ASHMORE REEF NATIONAL NATURE RESERVE AND CARTIER ISLAND MARINE RESERVE MARINE SURVEY 2009 Zoe Richards, Maria Beger, Jean-Paul Hobbs, Tom Bowling, Karen Chong-Seng and Morgan Pratchett* FINAL REPORT – November 10th, 2009 Produced for Department of the Environment, Water Heritage & the Arts *Corresponding author – Dr Morgan Pratchett, ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville QLD 4811. E-mail: [email protected], Telephone/ Fax: (07) 47815747/ 47816722
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Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve and Cartier Island Marine Reserve Marine Survey 2009
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ASHMORE REEF NATIONAL NATURE RESERVE AND CARTIER ISLAND MARINE RESERVE
MARINE SURVEY 2009
Zoe Richards, Maria Beger, Jean-Paul Hobbs, Tom Bowling,
Karen Chong-Seng and Morgan Pratchett*
FINAL REPORT – November 10th, 2009
Produced for Department of the Environment, Water Heritage & the Arts
*Corresponding author – Dr Morgan Pratchett, ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville QLD 4811. E-mail: [email protected], Telephone/ Fax: (07) 47815747/ 47816722
In responding to a tender from the Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage & the Arts, a team of researchers representing the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies at James Cook University (JCU) completed surveys of the coral reef fauna at Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve and Cartier Island Marine Reserve. The field team comprised Dr Maria Beger (University of Queensland), Ms Zoe Richards (James Cook University), Mr Jean-Paul Hobbs (James Cook University), and Mr Thomas Bowling (National Marine Science Centre). This report was prepared by the above-mentioned researchers, working in conjunction with Dr Morgan Pratchett, Ms Karen Chong-Seng, with further specific input from Dr Andrew Baird, Dr Nick Graham, and Professor David Yellowlees (ARC Centre of Excellence, James Cook University).
The views and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Australian Government or the Minister for the Environment, Heritage and the Arts or the Minister for Climate Change and Water.
This report has been produced for the sole use of the party who requested it. The application or use of this report and of any data or information (including results of experiments, conclusions, and recommendations) contained within it shall be at the sole risk and responsibility of that party. JCU does not provide any warranty or assurance as to the accuracy or suitability of the whole or any part of the report, for any particular purpose or application. Address all correspondence regarding this report to Dr Morgan Pratchett. E-mail: [email protected]
Figure 1. Location of Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve within the area covered under the Memorandum of Understanding between Australian and Indonesia (the MOU Box) in the Indian Ocean (image from DEH 2005).
The last full marine survey of Ashmore and Cartier Reef’s undertaken in 2005
(Kospartov et al., 2006) showed low levels of hard coral cover (10% at Ashmore, 16% at
Cartier). The benthic communities were dominated by coralline and turf alga and there was
substantial evidence of recent coral mortality. It was interpreted that the poor condition of
benthic communities related to the 2003 coral bleaching events. Of concern in the Kospartov
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et al. (2006) report is that few large mature coral individuals or coral recruits were observed.
Also, it is important to note that this survey reports an apparent decline in coral biodiversity
since surveys were first undertaken in 1986 (Marsh et al., 1993). Fish communities in the
reserves were found to be diverse in 2005 and there were high densities of finfish stocks. In
2005, fish densities were observed to have increased at Cartier Island, but not at Ashmore.
This could indicate healthy unfished stocks on the reef, or a positive effect of the closure to
fishing (Kospartov et al., 2006). However the density of valuable marine invertebrates has
declined since the start of the monitoring programme. The condition of the coral community
is of particular interest to interpreting the medium-long term resilience of the Reserve reef
communities as a whole.
Since their inscription as protected areas (Ashmore in 1983; Cartier in 2000),
monitoring of the marine resources in the Reserves has been conducted in accordance with
the Reserves Management Plans (Environment Australia 2002). With the expiration of the
Reserves management plan in June 2009, interim management arrangements have been
enacted through the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC
Act). A new management plan is being formulated as part of the North West bioregional
planning process. The long-term monitoring of the Reserves provides a key performance
measure critical to ensuring optimal management of marine resources.
In the current survey we implement a rigorous sampling methodology, based on
fixed-area (transect-based) surveys for fishes, benthic invertebrates and habitat structure,
which will maximise resolution and precision for detecting temporal and spatial changes in
coral reef ecosystems. The results of the current survey have been compared, where
possible to the critical baseline information provided in previous surveys to give a more
comprehensive understanding of the marine environment inside the Reserves. Surveys
include small and large reef fish biodiversity, hard coral biodiversity, benthic cover estimates,
holothurians, trochus and clams diversity and biomass. We also report on coral health and
comment on other significant aspects of community condition and status. We make
management recommendations to benefit the marine resources of the Reserve.
