangladesh. Long term changes of surface air temperature over Bangladesh have been studied using the available historical data collected by the Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD). Maximum, minimum and mean monthly temperature data of last sixty–three years (1948-2010) collected from 35 stations of BMD located all over the Bangladesh have been used in this study. It has been found that monthly

maximum temperature shows a positive trend of increase at a rate of 0.50

C per 100 year. The maximum increase occurred during November at a

rate of 2.050

C per 100 year. However, monthly minimum temperature

shows more statistically significant trend of increase at a rate of 1.400

C per 100 year. The maximum increase occurred during February at a rate of

2.730

C per 100 year. Monthly mean temperature shows a positive trend of

increase at a rate of 0.80

C per 100 year. It is clear found that monthly minimum temperature has been increased significantly during the winter season (October to February) over the last sixty-three years. This study also reveals that temperature has been increase predominantly over the last 21 years (1990-2010) than last 63 years (1948-2010). Bangladesh should also prepare adaptation policies to minimize the adverse effects of climate change. Vulnerabilities assessment, disaster management, enhanced structure design, institutional reform and anti extreme climate engineering are some feasible adaptation policies in Bangladesh due to increasing temperature. Keywords: Global warming, Bangladesh, temperature, significant trend, climate change

1 INTRODUCTION

lobal warming becomes one of the most important environmental problems in the 21st century and the impacts of global warming are worldwide (Chan 2006) and Bangladesh is the one of most vulnerable country in the world (Richard 2012).

Global warming is mainly caused by the increase of green house gases of the atmosphere

G



(Houghton 2002). The assumption that increased greenhouse gas concentrations may lead to a rise in global temperatures first emerged in the 1960s (Peterson et al. 2008). The great majority of climate scientists now agree that the evidence for anthropogenic global warming is strong (Rosenberg et al. 2010). Predictions of average temperature changes and the economic costs of climate change are uncertain, but generally bleak: for increases of 5–6 °C, which is a “Production as Usual” scenario, the predicted economic loss is 5–10 % of global GDP (Stern 2007). In Earth‟s past there have been significant periods of global warming and cooling, with average global temperatures from some era higher than current temperatures (Zachos et al. 2001). Intergovernmental Panel on climate Change (IPCC) has reported in their fourth assessment report that global surface temperature increased 0.74 ± 0.18 °C during the 100 years ending in 2005 (IPCC 2007). It is also noted by IPCC (2007) that the rise of mean annual temperature will be 3.3 °C per century. In the past, a number of studies have been carried out on trend of climate change in climatic parameters over Bangladesh. The pointed out that temperature trends has been changed (Chowdhury and Debsharma 1992; Mia 2003; Islam 2007). The reported mean annual

temperature of Bangladesh has increased during the period of 1895-1980 at 0.310C over the past two decades (Parathasarathy et al. 1987; Divya and Mehritra 1995). Using the 1961-1990 data for Bangladesh projected that annual mean maximum temperature will increase

to 0.4 0C and 0.73 0C by the year of 2050 and 2100 respectively (Karmakar and Shrestha 2000). In this context, it is essential to quantify changes of temperature in recent years based on the historical data. This paper is going to study conducted on the long term changes of near surface air temperature of Bangladesh using data from historic period up to recent year and what government of Bangladesh should do due to climate change. This study represents both an extension of (Chowdhury and Debsharma 1992) and a continuation of (Islam 2008) with implications and policy framework. Where (Islam 2008) important questions such as implications, mitigation policy and adaptation to climate change remain unanswered.

2 DATA SET

The results of our study are expected to be different from (Islam 2008) if we adopt data for

a longer time period. The present investigation will use approximately 63 years of

temperature data is provided by the BMD. Maximum, minimum and average daily

temperature data of last sixty-three years (1948-20010) has been collected from 35 stations

of BMD located all over the Bangladesh have been used in this study . Fig. 1 shows

location of the BMD stations over Bangladesh. These stations are mainly located at the city

center of an urban district. Trend analysis has been conducted on monthly average data

for all the stations. Monthly average value for both last 63 years and last 21 years (1990-

2010) has been studied.



Fig. 1 Thirty five ground base measuring stations of Bangladesh Meteorological Department. Source (Islam 2008)

3 METHODOLOGY

Regression equation were formed in the form

bmxy (1)

Where „m‟ is the slope of the trend line and „b‟ is the intercept of trend line with y-axis

ii

iiii

xxx

yxyxm

2 (2)

2xx

yyxxb

i

ii (3)

Where, ix is the independent variable, x is the average of the independent variable, iy is

the dependable variable and y is the average of dependable variable. Coefficient of

determination, R-square (2R ) of the trend vary between 0 and 1. It can be found by using

the following formula



total

err

SS

SSR 12

(4)

Correlation coefficient

22yyxx

yyxxr

ii

ii (5)

Long-term trend analyses were carried out for key meteorological parameters that might

be influenced by global warming. There are many statistical methods for calculating

trends, including parametric methods such as regression and t-test (e.g. Easterling et al.

1997; Karl et al. 1993) and non-parametric methods such as Mann-Kendall test (e.g. Qian

and Giorgi, 2000; Quereda Sala et al. 2000). This study adopted the most commonly

employed regression method and t-test (Easterling et al. 1997), a paper in IPCC (2001), and

also (Karl et al. 1993). The long-term trend could then be inferred from the slopes of these

straight lines. Two tailed t-test was applied to test the statistical significance of the trends

at 5% significance level.

The test statistics t for testing the null hypothesis H0: trend = 0 against the alternative

hypothesis H1: trend ≠ 0, is given by:

21

2

r

nrt

(6)

Where r is the correlation coefficient and follows a t distribution with n-2 degrees of

freedom.

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 MONTHLY MAXIMUM, MINIMUM AND MEAN TEMPERATURE

The monthly maximum, minimum and mean temperature of the country has been

determined using historic available data from the meteorological stations of Bangladesh

which shows in table (1). Fig.2 shows month-wise distribution of the average of maximum,

minimum and mean temperature. Data within last 63 years period (1948-2010) from all the

35 stations of BMD is used to determine mean monthly temperature over Bangladesh.

Monthly maximum data has shown its peak at 36.78 0

C during April. However, Monthly

minimum data has shown the highest rise of temperature of 23.67 0

C during August.

Moreover, monthly mean temperature has shown the highest rise of temperature of 28.71

0C during May.



Table 1: The average of monthly maximum, minimum and mean temperature of 35

stations of the country from (1948-2010)

Average Maximum Minimum Mean

(1948-2010)

January 28.56 9.06 18.34

February 31.80 10.65 21.27

March 35.64 14.60 25.55

April 36.79 18.59 28.16

May 36.59 20.31 28.71

Jun 35.44 22.37 28.48

July 34.09 23.53 28.15

August 34.31 23.68 28.26

September 34.57 23.17 28.12

October 34.14 20.18 26.97

November 32.13 14.91 23.50

December 29.14 10.82 19.89

Yearly 37.67 8.79 25.43

Fig. 2 Bar diagram of monthly average of maximum, minimum and mean temperature

(0C) during the last sixty-three years period (1948-2010)

5 TRENDS OF MONTHLY (FROM AVERAGE OF DAILY) MAXIMUM, MINIMUM AND

MEAN TEMPERATURE

In this study, trends of monthly (from average of daily) temperature data for all the 35

stations of BMD have been analyzed during the period 1948-2010. Monthly maximum

temperature data have shown an increasing trend of 0.50 0C per 100 years Fig.3 (a). On the



other hand, monthly minimum temperature data have exhibited more statistically

significant trend of 1.40 0C per 100 years and shown in Fig.4 (a). Also, monthly mean

temperature have increased with a rate of 0.8 0C per 100 years.

It has also evident from these plots that the rate of change has more accelerated in the last

21 years. Therefore, data of monthly (from average of daily) temperature of last 21 years

(1990-2010) have been also studied for trend analysis. Monthly maximum, minimum and

mean temperature have shown positive increase with a rate of 4.5 0C, 2.90C and 2.10C per

100 years and shown in Figures 3(b), 4(b) and 4(b) respectively. It has clearly found that

maximum temperature has been increased dramatically over the last 21 years period.

Fig. 3 Trend of monthly (a) maximum temperature of all the stations using the period of

last 63 years data (1948-2010) where correlation coefficient r =0.26 . Trend of monthly (b)

maximum temperature of all the stations using the period of last 21 years data (1990-2010)

where correlation coefficient r =0.739



Fig. 4 Trend of monthly (a) minimum temperature of all the stations using the period of

last 63 years data (1948-2010) where correlation coefficient r =0.66. Trend of monthly (b)

minimum temperature of all the stations using the period of last 21 years data (1990-2010)

where correlation coefficient r =0.629



Fig. 5 Trend of monthly (a) mean temperature of all the stations using the period of last 63

years data (1948-2010) where correlation coefficient r =0.49. Trend of monthly (b) mean

temperature of all the stations using the period of last 21 years data (1990-2010) where

correlation coefficient r =0.496

6 STATION-WISE (SEVEN DIVISION) TRENDS OF MONTHLY AVERAGE MAXIMUM, MINIMUM AND MEAN TEMPERATURE

Trends of monthly average maximum, minimum and mean temperature have been analyzed for each station of BMD. The trend analysis is presented in below figures. Available years of data and beginning year of each data set are also presented for each

station. Trend of mean temperature vary from -0.2 to 1.1 0

C per 100 years among seven stations. At Dhaka, trend of mean temperature is the highest among the seven stations

with a value of 1.1 0

C per 100 year. Coefficient of determination, 2R of the trend analysis

of monthly mean temperature varies from 0.006 in Khulna to 0.242 in Dhaka among seven

stations. 2R Value less than 0.5 has found in many stations which represents poor

statistical significance trend.

Fig. 6 Trend of the monthly mean temperature of Dhaka (1953-2010) where correlation coefficient r =0.505



Fig. 7 Trend of the monthly mean temperature of Chittagong (1949-2010) where correlation coefficient r =0.304

Fig. 8 Trend of the monthly mean temperature of Barisal (1949-2010) where correlation coefficient r = -0.193

Fig. 9 Trend of the monthly mean temperature of Khulna (1948-2010) where correlation coefficient r =0.070



Fig.10 Trend line of the monthly mean temperature of Rajshahi (1957-2010) where correlation coefficient r = -0.038

Fig. 11 Trend line of the monthly mean temperature of Rangpur (1958-2010) where correlation coefficient r = -0.072

Fig. 12 Trend line of the monthly mean temperature of Sylhet (1956-2010) where correlation coefficient r =0.090



7 MONTHLY TRENDS OF DAILY MAXIMUM, MINIMUM AND MEAN TEMPERATURE

Monthly average rate of change of temperature during last 63 years (1948-2010) has been studied. Table 2 shows a summary of trends 0C monthly maximum, minimum and mean temperature over Bangladesh for each month. Coefficient of determination, R2 of the trends are also presented in Table 2. Monthly maximum data exhibits trends from -0.21 0C per 100 years during May to 2.05 0C per 100 years during November. On the other hand, the maximum trend of monthly minimum temperature is 2.73 0C per 100 years in February. The minimum trend of monthly minimum temperature is 0.5 0C per 100 years in September. However, the maximum and minimum values of trends of monthly mean temperature have found as is 2.68 0C per 100 years in December and is -0.26 0C per 100 years in May respectively. It can be clearly found that monthly minimum temperature has been increased significantly during the winter season (October to February) over the last 63 years. Trends of monthly maximum, minimum and mean temperature over the last 21 years (1990-2010) have also determined and presented in Table 3. The maximum trend of monthly maximum temperature is found as 2.22 0C per 100 years in January and minimum trend is found as 8.95 0C per 100 years in February. Similar results can be found for monthly minimum and mean temperature. The highest value of trends of monthly minimum and mean temperature are found as 10.97 and 3.95 0C per 100 years in April and March respectively.

Table 2: Monthly average trends and R2 value of monthly maximum, minimum and mean temperature during last 63 year period (1948-2010)

Month Average of 63 year period (1948-2010)

Max R2 Min R2 Mean R2

January 0.0051 0.0269 0.0113 0.0704 0.0043 0.0109

February 0.0069 0.0307 0.0273 0.1910 0.0134 0.0908

March -0.0111 0.0526 0.0266 0.1922 0.0063 0.0255

April -0.0150 0.0592 0.0160 0.0959 -0.0041 0.0094

May -0.0021 0.0019 0.0091 0.0576 -0.0026 0.0056

June 0.0094 0.0525 0.0076 0.0760 0.0066 0.0786

July 0.0080 0.0635 0.0107 0.1767 0.0072 0.1465

August 0.0176 0.2697 0.0105 0.1586 0.0085 0.2226

September 0.0093 0.1286 0.0050 0.0502 0.0054 0.0972

October 0.0150 0.2472 0.0067 0.0234 0.0052 0.0461

November 0.0205 0.3003 0.0161 0.0809 0.0173 0.1642

December 0.0086 0.0617 0.0199 0.1814 0.0268 0.4069

Average 0.006 0.0139 0.0079

Table 3: Monthly average trends and R2 value of monthly maximum, minimum and mean

temperature during last 21 year period (1990-2010).

Month Max R2 Min R2 Mean R2

January 0.0222 0.0904 0.0500 0.1318 -0.0188 0.0242

February 0.0895 0.1607 -0.0315 0.0237 0.0154 0.0099

March 0.0451 0.0736 0.0297 0.0247 0.0395 0.0591

April 0.0275 0.0248 0.1097 0.3433 0.0393 0.0673

May 0.0797 0.3639 0.0378 0.1000 0.0342 0.1260



June 0.0658 0.2949 0.0292 0.1406 0.0196 0.0559

July 0.0482 0.3558 0.0370 0.2200 0.0205 0.1764

August 0.0275 0.0808 0.0356 0.2938 0.0146 0.0993

September 0.0202 0.0458 0.0423 0.3730 0.0222 0.1783

October 0.0447 0.2668 0.0344 0.0347 0.0292 0.1368

November 0.0270 0.0520 0.0105 0.0043 0.0244 0.0577

December 0.0409 0.2103 -0.0269 0.0382 0.0071 0.0049

Average 0.0449 0.0298 0.0206

Table 4: Change of trends (oC per 100 year) of monthly maximum, minimum and mean temperature over the last 21 years (1990-2010) than that of over last 63 year (1948-2010)

Month Max Min Mean

January 1.71 3.87 -2.31

February 8.26 -5.88 0.2

March 5.62 0.31 3.32

April 4.25 9.37 4.34

May 8.18 2.87 3.68

June 5.64 2.16 1.3

July 4.02 2.63 1.33

August 0.99 2.51 0.61

September 1.09 3.73 1.68

October 2.97 2.77 2.4

November 0.65 -0.56 0.71

December 3.23 -4.68 -1.97

Average 3.88 1.59 1.27

Changes of trends of temperature within last 63 years and within last 21 years have been compared. A comparison of the trends of monthly maximum, minimum and mean temperature has been presented in Table 4. There has been a significant increase of the values of trends of daily maximum and mean temperature during summer season. On the other hand, over the last 21 years trends of monthly minimum and mean temperature has been diminished than that of last 63 years during winter season.