Page 13
3 Methods
Extensive surveys of coral reef fishes (Acanthuridae, Chaetodontidae, Haemulidae,
Serranidae and Siganidae) across 48 transects surveyed at Ashmore Reef and Cartier
Island in 2009, corresponding with a mean of 282.6 (±103.1 SE) fishes per transect.
The abundance of fishes varied significantly among sites (ANOVA, Table 2), ranging
from 202.8 fishes per transect (±14.9 SE) at site 4 on the south-west side of Ashmore
reef, up to 407.8 fishes per transect (±39.1 SE) at site 3 on the south-east side of
Ashmore. Overall abundance was also fairly consistent among zones within a given
site (Table 2, Figure 3).
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
CrestSlope
No.
per
tran
sect
Sites
Figure 3. Mean abundance (± SE) of demersal reef fishes in each depth zone (shallow reef crest or reef top, versus deeper reef slope) across 8 sites at Cartier Island (sites 1 & 2) and Ashmore Reef (sites 3-8).
Page 20
A total of 273 species of fishes were recorded during visual surveys of fishes
within specified families (Acanthuridae, Chaetodontidae, Haemulidae, Labridae,
Serranidae and Siganidae). The number of species recorded on a single transect
varied greatly among transects (even within a given site) ranging from 11 to 73, with a
mean of 45.6 (±39.1 SE) species per transect. In all, the mean species richness did not
vary greatly among sites , but was significantly different between zones (Table 2) and
generally higher on the reef slope compared to the reef crest (Figure 4). The only
exception to this pattern was at site 8 (in the Ashmore lagoon) were fish diversity was
actually higher on the reef crest compared to the associated reef slope.
Table 2. ANOVA for i) abundance and ii) species richness of demersal reef fishes, testing for differences between depth zones and among sites at Ashmore Reef and Cartier Island. Raw counts were log(x+1) transformed to improve normality.
i) Log Abundance
Source df MS F Sig.
Site 7 0.07 2.41 0.04
Zone 1 0.01 0.12 0.73
Site * Zone 7 0.02 0.82 0.58
Error 32 0.03
ii) Species Richness
Source df MS F Sig.
Site 7 282.9 3.04 0.01
Zone 1 892.7 9.61 0.00
Site * Zone 7 221.9 2.39 0.04
Error 32 92.9
Page 21
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
CrestSlope
No.
spe
cies
per
tran
sect
Sites Figure 4. Mean species richness (± SE) of demersal reef fishes in each depth zone (shallow reef crest or reef top, versus deeper reef slope) across 8 sites at Cartier Island (sites 1 & 2) and Ashmore Reef (sites 3-8).
4.1.2 Community structure of demersal reef fishes
Demersal reef fish assemblages were strongly dominated by the family
Pomacentridae, which accounted for 59% (8,011/ 13,546) of individuals counted. It is
important to remember however, that we specifically excluded several other families of
reef fishes (Apogonidae, Blennidae, and Gobiidae) which are generally cryptic, but
often very abundant within coral reef habitats. Other dominant families recorded during
these surveys were the Labridae and Acanthuridae, which each accounted for
approximately 13.3% of fishes counted. Overall community structure varied significantly
and among sites, but there was also significant variation among zones within sites
(MANOVA, Table 3). The greatest difference was between Cartier Island (sites 1 and 2)
and Ashmore reef (sites 3-8), where Balistidae were much more abundant around
Cartier Island (Figure 5), while Siganidae were only found at Ashmore Reef (Figure 6).
There was also marked spatial variation in the abundance of some other families, such
as the Lethrinidae (Figure 6), which could be compared to spatial variation in fishing
intensity if this data was available.
Page 22
Table 3. MANOVA for community structure of demersal reef fish, testing for differences between depth zones and among sites at Ashmore Reef and Cartier Island. Families included in this analysis were Acanthuridae, Balistidae, Chaetodontidae, Haemulidae, Labridae, Lethrinidae, Lutjanidae, Mullidae, Pomacanthidae, Pomacentridae, Scaridae, Serranidae and Siganidae. Raw counts were log(x+1) transformed to improve normality.
Effect Value F Hypothesis df Error df Sig.