8 CONCLUSIONS

Monthly maximum, minimum and mean temperature shows a positive trend over Bangladesh. Increase of monthly maximum temperature is 0.600 C, monthly minimum temp is 1.39 0C and monthly mean temperature is 0.790C per 100 years. Maximum increase of monthly maximum temperature has occurred in November at 2.05 0C and monthly minimum temperature has occurred in February at 2.73 0C in 100 years. The highest increase of monthly maximum temperature has occurred as 1.1 0C per 100 years at Dhaka and monthly minimum temperature has occurred as -0.2 0C per 100 years at Rajshahi. It has clearly found that maximum temperature has been increased dramatically over the last 21



years period. Monthly maximum, minimum and mean temperature has shown positive increase with a rate of 4.49 0C, 2.98 0C and 2.06 0C per 100 years respectively during the period of last 21 years (1990-2010). Increase of winter temperature can reduce the environmental suitability for wheat, potato and other temperate crops grown in Rabi season. Implications for Agriculture and Fisheries; in Bangladesh, the largest demand for both surface and ground water is to support irrigation in the dry months. Changes in climate may affect irrigation requirements for all the three cropping seasons: Rabi, Kharif-I, Kharif-II. Increase in temperature will scale up irrigation demands by 200Mm3 for March alone. Currently, the irrigation and fisheries sectors compete for water. Since the solubility of oxygen in water decreases with higher temperature reported by Asian Development Bank (2004), it could be a problem for fisheries. If river flow is reduced during the dry season, this problem will be worse. Moreover, freshwater migratory fish hatchlings will face a survival problem in the southwestern part of Bangladesh because of increased salinity from sea level rise. Mitigation Policy Framework; Bangladesh should adopt a number of policies where environment issues will address. Important policy documents throughout the analysis are: 1. Maintenance of the ecological balance and overall progress and development of the

country through protection and improvement of the environment; 2. Protection of the country against natural disasters; 3. Identification and control of all types of activities related to pollution and degradation

of environment; 4. Undertaking environmentally development programs in all sectors including

agriculture, industry, health, energy, water, land, forest. Vulnerabilities assessment, disaster management, enhanced structure design, institutional reform and anti extreme climate engineering are some feasible adaptation policies in Bangladesh. A complete climate policy should encompass both mitigation and adaptation to climate change due to global warming. Acknowledgment: We are grateful to the Bangladesh Meteorological Department for providing us the necessary data to carry out this investigation.

REFERENCES

[1] Bank AD (2004) Country Environmental Analysis Bangladesh. 3rd draft, pp 17

[2] Chan KL (2006) Climate issues in Hong Kong: Mitigation and Adaptation. pp 4

[3] Chowdhury MHK, Debsharma SK (1992) Climate change in Bangladesh – A statistical

review. Report on IOC-UNEP workshop on impacts of sea level rise due to global

warming, NOAMI, held during 16-19 November 1992, Bangladesh

[4] Department BM (2010) Temperature issued under the authority of the Director General.

BMD Bangladesh

[5] Divya, Mehrotra R (1995) Climate Change and hydrology with emphasis on the Indian

subcontinent. J Hydro Sciences 40, pp 231-241

[6] Easterling DR, Horton B, Jones PD, Peterson TC, Karl TR, Parker DE, Salinger MJ,

Razuvayev V, Plummer N, Jamason P, Folland CK, (1997) Maximum and Minimum

Temperature Trends for the Globe. Science 277, pp 364-367

[7] Houghton JT (2002) The physics of Atmospheres, 3rd edn. Cambridge University press



[8] Houghton JT, Ding T, Griggs DJ, Noguer M, Linden PJV, Dai X, Maskell K, Johnson

CA (eds) Climate Change 2001:The Science of Climate Change. Contribution of the

Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on

Climate Change Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New

York, NY, pp 881

[9] IPCC (2007) climate change 2007: The physical science basis. IPCC working group I fourth

assessment report: summary for policymakers, IPCC, Geneva

[10] Islam AKMS (2008) Analyzing Changes of temperature over Bangladesh due to global

warming using historic data. Institute of water and flood management, Bangladesh

University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka-1000

[11] Karl TR, Jones PD, Knight RW, Kukla G, Plummer N, Razuvayev V, Gallo KP, Lindseay J,

Charlson RJ, Peterson TC (1993)A new Perspective on Recent Global Warming:

Asymmetric Trends of Daily Maximum and Minimum Temperature. Bull Am Meteorol

Soc 74, PP 1007-1023

[12] Karmakar S, Shrestha ML (2000) Recent climate change in Bangladesh. SMRC No 4

SMRC, Dhaka

[13] Mia NM, (2003) Variations of temperature of Bangladesh. In Proceedings of SAARC

Seminars on Climate Variability in the South Asian Region and its Impacts, SMRC, Dhaka

[14] Parthasarathy B, Sontake NA, Monot AA, Kothawale DR (1987) Drought-flood in the

summer monsoon season over different meteorological subdivisions of India for the

period 1871-1984. J Climatology 7, pp 57-70

[15] Peterson T, Connolley W, Fleck J (2008) The myth of the 1970s global cooling scientific

consensus. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 89:1325–1337

[16] Qian Y, Giorgi F (2000) Regional climatic effects of anthropogenic aerosols. The case of

Southwestern China, Geophys Res Let 27: 3521-3524

[17] Quereda SJA, Gil OA, Perez CJ, Olcina CA, Rico AE, Montón C (2000) Climatic warming

in the Spanish Mediterranean: natural trend or urban effect. Clim Chamge 46, 473-483.s

[18] Richard SJT (2012) The economic impact of climate change in the 20th and 21st centuries. J

Clim Change doi: 10.1007/s10584-012-0613-3

[19] Rosenberg S, Vedlitz A, Cowman D, Zahran S (2010) Climate change: a profile of U.S.

climate scientists‟ perspectives. Clim Chang 101(3–4):663–668

[20] Stern N (2007) The economics of climate change: The Stern review. Cambridge University

Press, Cambridge

[21] Zachos J, Pagani M, Sloan L et al (2001) Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global

climate 65 Ma to present. Science 292:686–693

AJASE!!! “Speedy publication service, Online archives, Paperless, web-based peer review

system, Open access policy, Indexing in world known citation databases, Global circulation, Broad international readership and authorship, Online submission

system, Minimum publication charge”



Regional Differentials of Age at First Marriage

among Women in Bangladesh

Mohammad Nazmul Hoq

Lecturer, Department of Business Administration, International Islamic University Chittagong, BANGLADESH

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study is to examine various socio-economic and demographic factors associated with age at first marriage among Bangladeshi women in different divisions. For this purpose the present study utilizes the nationally representative survey data of Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey, (BDHS-2007). The cross-tabulation analysis has been used to estimate the factors affected the use of contraception in Bangladesh. Respondent‟s education, husband‟s education, husband‟s occupation, religion, type place of respondent, socio-economic status, working status of respondent and access to mass media have significant effect on age at first marriage in all divisions. The study shows those respondents who have no education, married at early age and the respondents who have at least secondary education, married at later age in all divisions. Similar pattern to marry at early age has been seen in case of illiterate and service holder husbands. The study also shows that maximum respondents who are not currently working and have no access in mass media married before or at median age (15 years). Keywords: age at first marriage, divisions, socioeconomic and demographic factors, Bangladesh.

1 INTRODUCTION

here are relatively few empirical generalizations about the social and economic determinants of age at marriage. It is generally believed that rural tradition fosters early marriage, while urbanization and other forces of modernization lead to

marriage postponement. Extant data, however, have not always shown this to be true. The most obvious anomaly is the "Western European marriage pattern," which indicates that prior to the Industrial Revolution, women commonly married in their mid- to late twenties (Gaskin, 1978; Hajnal, 1953). Furthermore, there is little evidence which shows homogeneity in the patterns or trends in the timing of nuptiality among less developed non-Western societies. Several studies reveal that the females‟ age at first marriage in Bangladesh is still one of the lowest in the world. Traditionally, Bangladesh has one of the highest rates of child marriage worldwide (Barkat and Majid, 2003) and age at first birth remain relatively low (Bosch et al, 2008). In a study conducted on 43 developing countries, the median age at

T



first marriage of Bangladeshi women was reported to be 14.1 years, the lowest amongst the study countries (Sing and Samara, 1996). Women‟s access to education and to employment has emerged as one of the most important issues in studies of development. Caldwell (1980) and Handwerker (1986) have shown clearly the importance in the Third World of women‟s education in fertility decline. Caldwell (1979), Levine et al. (1991) and Cleland and van Ginneken (1988) have shown the relationship between women‟s education and the lowering of infant mortality. Early marriage which is also referred to as child marriage is common all over the globe and has inflicted dangerous and devastating effects on young children (especially females) who are completed to tie the knot in most cases. While the age at marriage is generally on the rise, early marriage-marriage of children and adolescents below the age of 18 is still widely practiced (UNICEF, 2001). Early marriage of female children is rampant in Bangladesh, especially in slum areas, where there is a noticeable lack of back infrastructure, services and basic shelter. Those areas are characterized by substandard housing and squalor and lacking in tenure security. For female, the problem of early marriage is acute not only in slum areas but throughout the country as well. State‟s legal provision on minimum age at first marriage in Bangladesh generally is 18 years for female to access in marriage relationship. The average age at first marriage for female in Bangladesh is 18.7 years (BBS, 2009).

2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

In this study, an attempt has been made to examine the predictors of age at first marriage in different divisions of Bangladesh. There are many factors that influencing on age at first marriage. Thus, greater attentions have to be paid to find out the factors that are influencing on early marriage and ultimately the growth of population. The objectives of

this research are:

1) To find the percentage of age at first marriage of women by various socio-economic variables according to divisions.

2) To determine whether age at first marriage in different divisions vary among women of Bangladeshi by selected socio-economic and demographic characteristics.

3) To examine the effects of available socio-demographic factors on age at first marriage in different divisions.

3 MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study uses data extracted from the 2007 Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS-2007), which conducted during the period from 24 March to 11 August 2007, on behalf of the Government of Bangladesh by National Institute for Population Research and Training (NIPORT), with funding from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID)/Dhaka. The sampling frame for the survey considered all households in Bangladesh from which a nationally representative sample of 10,819 households was selected; 10,461 were occupied. Of the households occupied, 10,400 (99.4%) were successfully interviewed. In these households, a total of 11,178 ever-married females aged less than 50 years were identified as eligible for individual interview. Of them, 10996 females (or 98.4%) were successfully interviewed. Among the 10996 ever-married females, the numbers of urban and rural respondents are 4151 (37.75%) and 6845 (62.25%), respectively. The sample had been taken 5 years prior to BDHS-2007 survey. Out of 10996 ever-married females, 1348 (12.26%) are found to age under age 20, known as



adolescents. The associations between age at first marriage and selected explanatory variables have been tested by applying cross-tabulation analysis. The cross-tabulation analysis is an important in first step for studying the relationship of age at first marriage with several characteristics. However, such analysis fails to address age at first marriage predictors completely because of ignoring other covariates.

4 ANALYSIS

The distributions of age at first marriage in different divisions by socio-economic, bio-demographic variables are shown in Table. Here median age at first marriage is 15 years. Table 1: Percentage and cross tabulation of Religion and Age at first marriage in different regions:

Divisions Age at first marriage

Religion Chi- square

Significance level Muslim Non-Muslim

Barisal 15 years 63.0(804) 42.6(69) 25.121 0.000

>15 years 37.0(472) 57.4(93)

Chittagong 15 years 54.4(959) 35.6(64) 23.255 0.000

>15 years 45.6(804) 64.4(116)

Dhaka 15 years 63.2(1372) 46.4(78) 18.539 0.000

>15 years 36.8(800) 53.6(90)

Khulna 15 years 67.7(1060) 48.6(71) 21.745 0.000

>15 years 32.3(505) 51.4(75)

Rajshahi 15 years 67.5(1261) 58.7(125) 6.744 0.009

>15 years 32.5(606) 41.3(88)

Sylhet 15 years 45.6(585) 33.7(68) 10.145 0.001

>15 years 54.4(697) 66.3(134)

Table 2: Percentage and cross tabulation of Respondent‟s education and Age at first marriage in different regions:


Respondent‟s education Chi- square

Significance level Illiterate Primary

literate Secondary and higher

Barisal 15 years 76.2(266) 71.3(371) 41.5(236) 148.095 0.000

>15 years 23.8(83) 28.7(149) 58.5(333)

Chittagong 15 years 66.7(437) 63.3(324) 33.8(262) 186.246 0.000

>15 years 33.3(218) 36.7(188) 66.2(514)

Dhaka 15 years 77.8(678) 68.1(402) 42.1(370) 249.963 0.000

>15 years 22.2(193) 31.9(188) 57.9(509)

Khulna 15 years 82.1(432) 75.6(341) 48.8(358) 176.852 0.000

>15 years 17.9(94) 24.4(110) 51.2(376)

Rajshahi 15 years 81.5(605) 79.4(392) 46.1(389) 270.277 0.000

>15 years 18.5(137) 20.6(102) 53.9(455)

Sylhet 15 years 57.8(396) 40.3(164) 23.7(93) 120.689 0.000

>15 years 42.2(289) 59.7(243) 76.3(299)



Table 3: Percentage and cross tabulation of Husband‟s education and Age at first marriage in different regions:


Husband‟s education Chi- square

Significance level Illiterate Primary

literate Secondary and higher

Barisal 15 years 73.2(292) 71.1(290) 46.1(291) 100.744 0.000

>15 years 26.8(107) 28.9(118) 53.9(340)


>15 years 33.9(207) 41.1(197) 60.5(516)

Dhaka 15 years 75.2(689) 66.9(322) 46.6(439) 168.360 0.000

>15 years 24.8(227) 33.1(159) 53.4(504)

Khulna 15 years 79.0(459) 74.5(307) 50.8(365) 130.839 0.000

>15 years 21.0(122) 25.5(105) 49.2(353)

Rajshahi 15 years 81.3(597) 75.6(343) 50.0(446) 198.597 0.000

>15 years 18.7(137) 24.4(111) 50.0(446)

Sylhet 15 years 56.2(342) 42.9(179) 28.8(132) 79.553 0.000

>15 years 43.8(267) 57.1(238) 71.2(326)

Table 4: Percentage and cross tabulation of Type of place of residence and Age at first marriage in different regions:


Type of place of residence Chi- square

Significance level Rural Urban

Barisal 15 years 67.2(625) 48.8(248) 46.557 0.000

>15 years 32.8(305) 51.2(260)


>15 years 44.3(532) 52.4(388)

Dhaka 15 years 70.0(879) 52.6(571) 74.866 0.000

>15 years 30.0(376) 47.4(514)

Khulna 15 years 71.0(766) 57.8(365) 31.173 0.000

>15 years 29.0(313) 42.2(267)

Rajshahi 15 years 72.1(992) 56.0(394) 54.481 0.000

>15 years 27.9(384) 44.0(310)

Sylhet 15 years 46.1(462) 39.7(191) 5.325 0.021

>15 years 53.9(541) 60.3(290)

Table 5: Percentage and cross tabulation of Husband‟s occupation and Age at first marriage in different regions:


Husband‟s occupation Chi- square

Significa nce level Agriculture Business Service Others

Barisal 15 years 71.7(218) 54.8(194) 49.8(118) 63.2(343) 33.827 0.000

>15 years 28.3(86) 45.2(160) 50.2(119) 36.8(200)

Chittagong 15 years 63.1(209) 47.9(218) 41.9(116) 54.5(480) 32.876 0.000

>15 years 36.9(122) 52.1(237) 58.1(161) 45.5(400)



Dhaka 15 years 76.9(387) 59.9(328) 42.0(147) 62.6(588) 108.251 0.000

>15 years 23.1(116) 40.1(220) 58.0(203) 37.4(351)

Khulna 15 years 72.4(325) 64.1(291) 40.9(74) 70.3(441) 65.104 0.000

>15 years 27.6(124) 35.9(163) 59.1(107) 29.7(186)

Rajshahi 15 years 75.7(523) 63.1(274) 40.2(86) 67.9(503) 95.709 0.000

>15 years 24.3(168) 36.9(160) 59.8(128) 32.1(238)

Sylhet 15 years 44.9(153) 40.8(150) 33.5(57) 48.4(293) 14.053 0.003

>15 years 55.1(188) 59.2(218) 66.5(113) 51.6(312)

Table 6: Percentage and cross tabulation of Respondent‟s working status and Age at first marriage in different regions:


Respondent currently working Chi- square

Significance level No Yes

Barisal 15 years 61.4(701) 41.9(124) 1.057 0.304

>15 years 38.6(441) 58.1(172)


>15 years 49.8(761) 61.7(256)

Dhaka 15 years 58.9(929) 31.7(242) 19.171 0.000

>15 years 41.1(648) 68.3(521)

Khulna 15 years 63.3(673) 29.3(190) 9.753 0.002

>15 years 36.7(390) 70.7(458)

Rajshahi 15 years 63.7(770) 29.3(255) 11.268 0.001

>15 years 36.3(439) 70.7(616)

Sylhet 15 years 42.4(527) 47.5(114) 8.390 0.004

>15 years 57.6(717) 52.5(126)

Table 7: Percentage and cross tabulation of Access to mass media and Age at first marriage in different regions:


Access to mass media Chi- square

Significance level No access Have access

Barisal 15 years 72.6(458) 51.4(415) 66.459 0.000

>15 years 27.4(173) 48.6(392)


>15 years 35.3(247) 54.1(673)

Dhaka 15 years 77.0(471) 56.7(979) 79.066 0.000

>15 years 23.0(141) 43.3(749)

Khulna 15 years 75.8(423) 61.4(708) 34.804 0.000

>15 years 24.2(135) 38.6(445)

Rajshahi 15 years 80.1(559) 59.8(827) 85.496 0.000

>15 years 19.9(139) 40.2(555)

Sylhet 15 years 50.4(346) 38.5(307) 21.007 0.000

>15 years 49.6(341) 61.5(490)

Table 8: Percentage and cross tabulation of Socio-economic status and Age at first marriage in different regions:




Socio-economic status Chi- square

Significance level Poor Middle Rich

Barisal 15 years 71.5(454) 62.1(211) 44.9(208) 79.598 0.000

>15 years 28.5(181) 37.9(129) 55.1(255)


>15 years 34.1(171) 43.0(192) 56.0(557)

Dhaka 15 years 75.6(565) 67.1(206) 52.8(679) 108.512 0.000

>15 years 24.4(182) 32.9(101) 47.2(607)

Khulna 15 years 76.9(393) 76.3(274) 55.2(464) 88.202 0.000

>15 years 23.1(118) 23.7(85) 44.8(377)

Rajshahi 15 years 77.0(668) 74.1(269) 52.9(449) 122.907 0.000

>15 years 23.0(200) 25.9(94) 47.1(400)

Sylhet 15 years 49.6(252) 46.2(129) 39.0(272) 14.049 0.001

>15 years 50.4(256) 53.8(150) 61.0(425)

5 DISCUSSION

The distributions of age at first marriage by socio-economic and bio-demographic variables are shown in the table. Table-1 shows the percentages of Muslim and Non-Muslim respondents‟ marriage before or at and after median age. It is seen that among divisions, in Khulna and Rajshahi Muslims are married early with compare to other divisions. 67.7 percent Muslim in Khulna and 67.5 percent in Rajshahi are married before or at median age where as the next successive rates are 63.2 (Dhaka), 63.0 (Barisal), 54.4 (Chittagong) and 45.6 (Sylhet). Table-1 also represents that Non-Muslims are more conscious about marriage than Muslim counterparts. Non-Muslim respondents, 66.3 percent in Sylhet and 64.4 percent in Chittagong, are married after median age. Chi-square test exhibits that there is a highly association between age at first marriage and religion in all divisions. It is noticed from table-2 that respondent‟s education has strong significant effect on age at first marriage in all divisions. Illiterate respondents married early in all divisions. Most early marriage occurred in Khulna (82.1 percent) and Rajshahi (81.5 percent). Among primary literate respondents 79.4 percent in Rajshahi , 75.6 percent in Khulna and 71.3 percent in Barisal married before or at median age. On the other hand, most respondents in all divisions with secondary and higher education married at later ages. 76.3 percent in Sylhet, 66.2 percent in Chittagong married after median age. Table-3 summarizes the information of husband‟s education and age at first marriage in different regions. Chi-square test indicates that husband‟s education has highly significant association with age at first marriage of women in all divisions. Almost three-forth of illiterate husbands in Barisal, Dhaka, Khulna and Rajshahi divisions married before or at median age. Primary literate husband‟s almost following the similar pattern as like as illiterate husband in all divisions except in Sylhet division. But the respondents who have secondary educated husband married at later age. This tendency has seen in all divisions except in Khulna (49.2 percent) and Rajshahi (50 percent). Chi-square test in table-4 shows the significant relation of type of place of residence and age at first marriage in different divisions. It is seen that rural respondents married early than their counterpart urban respondents. In sylhet division 46.1 percent rural



respondents married before or at median age. Most of the rural respondents except in Sylhet division married at early age. This pattern is not followed by urban respondents. 51.2, 52.4 and 60.3 percent urban respondents in Barisal, Chittagong and Sylhet divisions respectively married after median age. Husband‟s occupation has significant effect on age at first marriage of women. The data show (in table-5) that most women whose husbands are in agriculture and others category married before or at median age except in Sylhet division. Most of the respondents whose husbands are in service holder married at later age. More than half Business holder husbands in Barisal, Dhaka, Khulna and Rajshahi married early that amounts are 54.8, 59.9, 64.1 and 63.1 percent respectively. Table-6 provides information on respondent‟s working status and age at first marriage. The chi-square test indicates that there is a significant association between working status of respondents and age at first marriage of women in all divisions except in Barisal division. The respondents who are currently working have tendency to marry at later age. However, pattern of early marriage has been seen in the „no‟ working category respondents except those who are in Sylhet division (42.4 percent). From table-7 it is seen that more than half respondents who have no access in mass media married before or at median age. Table shows that 54.1 and 61.5 percent respondents, having access in mass media, married after median age in Chittagong and Sylhet divisions respectively. Chi-square test indicates a highly significant association between access to mass media and age at first marriage. Table-8 presents the information of socio-economic status and age at first marriage in different divisions. More than two-third poor women in Barisal, Dhaka, Khulna and Rajshahi divisions married before or at median age. About three-forth middle class women in Khulna and Rajshahi married at early age. Women who belong to upper society in Barisal, Chittagong and Sylhet divisions married after median age that accounts 55.1, 56.0 and 61.0 percent respectively. Chi-square test presents highly association between socio-economic status and age at first marriage of female respondents.

6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study investigates the predictors of age at first marriage in Bangladesh among female in different divisions. It has been utilized the national representative data from the Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS -2007). Cross-tabulation technique has been applied to identify the predictors of age at first marriage. Since age at first marriage is one of the important proximate determinants of population size in all divisions, the present study analyzes the age at first marriage of female respondents. The median age at first marriage is found to be 15 years, which is 3 years less than legal age at first marriage of females in Bangladesh. The result suggests that early marriage among females is a multidimensional phenomenon. None the less, chi-square analysis exhibits that all explanatory variables here such as respondent‟s education, husband‟s education, socio-economic status, access to mass media, type of place of residence, religion and respondents working status are important in explaining differentials of age at marriage of the Bangladeshi adolescents. Of the entire variables respondent‟s education, husband‟s education and access to mass media makes by far the strongest contribution to the variability in age at first marriage of the women in Bangladesh. The findings of the present study have clear policy implications. To increase age at first marriage to check the growth rate of population, topmost importance should be attached to education of the respondents. If literacy rate can be increased it would develop a sense



of national awareness and wide outlook among them. Hence, all-out efforts should be taken to weed out female‟s illiteracy. Initiatives must also be taken to ensure at least secondary education level among girls. In this context, possibility of free education for females up to secondary level can be justified, which will accelerate the females towards higher ages at first marriage. Husband‟s level of education has impact on age at first marriage. Hence, it can be suggested that male‟s educational must be improved which will help to reduce childhood marriage. Women who are currently working are more aware of their marriage. For this reason the Government should come forward to create job opportunities for women. Geographical region of residence is found to be a significant predictor of age at first marriage. Therefore, economic disparity should be reduced and uniform distribution of national income must be ensured across the country. If the aforementioned recommendations can be implemented properly, the age of first marriage of women will be increased at expected level and accordingly the rate of infant and maternal mortality can be reduced, which occur due to conception in early age.

REFERENCES

[1] Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, BBS (2009). Statistical Pocket Book of Bangladesh. Ministry of Planning, Government of the People‟s Republic of Bangladesh, Dhaka: Statistics Division.

[2] Barbara Von Elm and Charles Hirschman. 1979 “Age at First Marriage in Peninsular Malaysia”. Journal of Marriage and Family 41 (November) : 887-891.

[3] Barkat, A. and M. Majid. 2003. “Adolescent reproductive health in Bangladesh: Status, policies, programs and issues.” POLICY Project Report, USAID Asia/Near East Bureau.

[4] Bosch, A. M, F. J. Willekens, A. Baqui, J. K. S. Van Ginneken and I. Hutter. 2008. “Association between age at menerche and early life nutritional status in rural Bangladesh.” Journal of Biosocial Science, 40: 223-237.

[5] Caldwell, J.C. 1979. “Education as a factor in mortality decline: An examination of Nigeriandata”. Population Studies, 33(3): 395-412. 1980. “Mass education as a determinant of the timing of fertility decline.” Population and Development Review, 6: 225-255.

[6] Cleland, J.G. & J.K. Van Ginneken 1988. “Maternal education and child survival in developing countries: The search for pathways of influence.” Social Science and Medicine, 27(12): 1357-1368.

[7] David Glass and D. E. Eversley (Eds.), 1965 "European marriage patterns in perspective." Pp. 101-143 in, Population in History. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company.

[8] Gaskin, Katharine 1978 "Age at first marriage in Europe before 1850: A summary of family reconstitution data." Journal of Family History 3 (Spring):23-36.

[9] Hajnal.John 1953 "Age at marriage and proportions marrying." Population Studies 7(2):111-136. [10] Handwerker, H.P. 1986. The modern demographic transition: An analysis of subsistence choice

and reproductive consequences. American Anthropologist, 88: 400-417. [11] Levine, R.A., S.E. Levine, A. Richman, F.M.T. Uribe, C.S. Correa & P.M. Miller 1991. Women‟s

schooling and child care in the demographic transition: A Mexican case study. Population and Development Review, 17(3): 459-496.

[12] Mitra and Associates 2008“Bangladesh Demographic and Health survey, 2007”, National Institute of Population Research and Training (NIPORT), Dhaka, Bangladesh, ORC Macro, Calverton, Maryland USA.

[13] Sing,s S and R. Samara. 1996. “Early marriage among women in developing countries.” International Family Planning Perspectives, 22: 148–157 & 175.

[14] UNICEF (2001). Early Marriage. Innocenti Digest, No. 7. Innocenti Centre, Florence, Italy.

Integrated Geophysical Characterization of



Subsurface conditions around Ilesha Dumpsite:

Case of Southwestern Nigeria

Fajana Akindeji Opeyemi

Lecturer, Department of Geophysics, Federal University, Oye, NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

The possible existence of latent subsurface structures as conduit for leachate and contaminant potential of pollution plumes from waste disposal/dump site along Ilesha-Ife express road, 1.5 km from Iwara junction, Ilesha was investigated. The depth to bedrock, distribution and orientation of fractures, probable zones of leachate concentrations, if any, and rate of transport of the contaminants from the dumpsite within the subsurface were investigated using a total of fifty-five(55) Vertical electrical sounding points along ten(10) profiles within the vicinity of the site and one(1) profile (control) outside the area at about 300m from the dumpsite, four(4) 2-D Wenner Electrical resistivity and four(4) profiles of Very low frequency EM method of geophysical investigations. The area shows a wide distribution of conductive zones which are mostly depicted in up –dip incline pattern and occur as pockets of conductive bodies as observed from Karous Filtering Pseudosection.. The top layer has a resistive cover material of 34-950Ωm and varies in thickness. The second layer is a low resistive zone of 10-130Ωm and indicate a zone of fluid/ leachate activities. The weathered layer is thicker in areas with fractures in the bedrock. The third layer is a more resistive layer >200Ωm which is the basement rock that underlies the study area. The 2-D electrical imaging result reveals a low resistivity signature in the eastern parts of the site and relatively higher resistivity in the western parts which indicate presence of leachate/fluid activities in the eastern part. The cross-sectional map of the site revealed that the concentration of the contaminants was restricted to a particular zone and the leachate flows towards the Eastern direction of the dump site area and there are presences of near surface linear structures that may act as conduit for leachate emanating from the dumpsite. Key words: Dumpsite, Leachate, Geoelectric section, conductivity, bedrock

1 INTRODUCTION

aste disposal is highly essential in man‟s daily activities and also are potentially sources of pollution to the environment, over the decades there had been increasing concern of environmental pollution over the public health of the

populace. Poor management of solid wastes materials leads to potentially disastrous environmental and health hazards. Among health hazards that have resulted from the lack

W



of an effective disposal system are periodic epidemics and communicable diseases. Ground water pollution in and around a waste disposer site occurs due solely to the contaminants potential of leachate (i.e. fluids residing beneath the dumping site) from the wastes. These leachates are solution or suspensions of stabilize, essentially organic or inorganic complexes of biodegradation of components of solid wastes flowing out from the refuse dumps, saturated with rainwater flowing through them. (De Rooy, C., 1986;). A dumpsite should be chosen so as to ensure minimal environmental impact in the surrounding areas. The dumpsite (located in Ilesa express way, Nigeria) was sited on the basement complex rocks. The rocks of the area are structurally stable, though a system of joints and fractures exist in the area. These joints and fractures could serve as migration channels for leachates (pollution plumes) to establish contact with the environment Olayinka, A. I., Abimbola, A. F., Isibor, R. A. and Rafiu, A. R. 1999. However, non-invasive geophysical techniques (Electromagnetic and DC Resistivity methods) were applied to study the area. Conductivity geophysical techniques can be used to map out areas where conductive materials are concentrated while the resistivity geophysical techniques have the potential of not only mapping the dumpsites, but can also reveal potential pollution plumes and their direction of migration and therefore provide a basis for remediation if the environment is under threat. Geological Setting

The geology of ilesa on co-ordinates 7°37'46"N 4°45'25"E consists of Precambrian rocks that are typical for the basement Complex of Nigeria (Rahaman, 1976). The major rock associated with Ilesa area form part of the Proterozoic schist belts of Nigeria, which are predominantly, developed in the western half of the country. In terms of structural features, lithology and mineralization, the schist belts of Nigeria show considerable similarities to the Achaean Green Stone Belts. However, the latter usually contain much larger proportions of mafic and ultramafic bodies and assemblages of lower metamorphic grade ( Rahaman, 1976) Rocks in this area are structurally divided into two main segments by two major fracture zones often called the Iwaraja faults in the eastern part and the Ifewara faults in the western part (Jones H.A. and Hockey R.D., 1964). The rocks of the Ilesa district may be broadly grouped into gneiss-migmatite complex, mafic-ultramafic suite (or amphibolites complex), meta-sedimentary assemblages and intrusive suite of granitic rocks. Study Location The Ilesa dumpsite is located at the outskirt of the town. It is located along Ilesa-Ife express road. Villages such as iwara, ifetepe, etc exist few hundred metres away from the site. The site is on high elevation and situated on basement complex. There is a river channel a few metres away from the dumpsite that cut across the main road to the other side of the road to the villages .The dumpsite covers an area of 200 by 250 meters. Objectives

Objectives of this research are: i. To determine the overburden thickness/depth to bedrock

ii. To delineate subsurface contaminated zone, if any iii. Establishment of structural control/direction within subsurface profile iv. To reveal potential pollution plumes and their direction of migration. Material and methods



Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES), constant separation technique (CST) and Very Low Frequency Electromagnetic (VLF-EM) methods were used to carry out geophysical investigation of the study area. These are electrical resistivity and electromagnetic methods respectively. The electrical techniques require the measurement of potential differences in the ground between suitably implanted electrodes (Keller, G.V. and Frischknecht, F.C. 1966). The electromagnetic technique detects subsurface conductivity anomalies remotely; they do not need contact with the ground. Is an inductive technique which relies on Very Low Frequency horizontal EM signals from remote military transmitters as an electrical source. Localized conductors, such as water-filled fractures, cause angular disturbances in this signal (Barker, R.D., 1981). A total of fifty five (55) Vertical Electrical Soundings were carried out round the waste dumpsite. The Schlumberger electrode configuration was used with half electrode spacing AB/2 varying from 1 to 150m and station spacing is 50m was adopted. The ABEM Resistivity meter was used for resistance measurements. Field data were plotted on bi-logarithmic graph and a preliminary interpretation was carried out using partial curve matching involving two-layer master curves and the appropriate auxiliary charts. This procedure is known as quantitative interpretation. The layered model thus obtained served as input for an inversion algorithm using the software called RESIST (Zordy 1989). The conductivity survey using WADI ABEM instrument was carried out beginning from North to South and from east to West Respectively. 10m spacing was adopted for each profile with minimum of 200m in the N-S direction and Maximum of about 380m in the E-W directions. The operating frequency for the EM survey was 15.8 Hz with station distance and other conductivity parameters such as Raw Real, Filtered Real, Raw imaginary, Filtered Imaginary were downloaded immediately after the field work for analysis.