Site 3.68 2.22 91 182 0.00
Zone 0.79 5.79 13 20 0.00
Site * Zone 3.31 1.80 91 182 0.00
-8
8
-8 8
2-C
1-C
1-S
3-C
7-C
4-C6-S
2-S
5-S
8-S 3-S
7-S5-C
6-C
8-C
4-S
Chaetodontidae
Haemulidae
Balistidae
Lutjanidae
Mullidae
Pomacanthidae Serranidae
Lethrinidae Scaridae
Pomacentridae
Labridae
Axis 2 21.0%
Axis 1 38.1%
Figure 5. CDA of community structure of demersal reef fishes, comparing the shallow reef crest (open circles), versus deeper reef slope (grey circles) across 8 sites at Cartier Island (sites 1 & 2) and Ashmore Reef (sites 3-8). The influence of key families on community structure are indicated by structural vectors.
Page 23
Acanthuridae
0102030405060708090
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mea
n no
. per
Tra
nsec
t
Chaetodontidae
0
5
10
15
20
25
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mea
n no
. per
Tra
nsec
t
Labridae
0102030405060708090
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mea
n no
. per
Tra
nsec
t
Lethrinidae
-202468
10121416
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mea
n no
. per
Tra
nsec
t
Lutjanidae
0
10
20
30
40
50
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Sites
CrestSlope
Mullidae
02468
10121416
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pomacanthidae
0123456789
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pomacentridae
050
100150200250300350400
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sites Sites
Figure 6. Mean abundance (± SE) of demersal fishes within each of the major reef fish families at each of the 8 survey sites across Ashmore Reef and Cartier Island.
Page 24
Scaridae
010203040506070
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sites
CrestSlope
Serranidae
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mea
n no
. per
Tra
nsec
t
Siganidae
0
1
2
3
4
5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Sites
M
Figure 6. continued
4.1.3 Temporal variation in reef fishes: 2005 versus 2009
Based on a subset of families counted in both 2005 and 2009 (Acanthuridae,
Pomacanthidae, Pomacentridae, Scaridae, Serranidae and Siganidae) there has been
a significant decline through time in abundance of coral reef fishes at Ashmore Reef
and Cartier Island (ANOVA, F= 10.3, df =1,7, p = 0.002). At Ashmore Reef, declines in
abundance of reef fishes were only apparent at site 6 (on the north-east corner) due to
a decline in the abundance of Pomacentridae. In 2005, there were in excess of 1,000
damselfish recorded on 2 of the 3 transects surveyed at site 6, whereas mean densities
of pomacentrids across all other sites were <200 fishes per transect. At the two sites at
Cartier Island, however, there was a consistent decline in the abundance of reef fishes
from 2005 to 2009 (Figure 7), and this is only partly attributable to changes in
abundance of Pomacentridae.
ean
no. p
er T
ect
rans
Page 25
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mea
n no
. of r
eef f
ishe
s pe
r tra
nsec
t20052009
Figure 7. Inter-annual variation in the mean abundance (± SE) of demersal reef fishes at each of the 8 survey sites across Ashmore Reef and Cartier Island. Densities of reef fishes were calculated based on a restricted set of families (Acanthuridae, Chaetodontidae, Haemulidae, Labridae, Lethrinidae, Lutjanidae, Mullidae, Pomacanthidae, Pomacentridae, Scaridae, Serranidae and Siganidae) surveyed in both 2005 and 2009.
Declines in abundance of reef fishes at Cartier Island between 2005 and 2009
were most pronounced for fishes from the family Pomacentridae, which declined by
more then 55% from a mean of 320.7 (± 60.8 SE) individuals per transect down to
140.1 (± 25.6 SE). Three other families, the Labridae, Scaridae and Siganidae, also
exhibited significant declines in abundance over this period (Figure 8). For the
Signanidae, there was not a single individual counted on transects surveyed at Cartier
Reef in 2009, whereas 30 individuals were recorded on similar transects surveyed at
the same sites in 2005. Declines in abundance of these reef fishes may be attributable
to increased fishing at Cartier Island since 2005, but it is notable that there were no
apparent declines in abundance of large piscivores species, including Lethrinidae,
Lutjanidae and Serranidae, which are all potential targets of local fishing effort.
Moreover, declines were most apparent among the Pomacentridae, which is
suggestive of some change in habitat structure rather than fishing pressure, as was
shown during rigorous path-analyses undertaken by Wilson et al. (2008) to explain
Page 26
declines in abundance of Pomacentridae (and other reef fishes) during habitat
degradation in Fiji.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Aca
nthu
ridae
Cha
etod
ontid
ae
Labr
idae
Leth
rinid
ae
Lutja
nida
e
Mul
lidae
Pom
acan
thid
ae
Sca
ridae
Ser
rani
dae
Sig
anid
ae
Mea
n no
. fis
hes
per t
rans
ect 2005
2009
*
* *
Figure 8. Inter-annual variation in the mean abundance (± SE) of demersal reef fishes at Cartier Island. Four families (including Pomacentridae, not shown) exhibited statistically significant declines in abundance between years (T-test, α< 0.05) as indicated by “*”.