2 Results and Discussion

VLF- EM The interpretation of VLF profile is mere qualitative and this involves visual inspection of the profile for points where the maximum peak of the Filtered Real coincides with the point of inflection of raw real as such points are usually suggestive of presence of conductive (weak) zones. Several of such points were identified on the profiles; furthermore, the presence of multiple peak Positive filtered real anomalies (as observed on the profiles) is suggestive of inhomogeneity of near surface material. The plots of filtered real are presented as profiles (Figures 2a-d) while their corresponding Karous-Hiljet (K-H) pseudo sections are shown in Figures 2a(iii)-d(iii) respectively. The interpretation of these profiles and pseudo sections were basically qualitative or semi quantitative. Figure (2a-d) shows the corresponding K-H pseudo section of the profile. The pseudo section is a measure of conductivity of the subsurface as a function of depth. The conductivity is shown as colour codes with conductivity increasing from left to right (that is, from negative to positive). Different features of varying degree of conductivity trending in different directions were delineated on the section. EM Traverse 1 shows about 3-regions of high conductivities, that is, regions in which high peak are observed at 20m, 50m, 100m and at about 200m respectively. Fig. 2a(i-iii). These points indicate possible presence conductive fluid within soil/rock pores, joints and fractures. EM Traverse 2- has about 20 point stations with maximum distance of 200m along which measurements are taken in the N-S direction (Fig. 2b). The EM shows maximum peak at



about 100m indicating presence of conductive medium, that is, conductive fluids may be located along faults and fractures. Other points on the profile show low to very low conductivity peak hence constitute region of relatively high resistivity or low conductive zones. EM Traverse 3 is about 400m in length and measurement was taken in the E-W direction. This part of Ilesa waste dumpsite has series of high conductivity peak such Station points include 50m, 110m, 170, 230, 300m and 380m. Hjelt Karous Pseudosection indicates series of pocket of high conductivities. Other areas of high resistivity are also delineated. This invariably has physiographical and hydrogeological implications since the western part indicate points of depression towards the minor drainage located at about 100m from the waste dumpsite. EM Profile 4 is also about 400m long the measurement was also taken in the E-W direction. The Karous filter indicates high conductivities at about 130m, 240m and 350m respectively, along the profile. Some structures were seen dipping in the west direction Figure (4d). These also corroborate the VES profile 4 where low resistivity was recorded in some areas.

3 Vertical Electrical Sounding

This entails the use of current flow via the movement of ions in groundwater. In environmental surveys, electrolytic conduction is probably the more common mechanism. Electrical resistivity of weathered layer are controlled by the degree of water saturation (Odusanya and Amadi 1990). Resistivity of rocks is greatly dependent on the degree of fracturing and percentage of fracture filled with ground water. In all 11 profiles of VES were carried out with VES stations surrounding the four coners of the dumpsite with the view to decipher the site subsurface geometry and condtions. VES stations are 30m apart(station interval) and N-S side has 3 profiles each and are 20m apart from one another. The E-W side has 2 profiles each and consitiute the longest part of the site .The remaining one profile consitiute the control for the site and is located at about 150m from the site across the road. PROFILE 1:- This profile [VES 1-5], as shown by geoelectric section, is on higher elevation. The top soil resistivity values range from 72Ωm-381Ωm. it has one of the thinnest top layers with the highest value of 1.4m. Overburden thickness from occurs from 5.0m to 9.0m with resistivity values range from 34Ωm to 94Ωm. the resistivity values indicate presence of saturated clay/sandy clay. These resistivity values show no trace or rather negligible level of contamination. PROFILE 4: Includes VES 16-21; The top soil resistivity ranges from 34Ωm to 440Ωm with maximum thickness of about 1.5m. The overburden layer is thicker at the centre and the resistivity values range from 19Ωm to 133Ωm. Most of the resistivity here falls within clay. The 3rd layer which is the basement rock has resistivity range between 703Ωm and 1574Ωm. the geoelectric section shows that most part of the profile is fresh basement rock with few fractures/joints. VES 21 has lowest value of 703Ωm indicating possible fracture but there may be possibility of insipient cumulative effect of the above overburden layer with resistive value of 19Ωm which inadvertently leads to lower resistivity in the basement rock. PROFILE 5 : This consists of VES 26-35. This profile also showcased thin Top soil layer (0.5m-3.3m) with resistivity range between 104Ωm-338Ωm. It is note worthy that the resistivity curve is H-type which is typical of a basement complex. The overburden



thickness varies from 6.5m to 40m. The highest thickness obtainable here is at VES point 31, about 200m from the East of the site. The overburden resistivity range occurs between 33Ωm-86Ωm. this value indicate possible presence of Lateritic Clay with high fluid saturation. PROFILE 6 :-This consists of VES 35-40. The top soil has thickness range from 1.4m - 4.3m with resistivity range occurring between 57Ωm - 172Ωm. the overburden layer has thickness down to about 45m with resistivity signature ranging from 35Ωm to 167Ωm indicating presence of fluid saturated clay. The basement rock occurs at depth greater than 30m and most of the resistivity values are greater than 1100Ωm.

4 2-D Electrical Tomography

Pseudo-sections shown by figure (5) is the results of the inversion of the 2D-resistivity data obtained in the area. It is the interpreted pseudosection of the 2-D profile running from E-W over a distance of 200m few meters away from the dumpsite. The Pseudosection shows three pronounced layers of different resistivities. The top layer which is about 3m shows resistivities range between 49 and 197 Ωm. This represents the resistivity of the top soils which is thinner in some parts of the dumpsite. The areas with thin top soil coincide with the ones in figures (3) where conductivities are seen to be high. The imaging Pseudosection reveals the existence of shallow water level at the northern part of the site. This part is close to the small drainage running from east to west and located about 100m from the dumpsite. The middle layer is represented by very low resistivity values (12-25Ωm). The low resistivity area is interpreted as area of low to medium leachates activities. From the cross-sections the thickness of the layer can be estimated to be up to ten meters. The bottom layer seen on the interpreted 2-D section represents the basement rock of the dumpsite. This layer is represented by higher resistivity values (greater than 500Ωm). The average depth to fresh rock ranges between 21m to depth.

5 Conclusion

Detailed geological, electrical and conductivity survey was carried out so as to unravel the implication of Ilesa waste dumpsite on the surface and ground water within its vicinity. The electromagnetic data also corroborate the electrical resistivity data in that, conductivity anomalies are very prominent and exist at high frequency in the Northern part compared to any other part of the site. Hence confirm the presence of high conductivity zones/fractures and joints under and within the vicinity of the Ilesa waste dumpsite. These fractures and joints are believed to be filled with conductive fluid such as water.Resistivity Data within the overburden layer indicates certain level of leachate contamination from the surface waste dump. This is reflected in the resistivity value of 15Ωm, 12Ωm, 12Ωm at VES 9, 13 and 14 respectively. While other resistivity value in the overburden layer is between 22Ωm and 100Ωm, these probably indicate the presence of lateritic clay/clayey sand. The presence of fractured basement as indicated by VLF data and electrical resistivity values may act as a transmitting medium for leachate that may subsequently emanate from waste dump on the surface.The 2-D imaging Pseudosection indicate possible occurrence of leachate activities between VES 8 and 10. It also confirm shallow occurrence of groundwater level which invariably implies the possibility of leachate entering into the ground water level within short human and geological time. The middle layer is represented by very low resistivity values (12-25Ωm). The low resistivity area is interpreted as area of low to medium leachates activities. The result of the electrical



resistivity survey reveals three(3) and four(4) geoelectric layers with 84.9% and 15.1% respectively

6 Recommendation

Since the Ilesa waste dump site was not properly investigated before usage, detailed geotechnical and geochemical analysis must be carried out to unravel the other necessary parameters for the characterization of the subsurface within and around Ilesa waste dumpsite. These parameters to be determined include permeability, compressibility factors, bearing capacity, clay mineral types, consolidation factor, porosity, geochemical analysis such as determination of presence and concentration of heavy mineral. Geophysical and geotechnical investigation must be carried out on any other proposed waste dumpsite before usage so as to allow easy access to the site for detailed investigation and to reduce geophysical noise.

REFERENCES

[1] Barker, R.D., 1981. The offset system of electrical resistivity sounding and its use with a multicore cable. Geophysical Prospecting, Vol. 29, pp. 128-143.

[2] Beard, L.P. and Morgan, F.D., 1991. Assessment of 2-D resistivity structures using 1-D inversion. Geophysics, 56, pp. 874-883.

[3] De Rooy, C., 1986., Use of the electromagnetic method for groundwater prospecting in Nigeria. Proceedings of the First Annual Symposium, Nigeria Water and Sanitation Association, July 1986. Lagos, pp. 45-67.

[4] Jones H.A. and Hockey R.D., 1964. The Geology of parts of Southwestern Nigeria. Geological Survey of Nigeria bull, 31, pp. 1-10.

[5] Kearey and Brooks, M. 1984. An introduction to Geophysical Exploration, Dept of Geology, University of Bristol, pp. 420.

[6] Keller, G.V. and Frischknecht, F.C. 1966. Electrical Method in Geophysical Prospecting. Pergamon Press. Oxford. pp. 523.

[7] Olayinka, A. I., Abimbola, A. F., Isibor, R. A. and Rafiu, A. R. 1999. A Geoelectrical-hydro-geological Investigation of Shallow Groundwater Occurence in Ibadan, Southwestern Nigeria. Environmental Geology, 37 (1-2): 31-39.

[8] Olayinka, A.I., Amidu, S.A. and Oladunjoye, M.A. 2004. Use of Electromagnetic Profiling and Resistivity Sounding for Groundwater Exploration in the Crystalline Basement Area of Igbetti, Southwestern Nigeria. Environmental Geology, 2 (2): 243-253.

[9] Rahaman, M.A., 1976. Review of the basement geology of the southwestern Nigeria. Geology of Nigeria, Elizabeth Publishing Co. Surulere, Lagos, pp. 41-58.

[10] Zobdy, A.A.R., 1989. A new method for the automatic interpretation of schlumberger and wenner sounding curves, Geophysics, 54, pp. 245-253.



FIGURE 2a (i) Filtered Real profile 1 ( ii) Fraser filtering of profile 1 (iii) Karous-Hjelt filtering of profile 1

VES 13 VES 14



FIGURE 2b (i) Filtered Real profile 2 ( ii) Fraser filtering of profile 2 (iii) Karous-Hjelt filtering of profile 2

VES 2



FIGURE 2c (i) Filtered Real profile 3 (ii) Fraser filtering of profile 3 (iii) Karous-Hjelt filtering of profile 3

VES 5 VES 6 VES 7 VES 12 VES 10

Region of Low resistivity in

2D



FIGURE 2d (i) Filtered Real profile 4 (ii) Fraser filtering of profile 4 (iii) Karous-Hjelt filtering of profile 4

VES 16 VES 21



FIGURE 3 : Geo-electric section for profiles 1 and 4 forming 3-D view

FIGURE 4: showing Geo-electric section for profiles 5 and 6 forming 3-D view



Fig. (5); Showing 2-D resistivity Pseudo section with low resistivity region at the eastern section of the site.

Important!!!

If the responses and the revised manuscript are not submitted by the

deadline, submission is deemed to have been abandoned. The

rejection of the manuscript will be conveyed to the Authors. AJASE



Wireless Internet Service and Customer

Satisfaction: A Case Study on Young


Papri Shanchita Roy

Lecturer (Statistics), Department of Business Administration, Stamford University BANGLADESH

ABSTRACT

As a developing country, Bangladesh has done remarkably well in last couple of years in case of adopting internet technology. This study examines whether there is difference in satisfaction between male and female youngsters in respect of 14 variables. To achieve this objective total 100 youngsters have been considered. The difference in satisfaction is determined by one-way ANOVA analysis. The findings reveal that there are only three variables in which there is difference in satisfaction between male and female youngsters. Key-words: Wireless internet, Customer satisfaction, Variables, Male, Female.

1 INTRODUCTION

here are two basic types of wireless Internet: a wireless Internet connection through a device called a router (this type of wireless Internet is called WiFi), and then there is wireless Internet access through the cell phone network. Wireless routers are very

common in homes, offices, and "wireless hotspots" is found at coffee shops, airports, and elsewhere. These are basically just small electronic "boxes" that hook up to Internet connection so people can share the connection between several computers, or simply to give the freedom to place computer wherever people want, and not just next to the cable or phone outlet. The cell phone data network (wireless Internet through the cell phone network in other words) of course is very widespread -- pretty much everywhere where people can get a cell signal -- and can be used not only with a cell phone but also with a growing number of computers. Now if people want to get really technical, these two types of wireless Internet work differently. But in a general sense, if people simplify things and explain them in a basic way that will make sense to the average person, they both work along the same general lines. With a portable phone, something most of us have in our home, the phone has two parts: a handset and a cradle. The cradle gets plugged into the phone line -- the connection to the phone network -- and takes that connection and broadcasts it via radio waves more or less in all directions. If the handset is within range of the signal, it picks up this signal and relays the telephone connection so you can make or receive a call. Wireless Internet, whether its via a cell network or a wireless router, works the same basic way: people have a connection to the Internet, which is sent out wirelessly

T



to a receiver of some sort, very much like a portable phone cradle sends out the telephone connection to the handset. The broadcast can come from a wireless router hooked up to a cable or DSL Internet connection, or the broadcast can be from a cell phone tower hooked into the cell phone network and relaying the Internet connection. On the other end people have a "handset", which is a receiver in a computer, smart phone, or other device. This could be a WiFi card in a laptop or desktop computer for the one type of wireless Internet, or a receiver in a cell phone or laptop using the cell data network. Researchers have focused on antecedents of customer satisfaction because customer‟s satisfaction is generally assumed to be a significant determinant of repeat sales, positive „word-of-mouth‟, and consumer loyalty (Bearden and Teel, 1983). Although the subject of satisfaction has been discussed extensively in the literature of information systems, e-commerce and marketing (DeLone and McLean, 1992; Liu et al., 2008), the exploration of antecedents to customer satisfaction with wireless internet service is still in its infancy. Unfortunately, there has been very little research on overall consumer‟s satisfaction of the wireless internet service market of Bangladesh. The purpose of this study is to explore the difference in satisfaction between male and female youngsters about the wireless internet service in Bangladesh.

2 Review of the Literature

Services have been studied extensively since 1980s. The idea of linking service value and customer‟s satisfaction has existed for a long time. Customer satisfaction has been studied and recognized as an important factor in the management literature for the past few decades. Studies indicate that there are links among customer satisfaction, customer loyalty, and profitability. During recent years, there have been studies that have established mechanisms that attempt to link customer‟s satisfaction and customer loyalty. Many studies additionally attempt to establish connections between service quality, customer satisfaction, customer loyalty, and profitability (Grönroos, 1978, Grönroos, 1980, Grönroos, 1982, Parasuraman et al., 1985, Reichheld and Sasser, 1990, Sewell and Brown, 1990, Jones and Sasser, 1995, Heskett, 1997, Anderson and Mittal, 2000). Customer satisfaction generally means customer reaction to the state of fulfillment, and customer judgment of the fulfilled state (Oliver, 1996). In this paper, we borrow this definition of customer satisfaction. There are many benefits for a company from a high customer‟s satisfaction level. It heightens customer loyalty and prevents customer churn, lowers customers‟ price sensitivity, reduces the costs of failed marketing and of new customer creation, reduces operating costs due to customer number increases, improves the effectiveness of advertising, and enhances business reputation (Fornell, 1992). The main factor determining customer satisfaction is the customers‟ own perceptions of service quality (Zeithamal & Bitner, 1996). In this study, we shall define service quality as the customers‟ satisfaction or dissatisfaction formed by their experience of purchase and use of the service (Parasuraman, Zeithamal, & Berry, 1994). As a general rule, customer satisfaction and customer loyalty are very closely related. Customer‟s satisfaction functions as an antecedent of customer loyalty. It prevents customer churn and consolidates retention, thereby constituting an important cause of customer loyalty (Fornell, 1992; Reichheld, 1996). Further, while affected by market structure, customer type and customers‟ individual ways of solving problems, the connection between customer satisfaction and customer loyalty is not always a linear relation, although it constitutes a positive relation-ship (Fornell, 1992; Soderlund, 1998).



And when customers switch the service provider, they tend to perceive the burden of risks which becomes the switching barrier that influences customer loyalty.

3 Objectives of the Study

The objective of the study is to determine whether there is difference in satisfaction of male and female youngsters in Bangladesh regarding wireless internet service in respect of 14 variables.

4 Methodology of the Study

The data has been collected from 100 students (50 female and 50 male) of different universities in Dhaka on random basis using a structured survey questionnaire. The study period is limited to August-October, 2012. The data has been analyzed through one-way ANOVA technique. The secondary sources are different articles, websites and books.

5 Empirical Data Analysis

In this study, at first the authors tried to find out from which wireless internet service provider, the customers were taking service previous and are using at present.

Table-1: Previous Internet Service Provider

Internet service provider Frequency Cumulative frequency

GP 36 36.0

Banglalink 7 43.0

Robi 3 46.0

Airtel 8 54.0

Citycell 17 71.0

Teletalk 1 72.0

Qubee 15 87.0

Banglalion 13 100.0

Total 100

Table-2: Current Internet Service Provider


GP 18 18.0

Banglalink 3 21.0

Robi 6 27.0

Airtel 11 38.0

Citycell 9 47.0

Qubee 23 70.0

Banglalion 25 95.0

Ollo 5 100.0

Total 100

By comparing table-1 and table-2, we find that the number of users of GP, Banglalink and Citycell has decreased whereas the number of customers of Robi, Airtel,Qubee and Banglalion has increased. It is worth mentioning here that the frequency of Teletalk was 1 in previous and at present none is its customer and Ollo is the new addition now.



Table-3: Duration of wireless internet using

Duration of use Frequency Cumulative frequency

Less that 6 months 27 27.0

6-12 months 25 52.0

13-24 months 22 74.0

Above 2 years 26 100.0

Total 100

This table shows that the different duration of using wireless internet is more or less same.

Table-4: Type of wireless

Type of wireless Frequency Cumulative frequency

Postpaid 22 22.0

Prepaid 78 100.0

Total 100

This table illustrates that most of the customers use prepaid option between two options.

Table-5: Device for internet use

Type of wireless Frequency Cumulative frequency

Desktop 55 55.0

Laptop 30 85.0

Mobile 15 100.0

Total 100

This table demonstrates that still now most of the customers are using internet through desktop followed by laptop and mobile.

To determine whether there is difference in satisfaction of male and female youngsters in Bangladesh regarding wireless internet service in respect of 14 variables, the authors set 14 hypotheses which are as given below: HA1 = There are differences in satisfaction level of network coverage between male and

female. HA2 = There are differences in satisfaction level of upload/download speed between

male and female. HA3 = There are differences in satisfaction level of dropping network between male and

female. HA4 = There are differences in satisfaction level of availability of physical customer care

centre between male and female. HA5 = There are differences in satisfaction level of 24 hours customer care support

between male and female. HA6 = There are differences in satisfaction level of response of stuffs to complaints of

customers between male and female. HA7 = There are differences in satisfaction level of home service facility between male

and female.



HA8 = There are differences in satisfaction level of set-up charge between male and female.

HA9 = There are differences in satisfaction level of bill of prepaid or post-paid between male and female.

HA10 = There are differences in satisfaction level availability of prepaid card between male and female.

HA11 = There are differences in satisfaction level of promotional offer between male and female.

HA12 = There are differences in satisfaction level of updated website between male and female.

HA13 = There are differences in satisfaction level of different program arrangement between male and female.

HA14 = There are differences in satisfaction level of brand image between male and female.

Table-6: ANOVA

Sum of Squares df

Mean Square F Sig.

Satisfaction with network coverage

Between Groups .090 1 .090 .062 .805

Within Groups 143.220 98 1.461

Total 143.310 99

Upload/download speed

Between Groups .010 1 .010 .015 .904

Within Groups 66.900 98 .683

Total 66.910 99

Frequency of dropping network

Between Groups .000 1 .000 .000 1.000


Total 55.440 99

Availability of customer care centre

Between Groups .250 1 .250 .342 .560


Total 71.790 99

Availability of 24 hours customers support centre

Between Groups 4.410 1 4.410 6.422 .013


Total 71.710 99

Customer care stuff response of your complaints

Between Groups .160 1 .160 .206 .651


Total 76.160 99

Home service facility

Between Groups .810 1 .810 1.262 .264


Total 63.710 99

Setup charge

Between Groups 2.250 1 2.250 3.769 .055


Total 60.750 99

charge of prepaid /postpaid bill

Between Groups .040 1 .040 .070 .792


Total 56.160 99

availability of prepaid card/bill payment system of postpaid

Between Groups 1.000 1 1.000 1.582 .212


Total 62.960 99



promotional offer of service provider

Between Groups 1.960 1 1.960 2.909 .091


Total 68.000 99

developed/updated website

Between Groups 1.440 1 1.440 1.988 .162


Total 72.440 99

Different programme arrangement

Between Groups .810 1 .810 1.045 .309


Total 76.750 99

Brand image

Between Groups 1.690 1 1.690 2.179 .143


Total 77.710 99

This table reveals that there are differences in satisfaction level of availability 24 hours customer care centre at 95% level of confidence, set-up charge and promotional at 90% level of confidence between male and female youngsters. From their experience (satisfaction level) some of the customers want to change their present internet service provider and some want to remain with present internet service provider. The outcome is as follows:

Table-7: Choice for Future internet service provider


GP 15 15.0

Banglalink 1 16.0

Robi 3 19.0

Airtel 4 23.0

Citycell 7 30.0

Teletalk 5 35.0

Qubee 24 59.0

Banglalion 34 93.0

Ollo 7 100.0

Total 100

This table states that most of the customers want to use Banglalion and Qubee. Their next choice is GP and the choice for other internet service providers is insignificant numbers.

6 Conclusion

The present study examines the issues of customer‟s satisfaction of wireless internet services in Bangladesh. In conducting this research, the researchers have perceived the challenges of evaluating the customer‟s satisfaction of wireless internet services in Bangladesh because there are not many studies have been conducted in Bangladesh. The results of this study should not be generalized extensively since this study is based on the student of different universities of Dhaka who have higher education level and previous knowledge on internet technology which make data collection more convenient. Future research could be conducted in order to identify the influence factors of customer‟s



satisfaction on wireless internet services in Bangladesh. Although it seems to be a reasonable conclusion to say that the results of this study serve to provide a considerably more thorough understanding of the current wireless internet service market of Bangladesh.

REFERENCES

[1] Anderson, Eugene W. and Mittal, Vikas. 2000. “Strengthening the Satisfaction-Profit Chain”, Journal of Service Research, Nov, 2000, Vol. 3, No. 2, 107-120.

[2] Fornell, Claes. 1992. "A National Customer Satisfaction Barometer: The Swedish Experience", Journal of Marketing, Jan, 1992, Vol. 56, No. 1, 6-21.

[3] Grönroos, Christian. 1978. "The Nature of Service Marketing", Working Papers, No. 11, 1978, Swedish School of Economics and Business Administration, Helsinki, Finland.

[4] Grönroos, Christian. 1980. "An Applied Service Marketing Theory", Working Papers, No. 57, 1980, Swedish School of Economics and Business Administration, Helsinki, Finland.

[5] Grönroos, Christian. 1982. "Strategic Management and Marketing in the Service Sector", Research Reports, No. 8, 1992, Swedish School of Economics and Business Administration, Helsinki, Finland.

[6] Heskett, James L., Sasser, W. Earl and Schlesinger, Leonard A. 1997. "The Service Profit Chain", The Free Press, New York, USA.

[7] Jones, Thomas O. and Sasser, W. Earl Jr. 1995. "Why Satisfied Customers Defect", Harvard Business Review, Jul-Aug, 1995, Vol. 73, No. 6, 88-99.

[8] Oliver, Richard L. 1996. "Satisfaction: a behavioral perspective on the consumer", Irwin/McGraw-Hill, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.

[9] Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, Valarie A. and Berry, Leonard L. 1985. "A Conceptual Model of Service Quality and Its Implications for Future Research", Journal of Marketing, Fall, 1985, Vol. 49, Iss. 4, 41-50.

[10] Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, Valarie A. and Berry, Leonard L. 1994. "Reassessment of Expectations as a Comparison Standard in Measuring Service Quality: Implications for Future Research", Journal of Marketing, Jan, 1994, Vol. 58, Iss. 1, 111-124.

[11] Reichheld, Frederick F and Sasser, W. Earl Jr. 1990. "Zero Defections: Quality Comes to Services", Harvard Business Review, Sep-Oct, 1990, Vol. 68, No. 5, 105-111.

[12] Reichheld, Frederick F. 1996. "Learning from Customer Defections", Harvard Business Review, Mar-Apr, 1996, Vol. 74, No. 2, 56-69.

[13] Sewell, Carl and Brown, Paul B. 1990. "Customer for Life: How to Turn That Onetime Buyer into a Lifetime Customer", Pocket Books, New York, USA.

[14] Soderlund, M. 1998. Customer satisfaction and its consequences on customer behavior revisited.International Journal of Services Industries Management, 9(2), 169–188.

[15] Zeithamal, V. A., & Bitner, M. J. 1996.Services marketing. New York: McGraw-Hill.

UPCOMING ABC JOURNAL OF ADVANCED RESEARCH

ABC Journal of Advanced Research is a blind peer-reviewed international multi- disciplinary research journal which deals with applied as well as theoretical issues. Paper submissions should be electronically in MS-Word form. Www.Abcjournals.Net

http://www.abcjournals.net/



Potentiality of Biomass Energy for Electricity


M. S. Islam & T. Mondal

Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology, Rajshahi, BANGLADESH

ABSTRACT

Biomass gasification is quite new in Bangladesh and may be considered as a promising technology for power generation. Electricity generation by biomass gasification can solve the problems of our day-to-day life at a great extent. Even it also serves the purpose of rural electrification which is the crying need of Bangladesh. Besides producing electricity it is beneficial to the agricultural and industrial production. Some small enterprises trying to ensure energy security at countryside using biomass gasification by rice husk. This paper includes availability, proper selection and quality of biomass throughout the country and utilization of by-product released by the plant. A case study is incorporated which applies biomass gasification technology in Bangladesh, to generate power from rice husk. In addition it includes how ash generated from the husk is processed to produce silica and calcium carbonate through silica precipitation method in order to minimize the production cost. Key-words: Biomasss, Gasification, Power generation

1 INTRODUCTION

nergy is the basic necessity for the development of a country and electrical energy is superior to all other forms of energy. The modern society is so much dependent upon the use of electrical energy that it has become a part and parcel of our life.

Infect the advancement of a country is measured in terms of per capita consumption of electrical energy. Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries with about 80% of the population living in rural areas. However, only about 38% of its total population has access to the electricity. Without the development of rural electrification it is impossible to fulfill Bangladesh Governments vision of ensuring access to affordable and reliable electricity for all by 2020. The main energy sources of Bangladesh are biomass and natural gas. Where biomass energy is about 70% of the total energy consumption in Bangladesh[1].In rural areas normally direct combustion is the most common method of biomass utilization. Because of its poor efficiency and limited supply alternative techniques of resource utilization can meet the energy demand in this case.

E



South and Southeast Asia account for over 90% of the world‟s rice production [2].Rice husk is a major by-product of the rice-milling industries and is abundantly available. However, rice husks have been considered a waste, causing disposal problems. Like most other biomass materials, rice husk contains a high amount of organic volatiles. Thus, rice husk is recognized as a potential source of energy. Moreover, its 20 wt. % (approximately) ash content comprising of over 95% amorphous silica makes a rice husk utilization system economically and environmentally attractive. Gasification of biomass has been known as one of the effective technology options for the utilization of this renewable energy resource. Many interesting investigations concern the subject of biomass gasification from the points of view of fuel used, gasifier type, kinetic and product specifications and uses. Other neighboring Asian countries especially India and China have already undertaken gasification programs on large scale. On the other hand, only a demonstration biomass gasification of 200 kW based on rice husk is being set up by Local Government Engineering Department (LGED) at Dinajpur. The first commercial rice husk based power plant is established by a private entrepreneur in Kapasia, near Dhaka with financial assistance from Infrastructure Development Company Limited (IDCOL).

2 Biomass Gasification Basics

Biomass gasification is the process of converting solid fuels (wood/ wood-waste, agricultural residues etc.) into a combustible gas mixture. This is achieved by reacting the material at high temperatures (>700 °C), without combustion, with a controlled amount of oxygen and/or steam. The resulting gas mixture is called syngas or producer gas and is itself a fuel. The power derived from gasification of biomass and combustion of the resultant gas is considered to be a source of renewable energy. The calorific value of this gas varies between 4.0 and 6.0 MJ/Nm3 or about 10 to 15percent of the heating value of natural gas [3]

Figure1, Biomass conversion into energy [4]

The three different stages of total gasification procedure are:

Gasification process starts as auto thermal heating of the reaction mixture.

In the second stage, combustion gases are pyrolysis by being passed through a bed of fuel at high temperature.



Initial products of combustion, carbon dioxide (CO2) and (H20) are reconverted by reduction reaction to carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2) and methane (CH4).

Figure 2, A flow diagram of BGT

3 Availability and use of Biomass in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is an agriculture-based country and the available biomass is mainly of agricultural residues like rice husk & rice straw from rice plants, Biogases from sugarcane, Jute stick, residues from Wheat, potato, oilseeds, spices etc. In addition to the agricultural wastes the other sources are dry materials such as dry wood, dried leaf, charcoal, coconut shells etc. Over last 30 years, there has been an increasing trend of biomass fuel supply in Bangladesh. The total supply of biomass fuel was 236.08 PJ in 1980 and has increased over next 20 years to 356.66 PJ (1.73% growth). Traditional fuel supply usually comes from main three sources viz. crop residues, animal dung and trees [5]. The percentages of different traditional energy were as follows: cow-dung 20.4%, jute stick 7.5%, rice straw 11.6%,rice husk 23.3%, bagasse 3.2%, fire wood 10.4%, twigs and leaves 12.5% and other wastes 11.1%. Rice husk contributes biggest share of biomass energy and it was 83.04 PJ in 2003-2004. Energy production from rice husk is steadily increasing.

Figure 3, Trends of traditional fuel supplied during 1980 to 2004



In 1991, the production of rice husk energy was 76.35 PJ and it increased to 106.1 PJ in 2004 (Figure 3.2) [5].

Figure 4, Trends of traditional fuel supplied during 1980 to 2004[5]

4 BIOMASS CHARACTERISTICS

Gasification technology requires some important bio mass characteristics the moisture content of biomass should be as low as possible. No of volatile matter content, ash content and composition must be considerably low. Morphology and bulk density should be constant.

Figure 5, Rice husks & wood chips

5 ELECTRICITY GENERATION BY RICE HUSK GASIFICATION

Several types of gasifier e.g. fixed-bed updraft and downdraft gasifier, fluidized bed gasifier and bubbling bed gasifier are available in the existing market with different sets of pros and cons. However, the downdraft gasifier is a comparatively cheap and the gasification in this type of gasifier can produce a product gas with very low tar content [4]. Keeping the process in mind, fixed-bed downdraft gasifier is thus recommended for small-scale rice husk biomass plant. Here, biomass fuel is fed at the top of the reactor/gasifier. The fuel then slowly moves down and during this time, the fuel reacts with air (the gasification agent), which is supplied by the suction of a blower or an engine and is converted into combustible producer gas in a complex series of oxidation, reduction, and pyrolysis reactions [3]. Generated ash is then removed from the bottom of the reactor for silica production.



Figure 6, Electricity generation by rice husk gasification.

6 PROGRESS OF TECHNOLOGY INCLUDING CASE STUDY Over the years a considerable number of gasification systems for demonstration purposes have been financed worldwide. A large diversity of fuels and equipment was experimented with. A decade of experience with modern biomass technologies for thermal, motive power and electricity generation applications exists in India. Gasifier technology has penetrated the applications such as village electrification, captive power generation and process heat generation in industries producing biomass waste. Over 1600 gasifier systems, having 16 MW total capacity, have generated 42 million Kilo Watt hour (KWh) of electricity, replacing 8.8 million liters of oil annually (CMIE, 1996). An important aspect of small gasifier technology in India is the development of local manufacturing base. Technology improvement is also derived from joint ventures of Indian firms with leading international manufacturers of turbines and electronic governors [6]. Like India in China 150 set of gasifier used for generating electricity,160 set for cooking & 370 set for drying woods. The only gasification plant in our country namely “Dreams Power Limited” located in Gaspur in Kapasia, Gazipur. IDCOL provided concessionary loans and grants to Dreams Power Private Limited (DPPL), the Project Sponsor, for setting up the plant. Ankur Scientific Energy Technologies Pvt. Ltd, India is the equipment supplier of the project, although some of its parts come from German and Italy.

The main parts of the plants are: 1. Two Downdraft gasifier, 2. A dual-fuel generator, 3. Four Electric motor & 4. A spray pond

A mini grid has been constructed to sell the power to the adjacent area. The plant is able to deliver power to at least 200 households and over 100 commercial entities of that area. At present only one unit is on running condition from two, and this unit produces 56-KW only. The plant is no longer capable of supplying more than 50 houses.

Figure 7, Rice Husk fired 250 kW Gasifier power plant and Spray pond at Kapasia, Bangladesh.



Dreams Power Limited now supplies about 333 unit/day (56-KW * 6-hr = 336 KW-hr or unit). It runs 6hrs a day. The sales cost of each unit is 5 TK. Therefore the monthly income of the plant equals to 333 * 5 * 30 = 49950 i.e. about 50000 TK. But it cost pretty more than income.

The loss of the existing plant can be minimized in two ways:

By establishing plant at rice mill cluster areas &

By utilizing the ash generated from rice husk. According to the Rice Mill Owners‟ Association of Bangladesh there are over one hundred thousand rice mills located in a scattered manner all over the country with four „cluster‟ areas. These four distinct „cluster‟ areas are distinguished as - (i) Dinajpur (North Bengal) (ii) Sherpur (near Bogra) (iii) Inshawerdi and (iv) Kaliakoir (near Dhaka),where most of the rice mills are located in close proximity to each other.

Figure-6.2: Districts with rice mill clusters (star marked) in Bangladesh [7]

Based on preliminary surveys (Ref.: Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, BRRI and information from Rice Mill Owners‟ Association), typically at least over 500 rice mills are located in these cluster areas. Taking an average (lower-mid) capacity range of about 100-200 kW, there is a 50-100 MW power market in these cluster areas [8].

Silica generation is a separate independent process not dependent on electricity generation, although the input ash is dependent on gasification process. Provision will be taken in the design so that external ash is used also as input thus increase silica production. The process along with three major steps of production is depicted in below mentioned figure.



Figure-6.3: Flow chart of precipitated Silica [9] (a) Digestion

This step involves the digestion of the rice husk ash with caustic to formulate sodium silicate solution at specific condition. After the digestion stage, the solution is filtered for residual undigested ash present in the solution. The clear filtrate is then taken for precipitation. Ash + NaOH (l) Na2O.xSiO2 (l) + Undigested ash (1) (b) Precipitation This step involves precipitation of silica from sodium silicate solution in presence of CO2. The precipitated silica is then filtered, washed with water to remove the soluble salts and dried to form silica powder. The filtrate containing sodium carbonate is taken for regeneration purpose [10]. Na2O.xSiO2 (l) + CO2 (g) xSiO2 (s) + Na2CO3 (2) (c) Regeneration

Regeneration is the step where calcium compound reacts with the sodium carbonate to form calcium carbonate and sodium hydroxide. The resulting solution is filtered to remove the solid calcium carbonate and the aqueous sodium hydroxide is used for digestion again [9]. Na2CO3 (l) + Ca(OH)2 (s) CaCO3 (s) (3) CaCO3 (l) Ca(OH)2 (s) + CO2 (4)

7 CONCLUSION & FUTURE WORK

The long-term potential contributions of modern biomass energy carriers in Bangladesh are significant. The Biomass power plant in Kapasia is a milestone in country‟s history to promote and develop renewable energy. New policies and programs are needed to address institutional barriers to expanding the use of modernized bioenergy in Bangladesh, and to ensure that biomass is used for energy in environmentally-sensitive ways. In order to flourish this technology in near future following factors should be considered: Recognition, Attitudinal Barriers to shift,



Available Loan facility, Cost of installation, Type of fuel to be used and its availability, Efficiency, By-product utilization.

REFERENCES

[1] M. Rofiqul Islam, M. Rabiul Islam and M. Rafiqul Alam Beg,“Renewable energy resources and technologies practice in Bangladesh”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews (2006), doi:10.1016/j.rser. 2006.07.003.

[2] T.B. Reed, Biomass Gasification Principles and Technology, Noyes Data, Park Ridge, NJ, 1981. [3] S. K. Patra and P.P. Datta, Technical Digest, Insights into Biomass Gasification

Technology. [4] J. Waewsak, M. Mani, P. Buaphet and P. Panichayunon, “A Biomass Gas Engine System

for Power Generation of OTOP Building in Southern Thailand”, Renewable Energy System Research and Demonstration Center (RERD), Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Thaksin University, Thailand.

[5] M. Ahiduzzaman. “Rice Husk Energy Technologies in Bangladesh” Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGR Ejournal. Invited Overview No. 1. Vol. IX. January, 2007.

[6] P.R. Shukla Published in The Social Engineer, “Biomass Energy in India:Transition from Traditional to Modern”, Vol. 6, No. 2.

[7] Dasgupta, N., Baqui, M. A., Dhingra S., Raman, P., Ahiduzzaman, M. And Kishore, V.V. N., Benefits of Improved Rice Husk Combustion,Bangladesh. NRI report no. 2764. p. 8, 21, 67, 2007.

[8] APCTT-UNESCAP, Bangladesh Renewable Energy Report. [9] CGPL, Indian Institute of Science, “Precipitated Silica from Rice Husk Ash”, India.

Available: http://cgpl.iisc.ernet.in/site/Portals/0/Technologies/PrecipitatedSilica.pdf. [10] D.N. Subbukrishna, K.C. Suresh, P.J. Paul, S. Dasappa, N.K.S. Rajan, Precipitated Silica

From Rice Husk Ash by IPSIT Process, 15th European Biomass Conference & Exhibition, Berlin, Germany, 7-11 May, 2007.

Submit your next manuscript at- www.abcjournals.net ABC Journals is a unique forum to offer open access to all of its articles. Now ABC Journal‟s portfolio is over eight journals, which publish both online and in print.

Asian Business Consortium is an independent research house committed to publishing and delivering superior, Peer-reviewed

standard research

http://cgpl.iisc.ernet.in/site/Portals/0/Technologies/PrecipitatedSilica.pdf

http://www.abcjournals.net/



E-Governance and E-Government in

Bangladesh: Performance, Challenges and

Remedies

Md. Rizwan Hassan

Assistant Professor, Department of Business Administration, International Islamic University Chittagong, BANGLADESH

ABSTRACT

The essence of good governance lies in successful implementation of e-governance in wide range of government activities. In current days of digital and ICT based environment, it is impossible to have good government without e-government. The purpose of this study is to discuss the performance of Bangladesh in e-government implementation, identify some of the challenges and suggest some of the remedial measures. As per UN e-government survey Bangladesh performed worse in 2012 than 2010. The challenges arise from change in government policy with change in government, lack of sufficient skilled well-trained human resource, supply of sufficient fund for implementing such capital intensive project, etc. But the situation can be changed by taking necessary steps like political consensus, development of human resource, ICT penetration, and taking proper long-term plan implementing e-government in Bangladesh. Keywords: E-governance, SMART Governance, ICT penetration, IT policy.

1 INTRODUCTION

idespread use of ICT is increasing the gap between developed and developing countries and the gap is increasing day by day. Because the rate of growth of developed countries is much higher than that of developing. The developed

countries all over the world are harnessing ICT to obtain the maximum benefit through creating IT infrastructure, changing policy, managing the change, business process reengineering, etc. As a result the developing countries can‟t keep pace with developed, even can‟t maintain the distance constant. But it is the time for developing countries to turn around for changing their age as well as lifestyles with ICT. Countries without high levels of resources like Bangladesh can hope to accelerate development if they are able to develop knowledge, which, combine with adequate ICT related infrastructure, can allow successful integration into knowledge-based economies. Only the use ICT in the government functioning is expected to bring a radical change in this field

W



E-governance is the most attractive, interesting, useful people-oriented and growing phenomenon and has become one of the pivotal parts of administrative reform to bring good governance in any country (Moon, 2002). The primary goal of e-governance is to establish a relationship between government officials and citizens, providing greater access to government information and services by making the government accessible for any part of the country or even world; promoting citizen participation in government affairs by enabling citizens to interact more easily with government officials, such as by requesting government service and filing required documents through website; increasing government accountability by making its operations more transparent, thereby reducing the opportunities for corruption; and supporting development goals by providing business, rural and traditionally undeserved communities with information, opportunities and communications capabilities (Asaduzzaman et. al. 2011).

2 CONCEPT OF E-GOVERNANCE

Now-a-days e-related terminologies are very common in all over the world. Due to wide spread advancement of telecommunication technologies, people awareness about good governance, popularity of new and innovative gadgets, stakeholders‟ pressure to ensure accountable and transparent functioning of public services, etc. e-governance and e-government have gained momentum. E-Governance is described as the application of hardware, software, internet and other information and communication technologies (ICT) to the functioning of government to bring about effective, efficient, transparent and accountable governance enabling the citizen to reap the maximum benefit from the government. It is a comprehensive tool for bringing a revolutionary change in the operation of the government through ensuring a system of speedy transaction and a system of check and balance. Electronic governance is also defined as: Electronic Governance is defined as the application of Information Technology to the processes of Government functioning in order to bring about Simple, Moral, Accountable, Responsive and Transparent (SMART) Governance Budhiraja (2002). That is why it is also called SMART governance. According to the World Bank, “E-Government refers to the use by government agencies of information technologies (such as Wide Area Networks, the Internet, and mobile computing) that have the ability to transform relations with citizens, businesses, and other arms of government. These technologies can serve a variety of different ends: better delivery of government services to citizens, improved interactions with business and industry, citizen empowerment through access to information, or more efficient government management. The resulting benefits can be less corruption, increased transparency, greater convenience, revenue growth, and/or cost reductions.” UNESCO defines e-Governance as: “Governance refers to the exercise of political, economic and administrative authority in the management of a country’s affairs, including citizens’ articulation of their interests and exercise of their legal rights and obligations. E-Governance may be understood as the performance of this governance via the electronic medium in order to facilitate an efficient, speedy and transparent process of disseminating information to the public, and other agencies, and for performing government administration activities.”




The study is aimed at fulfilling the following objectives

To conceptualize e-governance and e-government in Bangladesh context;

To evaluate performance of Bangladesh in implementing e-governance;

To recognize probable challenges and ways to overcome those;

4 METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

The study is based mainly on secondary data. Some primary data were collected through discussion with the government officials of Dhaka and Chittagong. Secondary data were collected from different books journals, websites, etc. The performance of Bangladesh in e-government development was measured based on the survey conducted by United Nations in 2012. Here the performance of Bangladesh was compared with other countries of SAARC, as Bangladesh belongs to this region and is a member of SAATRC. It shares mostly similar socio-economic and political situation with other countries. To present these data different statistical tools like average, chart, etc. were used.

5 PERFORMANCE OF BANGLADESH

Many of the countries have achieved significant progress in implementing e-governance and making e-services easily available and accessible to their citizens. As per the United Nations E-Government Survey 2012, many countries have undertaken e-government initiatives and applications of information and communication technologies (ICT) for the people to further improve public sector efficiencies and modernize governance systems to support sustainable development and achieve millennium development goals. Among the e-government leaders, innovative technology solutions have gained special recognition as the means to revitalize lagging economic and social sectors. The survey was undertaken on all the member countries of the world. However, for the purpose of the current study only relevant countries (SAARC countries) have been discussed here.

Table: Showing E-government development index and ranking.

Country

E Gov. development index

Percentage Change in the index

World e-Gov. development ranking

2012 2010 2012 2010 Change

Maldives 0.4994 0.4392 13.71% 95 92 -3

Sri Lanka 0.4357 0.3995 9.06% 115 111 -4

India 0.3829 0.3567 7.35% 125 119 -6

Bangladesh 0.2991 0.3028 -1.22% 150 134 -16

Bhutan 0.2942 0.2598 13.24% 152 152 0

Pakistan 0.2823 0.2755 2.47% 156 146 -10

Nepal 0.2664 0.2568 3.74% 164 153 -11

Afghanistan 0.1701 0.2098 -18.92% 184 168 -16

World Average 0.4882 0.4406 10.80%

Regional average 0.328763 0.312513 5.20%

Source: United Nations, E-Government Survey 2012



The e-government development index of the SAARC region along with world and regional average is shown in the following bar chart.

From the table and the graph it is revealed that all the countries of south Asia have performed better in 2012 than in 2010 except Bangladesh and Afghanistan. Maldives had the largest increase in its index followed by Bhutan, Sri Lanka, India, Nepal and Pakistan. On the other hand Afghanistan had the largest decrease of approximately 19% in its e-government development index. Of course Bangladesh (1.22%) did not have a huge decline. But if the world and regional averages are compared it is seen that the world had an increase of 11% on the other hand, SAARC region achieved only 5% increase. But the matter of fact is that instead of increasing Bangladesh had decreased in 2012 in comparison to 2010. The change in ranking of SAARC countries in e-government development index is shown in the following chart.

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

EGDI 2012

EGDI 2010



From the chart it is seen that all the countries of the region except Bhutan declined several steps down from their respective ranking in 2010. Bhutan was able retain its position. Here also it is seen that Bangladesh accompanied Afghanistan in case of decline in ranking in e-government development index. Though the other countries were able to increase their index, they could not retain their position. It reveals that other countries of the world are doing much better in delivering their e-government services. To keep pace with those countries these countries are taking a number of endeavor but these are not sufficient.

6 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Implementation of e-governance in a developing country like Bangladesh is not out of challenges and debates. The critical issues should be delineated and solutions worked out properly. Here we find out some of the issues that may hinder the implementation of e-governance in Bangladesh. a) Political issues: Political factors are very effective in government functioning, which

may hinder implementation of e-governance if interest of a group is hampered. Political stability is important for successful implementation of e-government in any country. But in Bangladesh this is yet to be achieved. For this reason, implementation and continuation of any e-government project suffer (Bhuiyan 2011).

b) Human Resource issues: To implement e-government in any country sufficient trained human resource is a must. The quality of e-governance heavily depends on the skill, training and performance of human resources (Bhuiyan 2011). But in Bangladesh this is still in scarce state. Of course establishment of a number of private university have mitigated the problem to some extent.

c) Funding issues: As e-governance has a very ambitious work plan, it requires a significant amount of fund to be invested. Timely and cost effective supply of fund is required not only during the process of digitalization but also for the maintenance of the projects. As we know Bangladesh is a developing country it sometimes becomes difficult to supply so much fund for such ambitious projects.

-16

-14

-12

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

0

Change in ranking in 2012

Change in ranking in 2012



d) ICT penetration: Recently Bangladesh has achieved a good advancement in use of ICT in mass level; especially the growth rate is impressive. But this applies more to city than to village. However in spite of this, quite understandably owing to our late entrance in the ICT field our PC penetration (4.5 per 1000) is one of lowest in the world (Bangladesh Computer Society). On the other hand mobile penetration is quiet satisfactory in Bangladesh as such internet connectivity is also high if we consider mobile internet. There are some 30 million internet users and 98.6 million mobile users as per February 2013 update data (BTRC).

e) Management of Change: The issue of management of change is the most fundamental issue to be addressed. Use of ICT in governance is expected to bring a revolutionary change in the functioning of government. But, it may be difficult to manage the change, if proper planning is not made in advance.

f) IT policy: The government as a whole should have a consistent IT policy that is congenial to invigoration of IT sector and its use. Like other policy, it is difficult for the government to have a uniform IT policy. Now we have IT policy 2009. It took too much time to have a sound IT policy for the country. It is one of the impediments of increasing e-governance in Bangladesh.

7 REMEDIAL MEASURE AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS

The necessity of e-governance and e-government is undeniable in today‟s world. None can avoid the positive changes made through the use of electronic media in governance for bringing good governance in the country. A number measure could be taken to overcome the challenges identified in the way of successful implementation of ICT. Some of the measures are discussed below. (a) Political consensus: To have a successful implementation of e-governance in

Bangladesh it is very necessary to have consensus among political parties regarding the issue. It should be so undertaken that there will be no change in the policy and no alternation will be brought in any project with the change of government.

(b) Developing Human resource: Development of skilled, efficient, knowledgeable and able human resource is a key to e-government success. In all the relevant positions of the projects skilled and able personnel should be appointed to carry out e-government projects.

(c) Ensuring fund: Fund is one of the most important impediments for such high capital intensive projects in developing countries like Bangladesh. The government may seek fund from donor agencies to fund such projects.

(d) Spread of ICT and its education: High rate of ICT penetration does not ensure a high rate of ICT literacy. ICT education in technical and vocational institute and private and public universities are to be spread (Alam & Hassan 2011).

(e) Proper Planning: Good planning is good stewardship. Success in any endeavor requires careful preparation and planning. Without proper planning and preparation, failure is almost guaranteed.

(f) Congenial IT policy and it consistent implementation: To flourish e-government in Bangladesh the proper ICT policy should be promulgated and these policies should be implemented consistently.



8 CONCLUSION

Government is the key player in the process of e-governance. But it is not possible on the part of the government alone to bring about the expected revolutionary change in the field of e-governance. Government and private initiatives as well as NGOs can contribute much towards this end. The donor agencies should also realize the need of implementing e-governance in the developing countries like Bangladesh and can play a proactive role in this regard. As we know lion‟s share of our development budget comes from foreign as aid, donation, loan, etc. But fund is not the only factor, what is important here is to make a long-term plan through dialogue with experts and consensus with all the political parties and to implement e-governance gradually. As time is passing, it is to be remembered that bureaucracy and delay in this regard is not desirable. Otherwise the optimum benefit from e-governance can‟t be obtained. It is a matter of pleasure that government is realizing the need for wide spread use of ICT in governance. But real effort to materialize this end is non-existence.

REFERENCES

[1] Alam, Md. Shariful, Hassan, Md. Shoeb, “Problems when implementing e-governance Systems in Developing countries: A quantitative investigation of Implementation problems in Bangladesh” unpublished Masters‟ thesis, University of Baros

[2] Asaduzzaman, Mohammed, Rahman, AKM Motinur & Jinia, Nasrin Jahan, “E-governance Initiatives in Bangladesh: Some Observations” Nepalese Journal of Public Policy and Governance, Vol. xxix, No.2, December, 2011

[3] Bhuiyan, Shahjahan H., “Modernizing Bangladesh public administration through e-governance: Benefits and challenges” Government Information Quarterly 28 (2011)

[4] Budhiraja, Renu & Sachdeva, Sameer, “E-Readiness Assessment”, International Conference on Building Effective e-Governance. November, 2002, Punjab, Chandigarh - INDIA.

[5] Joarder, Md. Muntasir Mamun (2003), “Challenges, Key success factors and advantages of e-governance from the view point of developing countries”, 6th International Conference on Computer and Information Technology;

[6] Moon, M. J. (2002), “The Evaluation of E-Government among Municipalities: Rhetoric or Reality?” Public Administration Review, 62 (4) pp424-433.

[7] Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations E-Government Survey, 2010, pp. 25-26

[8] http://go.worldbank.org/M1JHE0Z280 (extracted on 18.08.2008) [9] http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.phpURL_ID=4404&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SEC

TION=201.html [10] http://www.bcs.org.bd/IT_scenario_of_bangladesh.htm retrieved on March 30, 2013 [11] http://www.btrc.gov.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=682:internet

-subscribers-in-bangladesh&catid=49:telco-news&Itemid=502 retrieved on March 30, 2013 [12] http://www.btrc.gov.bd/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=681:mobile-

phone-subscribers-in-bangladesh-january-2012&catid=49:telco-news&Itemid=502 retrieved on March 30, 2013



Implication of Islamic Law of Inheritance:

Ultimate Solution to Family Conflict

Afroza Bulbul

Assistant Professor, Department of Business Administration, International Islamic University Chittagong, BANGLADESH

ABSTRACT

Bangladesh is a densely populated and Muslim majority country. Because of the scarcity of resources and lack of moral teaching and learning, people have a tendency to capture illegally the properties of other. Most of the Laws here are built up on the basis of Islamic Laws but the practices of those laws are very limited, because, most of the people are illiterate and they do not have proper knowledge regarding religion. Even the laws implementing agencies are not so much active to implement those. Therefore, the socio economic culture of our society is another restriction to consume the heir properties by the women. Beside these, because of lacking of proper religious/ethical education people are becoming selfish day by day. This tendency leads to occurring unrest in the society. In this study it is found that if we want to resolve such conflict and want to establish peaceful environment, we must have to learn the religious commends regarding every sector related our life and to implement the Islamic Laws In the society and the law of Inheritance as well.

AJASE Publish

Online and Print Version Both

AJASE adopt a blinded review policy. Authors are blind to reviewers. Typically, the review period is within 6 weeks. If authors do not receive a decision letter by email in 8 weeks after the submission, the corresponding author may send an email to inquire the status of their submission. If you need a shorter review period due to special circumstances, you may request such along with your explanation of the situation by email; however, AJASE cannot guarantee granting the request because high quality judgment of scientific work in short time is a challenge.



Key Words: Inheritance, Heir-estate, heiress, Wasiyaat, Islamic Economics

1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

rom the very beginning of the world it was found that all of the conflict arose due to three reasons; i) to have woman ii) to acquire wealth, and iii) to be the supreme of power. It is known that the first murder was happened in this world for having a

woman (named Aqlima). It is said that money is the root of all evil. A lot of examples of conflict for power are present. Bangladesh is a densely populated country. People have unlimited wants but limited means. To satisfy their needs they try to earn money by any means. To do this, sometimes they involve themselves in some conflict, which results unrest in the society. In our society it is seen that there is a conflict among siblings, with parents and among other relatives in the family due to properties. In the villages of this subcontinent, the major unrests are being occurred only for distribution of and occupying the Land and other assets. To resolve these conflict and unrest, lot of rules and regulations, and Law implementing agencies are present in these countries. Also lots of books on Law of Inheritance are available. But the conflict is continuing and is increasing day by day in the society and within family as well. Now it is the core demand of every individual and the society as whole to find out an effective solution to this social problem. As a part of this responsibility, a study was conducted in between January 2012 and March 2012. In this study the researcher tried to find out the reasons behind such unrest and conflict, and also tried to find out the solution to this social problem.

2 RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

The concept of inheritance is being practicing from the very beginning of the world. It is present in all the religions in the world but different in shapes and in practice. Bangladesh is a Muslim majority country and the Law of Inheritance is buildup on the basis of the Islamic Law of Inheritance. A lot of studies have been done on Family Laws in Islam. But no paper the researcher has found where the solution to the family conflict is provided. For this reason, no literature review is available here. You know that one of the purposes to build up a family is to create and maintain a peaceful environment where all people should be cooperative and kind hearted. But the real situation is different. At present time, people having a bad experience of conflict within family members, which creates unrest among family members and that influences people not to buildup family, and really it is alarming for us. Now it is not only a family problem, but a national problem also which can demolish the identity of this nation. The conflict among the family members is increasing day by day and the nation is trying to find out the reasons behind this problem and also to find out the solution to this problem. As a part of the nation, the researcher has selected this topic to study on and the topic sentence is “Implication of Islamic Law of Inheritance: Ultimate Solution to Family Conflict”.


The main objective of this study is to find out the ultimate solution to resolve the conflict in society. For accomplishing the main objective some specific objectives are chosen, such as:

1) To find out the implementation rate of Islamic Law of Inheritance.

F



2) To examine the knowledge of people regarding Islamic Law of Inheritance. 3) To find out the status of woman in the family. 4) To examine the social outlook regarding consuming the assets by woman from

their parents. 5) To assess the conflict rate in family for inheritance. 6) To evaluate the effectiveness of Islamic Law of Inheritance to resolve family

conflict.

4 METHODOLOGY

Data collection and Analysis This study is mainly empirical research. Only primary data are used in this study. To collect the data, some questionnaires are used. One type of questionnaire is used for male and another type is for female respondents. To collect data, the researcher took help of interview through questionnaire, face to face interview and over telephone interview. Some statistical tools and techniques are used to analyze the collected data and to present the data and findings.

Sample size

The researcher selected only 100 people as sample size among the total population of the country. Out of the 100 people, 34 were selected from village, 33 from urban area and 33 from Dhaka city. The sample size was selected randomly and among those 100, 30 were graduates and post graduates, 30 were literate and the rest (40) were illiterate. Among them some were rich, some were poor and some were middle income people, and all of them are Muslims.

5 SOME BASIC CONCEPTS

Heir: Heir is a person entitled to property or rank as the legal successor of its former owner or, a person deriving or morally entitled to something, quality, etc. from a predecessor. Heiress: Female heir, especially to wealth or high title. Heirloom: A piece of personal property that has been in a family for several generations, or apiece of property received as part of inheritance. (Illustrated Oxford Dictionary, 2006, Pp 377) Inheritance: Inheritance means something that is inherited, or, the act of inheriting. (Illustrated Oxford Dictionary, 2006, Pp 416)

According to the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, “Inheritance is the entity of living persons into the possession of dead person‟s property and exists in some form wherever the institution of private property is recognized as the basis of the social and economic system. But the actual forms of heritance and the laws and custom governing it differ very greatly from country to country and from time to time. Changed ways of owning and using property will always bring with them in the long run alteration in the laws and practices relating to the inheritance of wealth.” (Mannan, 1980, Pp 167) Islamic Law of Inheritance: Legal heir, in the Islamic context, is a term which is properly applied only to those relatives upon whom property devolves, after the decease of its owner, by operation of law; and it is the rights of the legal heirs which are the keynote of the whole system of succession, for they are fundamentally indefeasible.



The supreme purpose of the Islamic System is material provision for surviving dependants and relatives, for the family group bound to the deceased by the mutual ties and responsibilities which stem from blood relationship. The Islamic law of inheritance is, however, assumed to be found on certain passages of the Holy Qur‟an, the inadequacy of which is indicative of the fact that the role of reasons is recognized in Islam. As Allah (SWT) says, “O you have believed, do not consume one another‟s wealth unjustly but only (in lawful) business by mutual consent. And do not kill yourselves or one another. Indeed, Allah is to you ever Merciful,” ( Al Qur‟an, 4:29)

The properties of deceased person are generally distributed into two ways. One is Will

and the other is Inheritance. Will/Wasyaat- It is a well known term in the world. In most of the countries of the world for distribution of wealth the system „will‟ is followed. And „will‟ is an agreement of property to take effect after one‟s death. In western concept according to „will‟, a testator may give all of his/her properties to anyone he/she desires. For being this practice a lot of people are depriving from their legal rights. But in Islam it is very rational and it always protects the rights of all people at the level best. As Allah (SWT) says in the Qur‟an, “Prescribed for you when death approaches (any) one of you if he leaves wealth [is that he should make] a bequest for the parents and near relatives according to what is acceptable – a duty upon the righteous.” (Al Qur‟an, 2:180) After the death of the testator, it is the obligation of the live persons, who heard his/her wasyaat, to execute the bequest of that deceased person, exactly according to his/her will. And the persons must not do any change in that „will‟. But if the live persons find any injustice in the „will‟, they can bring some changes in it so that all the relevant people may get justice. As Allah (SWT) says, “Then whoever alters it [i.e. the bequest] after he has heard it – the sin is only upon those who have altered it. Indeed, Allah is Hearing and Knowing. But if one fears from the bequeathed [some] error or sin and corrects that which is between them [i.e. the concerned parties], there is no sin upon him. Indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.” (Al Qur‟an, 2:181, 182) Forms of Will/Wasyaat: Basically two forms of will are being practiced. These are:

1. Written 2. Oral

It is said that if the will is in writing, it need not be signed; and if signed, it need not be attested; the only requisite is that the intention of the testator should be clear.

But, what will be for the person who is dumb, or a person who is unable to speak due to illness?

The solution is to make valid will through gestures. For instance, Abdur Rahim is a sick man. He is unable to speak from weakness. His wife, Mrs. Israt Jahan addresses him and says, “Do you giveaway one-third of your estate to your step brother, who is very poor?” If Abdur Rahim gives a clear nod with his head, the will is complete.

When be executed the will?

According to the Hanafi/Sunni Law, after the death of the bequeath person the will/wasyaat will be implemented. But according to the Shia Law, before or after the death of the bequeath person the will may be implemented. (Rashid, 1975, Pp 211)

How much can be bequeathed?



Shia Laws say that if several bequests are made order in which they are mentioned. The first bequest takes effect first and thereafter the subsequent bequests, unless the bequeathable third is exhausted. But according to Sunni Law, no Muslim can bequeath more than one-third of his estate. This one-third is calculated after deducting any debt, and funeral expenses. The limit of one-third is not laid down in the Qur‟an, but is based on a Hadith narrated by Sa‟d Ibn Abi Waqqas that is described in the book Mischat-ul-Masabih, XII, xxi. If bequests are for religious or pious purposes but exceed the legal limit of one-third, then the priority would be determined in the following order:

a) bequest for Faradj (i.e. performance of Hajj); b) bequest forwajibat (i.e. charity on the day of Eid-ul-Fitr); and c) bequest for nawafil (i.e. building a bridge).

Bequest of the first class takes precedence over that of second; and bequest of the second class takes precedence over that of the third. (Rashid, 1975, Pp 212)

For whom the bequest can be made?

i) Any person who is capable of holding property, whether male or female, Muslim or non-Muslim, may validly avail the benefit of a bequest.

ii) Unborn person cannot be a legatee. Shia Law recognizes a legatee born within 10 months from the date of will.

iii) Heirs can not be the legatees, that is, no bequest to heirs, who are entitled to inherit. It is essential that the heir must be in existence at the time of stator‟s death.

iv) Apostates cannot, in any case, be legatees. A bequest to non-Muslims, however, is valid according to all schools except Shafii School. But in Indian context, this rule of Shafii Law does not apply owing to Act XXI of 1850.

v) Manslayer is one who kills another person, from whom the intends to take a legacy. Hanafi/Sunni Law prohibits him to take any interest in the bequest. In Shia Law, however, the more logical view is taken and only intentional homicide leads to exclusion.

vi) Institutions, whether religious or charitable, can be valid legatees.

Inheritance Islamic Law of Inheritance is implemented under the Sunni Law of Inheritance and Shia Law of Inheritance with a little bit differences keeping the basic principles same. Sunni Law of Inheritance: Hanafi/Sunni jurists divide heirs into seven classes, the three principal. These classes are: 1) Principal classes: i) Qur‟anic Heirs (sharers) ii) Agnatic Heirs (residuaries) iii) Uterine Heirs (distant kindred) 2) Subsidiary classes: iv) The successor by contract v) The acknowledged kinsman vi) The sole legatee vii) The state, by Escheat. i) Qur’anic Heirs – The persons who are mentioned in the Qur‟an as the heirs/heiress are known as Qur‟anic heirs. In the Qur‟an Allah (SWT) says; “For men is a share of what the parents and close relatives leave, and for women is a share of what the parents and close relatives leave, be it little or much – an obligatory share.” (Al Qur‟an, 4:7)



“Allah instructs you concerning your children [i.e. their portions of inheritance]: for the male, what is equal to the share of two females; But if there are [only] daughters, two or more, for them two thirds of one‟s estate; And if there is only one, for her is half. And for one‟s parents, to each one of them is a sixth of his estate if he left children. But if he had no child and the parents [alone] inherit from him, then for his mother is one third, And if he had brothers [and/sisters], for his mother is a sixth, after any bequest he [may have] made or debt. Your parents or your children- you know not which of them are nearest to you in benefit. [These shares are] an obligation [imposed] by Allah. Indeed, Allah is ever knowing and Wise.” (Al Qur‟an, 4: 11) “And for you is half of what your wives leave if they have no child. But if they have a child, for you is one fourth of what they leave, after any bequest they [may have] made or debt. And for them [i.e. the wives] is one forth if you have no child. But if you leave a child, then for them is an eight of what you leave, after any bequest you [may have] made or debt. And if a man or woman leaves neither ascendant nor descendant but has a brother or a sister, then each one of them is a sixth. But if they are more than two, they share a third, after any bequest which was made or debt, as long as there is no detriment [caused]. This is an ordinance from Allah, and Allah is knowing and forbearing.” (Al Qur‟an, 4:12) Here the heirs are sons, daughters, father, mother, sisters, brothers, wives, and husband. ii) Agnatic Heirs (Residuaries) – The heirs very next to the Qura‟nic heirs, for instant, sons and daughters of dead sons/daughters, sons and daughters of dead brothers/sisters. iii) Uterine Heirs (Distant Kindred) – If there is neither sharer nor residuary, the estate will be distributed among Distant Kindred. The Distant Kindred will inherit with a sharer when the sharer is the wife or husband of the deceased. iv) Successor by Contract – Successor by contract is a person where right of inheritance is based on a contract with the deceased in consideration of an understanding given by him to pay any fine or ransom. v) Acknowledged Kinsman – Acknowledged Kinsman is a person of unknown descent in where favor the deceased has made an acknowledgement of kinship, not through himself but through another. Consequently, a man may acknowledge another as his brother (descendant of father) or uncle (descendant of grandfather) but not as his son. vi) Universal Legatee – In the absence of all of the above mentioned classes a person is entitled to bequeath the whole of his estate to any person, who is called the universal legatee. vii) The State, by Escheat – In the absence of the above mentioned heirs and a will, the whole of an estate of a deceased would escheat to the Government. (Rashid, 1975, Pp 242, 243) Shia Law of Inheritance: According to the Shia Law there are only two groups of heirs. They are:

1) Heirs by Consanguinity (blood relation); and 2) Heirs by Marriage (husband and wife).

Heirs by consanguinity are further divided into three classes: Class I – i) Parents

ii) Children and lined descendants Class II – i) Grand parents

ii) Brothers and sisters and their descendants Class III – i) Paternal, and



ii) Maternal uncles and aunts of the deceased, and of his parents and grand parents, and their descendants. Class I excludes Class II, and Class II excludes Class III. But the heirs of each class, whether they are of sub-class (i) or (ii), inherit together, the nearer in degree excluding more remote.

6 ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS

Table – 1.1: The collected data are analyzed and then presented in the following ways Respondents Location Education Total %

Village Urban Area

Dhaka City

Educated* Literate Illiterate

Male 17 20 13 15 25 10 50 50%

Female 17 13 20 15 25 10 50 50%

Total 34 33 33 30 50 20 100 100%

Percentage 34% 33% 33% 30% 50% 20% 100%

*Graduates and post graduates It is evident from table-1.1 that out of total 100 respondents all of whom are Muslims, 34% are from village, 33% from urban area, and 33% from Dhaka city. Among the respondents 30% were educated, 50% were literate, and rests 20% were illiterate. It is also found here that among the respondents 50% were male and the rest 50% were female.



Table-1.2: Properties Distributed According to Islamic Law of Inheritance Islamic Law of Inheritance

Location Education Total %

Village Urban Area

Dhaka City

Educated Literate Illiterate

Implemented 28 (82%)

30 (91%)

20 (60%)

25 (83%)

40 (80%)

13 (65%)

78 78%

Not Implemented

06 (18%)

03 (09%)

13 (40%)

05 (17%)

10 (20%)

07 (35%)

22 22%

Total 34 33 33 30 50 20 100 100%

Percentage 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

The above table shows that among 100 respondent families, 78% families distributed their properties according to the rules of Islamic Law of Inheritance. Among the respondent families, 82% of villagers, 91% of urban area people, and 60% of Dhaka city people distributed their properties on the basis of Islamic Law of Inheritance. Again, 83% of educated people, 80% of literate people, and 65% of illiterate people are practicing this law. Table- 1.3: Knowledge of People Regarding Islamic Law of Inheritance

Respondents Location Education Total %

Village Urban Area

Dhaka City


Have Knowledge

25 (73%)

23 (70%)

20 (60%)

23 (76%)

35 (70%)

10 (50%)

68 68%

Don’t Have Knowledge

09 (27%)

10 (30)

13 (40%)

07 (34%)

15 (30%)

10 (50%)

32 32%

Total 34 33

33

30

50

20 100 100%

Percentage 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

It is evident from the Table-1.3 that only 68% of the 100 respondents claimed that they have knowledge about Islamic Law of Inheritance and 32% told that they didn‟t have the knowledge. It is also found that the percentages of the villagers are higher who have knowledge about Islamic Law of Inheritance, and among the educated people this percentage is also higher. It is mentionable that among those 68% people, most of them have very little knowledge regarding inheritance. Table-1.4: Social Outlook Regarding Consuming Heir-estate by the Heiress


Village Urban Area

Dhaka City


Good 07 (20%)

05 (15%)

10 (30%)

15 (50%)

05 (10%)

02 (10%)

22 22%

Bad 20 (60%)

12 (36%)

10 (30%)

05 (17%)

30 (60%)

07 (35%)

42 42%

Nothing Wrong 07 (20%)

16 (48%)

13 (40%)

10 (33%)

15 (30%)

11 (55%)

36 36%

Total 34 33 33 30 50 20 100 100%

Percentage 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

From the Table-1.4 it is evident that among the 100 respondents only 22% think that it is the right of woman to consume the heir-estate and it is well accepted, 42% think that it is very bad and they should not consume that asset, but the rest 36% people think that there is nothing wrong to be consumed the properties by the heiress. They believe that if the heiresses want,



they can consume; and if they want, they can donate their heir-estate. It is also evident from the above table that among the villagers and literate people the rate of thinking that it is very bad to be consumed by female is very bad and it should not be. But it is hopeful for us that with the increasing of education level their good concepts are increasing. Table-1.5: Conflict in Families for Inheritance


Village Urban Area

Dhaka City


Conflict Present

18 (53%)

16 (48%)

18 (54%)

15 (50%)

25 (50%)

12 (60%)

52 52%

No Conflict 16 (47%)

17 (52%)

15 (46%)

15 (50%)

25 (50%)

8 (40%)

48 48%

Total 34 33 33 30 50 20 100 100%

Percentage 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

From the Table-1.5 it is proved that among the respondent 100 families in 52% families there is conflict to distribute the heir-estate; and in 48% families there is no conflict. The rate of conflict within illiterate families is higher. Table-1.6: Possibility to Resolve Family Conflict by Implementing Islamic Law of Inheritance


Village Urban Area

Dhaka City


Possible 34 100%

33 100%

30 91%

28 (93%)

50 (100%)

19 (95%)

97 97%

Not Possible 00 0%

00 0%

03 9%

02 (7%)

00 0%

01 (5%)

03 3%

Total 34 33 33 30 50 20 100 100%

Percentage 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%

From the Table-1.6 it is evident that among 100 respondents 97% people believe that if it is possible to implement the Islamic Law to distribute the properties, the conflict among the family members can be resolved. Only 3% said that only to implement the Islamic Law of Inheritance is not sufficient to resolve the family conflict. They believe that, with this the people should be free from selfishness to resolve such conflict.

From above analysis the following findings have been found:

1. Since, the Inheritance Law of Bangladesh is built up on the basis of Islamic Law of Inheritance, in most of the families (78%) the heir-estates are distributed according to the Islamic Law of Inheritance.

2. In our country, majority people (68%) have enough knowledge about law of inheritance. But it is painful that though it is a Muslim majority (85%) country, a large portion of the people (32%) doesn‟t have any knowledge regarding Islamic Law of Inheritance. And, this is one of the main causes to arise conflict within the families.

3. The society does not take it as a good did that the heir-estate will be consumed by the heiress. At the time of distribution of the heir-estate, they are allotting it to the name of heiress, but they think that the heiress can‟t consume it; they (heiress) should donate their parts to their brother‟s (sons of brothers) as a gift. And usually they (heiress) are doing this.

4. In the society most of the conflicts are arisen only for distributing the heir-estate among the heirs.



5. Most of the people (97%) of Bangladesh believe that if it is possible to ensure 100% implementation of Islamic Law of Inheritance, as well as other Laws of Islam in the society, it will be possible to stable a conflict free and peaceful society in this world.

7 RECOMMENDATIONS

From the study it is seen that a large portion of our total population don‟t have enough knowledge regarding Islamic rules and regulations. This is one of the main causes for creating unrest in the society. On the basis of the above findings of the study conducted, the researcher may recommend the followings: 1. Religion should be taught everywhere in the society. 2. Religion should be included in the curriculum at all levels of education. 3. To make the society peaceful, human beings should be pious. 4. To avoid family conflict, everybody should make wasiyaat. 5. Everybody should have proper knowledge regarding Law of inheritance. 6. Law of Inheritance should be properly implemented in the families to remove conflict

from the society. 7. The society should change the concept positively regarding consuming the heir-estate

by the heiress. 8. To establish a peaceful society, there is no alternative but teaching the morality with

professional educations in the institutions. By following and implementing the above recommendations and suggestions, it would be possible for us to establish a peaceful and conflict free society in this world.

8 CONCLUSION

At the concluding remarks it can be said that by proper implementing the Islamic Law of Inheritance as well as the other Laws of Islam, it is possible for us to make sure peaceful environment in this world and can ensure peace in the life hereafter. It can also be told here that the findings of this study are not absolutely right and universe. With the change of sample size and with time and space variation, the result may vary. But, it will be treated as a matter of thinking for them who want to do further research on this topic.

REFERENCES

[1] Al Qur‟an, Sura Al Bakarah, Verse 180. [2] Al Qur‟an, Sura Al Bakarah, Verse 181-182. [3] Al Qur‟an, Sura An-Nisa, verse 7. [4] Al Qur‟an, Sura An-Nisa, verse 11. [5] Al Qur‟an, Sura An-Nisa, verse 12. [6] Al Qur‟an, Sura An-Nisa, Verse 29. [7] Books of Hadith. [8] Illustrated Oxford Dictionary (2006), Dorling Kindersley & Penguin Books, India, Pp 377. [9] Illustrated Oxford Dictionary (2006), Dorling Kindersley & Penguin Books, India, Pp 416. [10] Mannan, M. A. (1980), “Islamic Economics Theory and Practice (A comparative study),

Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, Kashmiri Bazar, Lahore, Pakistan. Pp 176. [11] Rashid, A. (1975), “Muslim Law”, Dhaka, Bangladesh, Pp 211. [12] Rashid, A. (1975), “Muslim Law”, Dhaka, Bangladesh, Pp 212. [13] Rashid, A. (1975), “Muslim Law”, Dhaka, Bangladesh, Pp 242, 243.



Asian Journal of Applied Science and Technology

(Peer reviewed international journal) ISSN 2305-915X

Open Access Philosophy

Under Open Access Philosophy, AJASE will not charge for the

access of its journals. This will ensure that a large percentage of

students, scholars, researchers and practitioners will be able to

benefit from the research published through ABC journals.

Moreover, this process will also enable authors’ papers to receive a

higher ranking. A greater number of people being able to access

and consequently refer to papers will mean a higher citations and

Impact Factor for ABC journals. Following are advantages of Open

Access Philosophy:

1. The full text of all issues of AJASE is freely available to anyone,

online.

2. Your research work will be indexed and abstracted in the internationally

reputed databases and search engines immediately after publication.

3. Open Access increases the number of downloads, page views, citations etc.

increasing the rate of dissemination of your research work manifold.

4. It is inferred from past researches that the papers published under "Open

Access Philosophy" are four times more likely to be cited than the papers

published under "Non-Open Access Philosophy"

Peer Review Policy

Paperless, web-based peer review system, professional and helpful suggestions from reviewers. Articles in this

journal have undergone a rigorous blind peer review system, based on initial editor screening and involving in-

country and international refereeing, ensures that articles meet the highest standards of quality. Most ABC

journals have ISSN with IMPACT FACTORS. It facilitates our scholars, researchers, scientists, professors,

corporates, governmental research agencies, librarians etc., in a more positive way in their research proceedings.

Faster Turnaround Time

Many journals take many months, even years to publish research. By the time papers are published, often they become

outdated. AJASE publishes papers in the shortest possible time, without compromising on quality. This will ensure that

the latest research is published, allowing readers to gain maximum benefit. We provide feedback instantaneously and

furnish details of the outcome within about 5 - 6 working days of submission of your research paper. This enables

research scholars to use their time effectively on the actual research rather than on the follow ups.

Strong International network & Collaboration

We have exposure to wide range of industries across geographies and worldwide connect through international

colleagues and thereby the recognition. We work in collaboration with extremely creditable companies, academic

institutions, reputed publication units, government bodies and research firms. By publishing with us, you join ABC

Global Research Community of 50,000 scientists / researchers.

For Details- go through the link: www.ajase.weebly.com

http://ajase.weebly.com/



ASIAN BUSINESS CONSORTIUM

www.abc.us.org

Asian Business Consortium (ABC) is a multi-disciplinary research, training, publishing, digital library supporting and service house. Though founded in 2010 as the Business and Computing organization of Asia, it was reconstituted as the ABC in 2011. It has been working for creating and nurturing talents in USA and Bangladesh since its inception. As ABC is going global, it intends to open offices in Malaysia, Australia, Germany, Japan, Pakistan, and other Asian countries in near future. The objectives of consortium are solely centered round the welfare and humane attitude of the founders who enthusiastically took up this noble cause and materialized it with a view to promote research and educational activities for the encouragement of scholars to develop their knowledge, to publish their analysis oriented scientific researches in international Journals, books, the task of organizing workshops, seminars, conferences, training, personality development programs and allied services.

In addition to research activities, ABC provides a good number of scholarships to the poor and meritorious students at various levels of education throughout the world. It plays an important role in the field of research by funding research projects and publishing the research papers. This consortium will unquestionably become the mouth-piece of the dark horses and unacknowledged scholar whose endowed and commendable contributions shall be provided an outlet keeping in mind the greater good of the larger society of the world.

ABC runs well indexed international referred journals for creating a platform to share the thoughts of professionals, scholars and academicians throughout the world.

Each journal home page provides specific information for potential authors and subscribers. Open access policy, the quick review process, rich editorial boards and quality publications have already made ABC Journals unique. ABC Journals are published under the direct supervisions of renowned academicians of the world.

Collaboration in Conference ABC considers high-quality conference papers for publication. Please contact us for detailed information.

Collaboration in Publishing

If you like to start writing a book, propose a new journal or advertise in ABC journals, please feel free to contact us.

Why Work with ABC

1. Voluntary reviewers have complete authority to set the standards for the acceptance of manuscripts; 2. Voluntary reviewers have complete authority to determine whether a manuscript is accepted or not; 3. Voluntary reviewers have the right to revise the scope and policies of their journals; 4. Voluntary reviewers pay a reduced fee for ABC publication; 5. ABC has its own marketing team. Editorial board/Voluntary review board members are not required to

solicit papers.

Asian Journal of Applied Science and Engineering (AJASE)

Documents

c1 c2 c3

computational fluid dynamics

asian business consortium

dome recirculation zone

dome recirculation zone

pilot fuel injection

pilot fuel injection

harvard business review