Aside from declines in abundance of several families of fishes at Cartier Reef,
the spatial and temporal patterns of abundance for demersal reef fishes were fairly
consistent between 2005 and 2009. The only significant changes apparent from
rigorous parametric analyses (ANOVA, Appendix 1) of individual families were:
i) Acanthuridae - There was an interaction between Year, Depth and Site, whereby
spatial patterns of abundance are different between years, but there was no overall
change in abundance between years.
ii) Chaetodontidae - There was significant variation between depth Sites, whereby
butterflyfishes are generally more abundant on the reef slope compared to the reef
crest. This is contrary to patterns of abundance recorded elsewhere (e.g., Pratchett and
Page 27
Berumen 2008), but densities on the reef crest may increase as coral cover continues
to recover (discussed later).
iii) Pomacentridae – There was an interaction between Year, Depth and Site,
attributable to declines in abundance of Pomacentridae at sites 1, 2 and 6 (as
discussed previously).
iv) Scaridae – There was an interaction between Year, Depth and Site, attributable to
declines in abundance of Scaridae on the reef crest at Cartier, whereas densities were
constant elsewhere.
v) Serranidae - There was an interaction between Year, Depth and Site, whereby
spatial patterns of abundance are different between years, but there was no overall
change in abundance between years.
4.1.4 Size spectra analysis for demersal reef fishes
Total length was estimated for a total of 13,590 individual fishes across all sites
at both Ashmore and Cartier Reef (Table 4). As expected, the reef fish community was
dominated by small fishes. More than 90% of all fishes surveyed were less than 25cm
total length. even though we did not sample many of the smallest fish species (blennies
and gobies). Fishing is expected to further reduce the number of large fishes, thereby
leading to a steeper size-spectra. The slope of the size-spectra for all sites combined
was -0.23 (Figure 9), which is towards the upper end of slopes recorded among
relatively remote islands of Fiji with moderate fishing pressure (Graham et al. 2005).
This suggests that there is evidence of fishing impacts in the size structure of the fish
communities, but this data will be most useful in comparing to comparable data
collected during subsequent surveys at Ashore and Cartier Reefs, as well as in other
Table 4. Total number of fishes assigned to each size class based on comprehensive surveys of reef fish communities at 8 sites across both Ashmore and Cartier Reef
Figure 9. Size-spectra relationship for entire fish community surveyed across 8 replicate sites at Ashmore and Cartier Reef.
Page 29
4.1.5 Densities of coral reef sharks
Only 11 sharks were observed (7 whitetip reef sharks; Triaenodon obesus, and
4 grey reef sharks; Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos) during 24 (3 transects at each of 8
sites) replicate 10,000-m2 transects conducted along the reef front. This corresponds to
an overall density of 0.29 (± 0.13 SE) sharks per hectare for whitetip reef sharks, and
0.17 (± 0.09 SE) sharks per hectare for grey reef sharks. These densities are very
similar to those reported by Robbins et al. (2006) for regions of the Great Barrier Reef
that are open to fishing (Figure 10). While there is no baseline data on shark densities
from Ashmore and Cartier reefs it would be presumed that previous densities would
have resembled those of Cocos (Keeling) islands, where both grey reef sharks and
whitetip reef sharks are 4-5 time more abundant. This suggests that shark fishing has
significantly depleted the shark populations within the vicinity of Ashmore and Cartier
Reefs, much as it has throughout most of the Great Barrier Reef (Figure 10).
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Cocos(Keeling)
No-Entry(GBR)
No-take(GBR)
Limited-fishing(GBR)
Open-Fishing(GBR)
Ashmore &Cartier
Mea
n no
. sha
rks
per h
ecta
re whitetip reef sharksgrey reef shark
Figure 10. Densities of reef sharks along reef fronts at Cocos (Keeling) Islands and throughout the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) in different management zones, to compare against overall densities recorded at Ashmore and Cartier Reefs. Data from Cocos (Keeling) and the GBR was extracted from Robbins et al (2006), which used similar survey methods to those which were used at Ashmore and Cartier Reefs.
Page 30
Densities of sharks reported in 2009 are not statistically different from densities
reported in 2005 (Kospartov et al. 2006), though the large variance (due to limited
replication) in the 2005 estimates limit the ability to detect any meaningful changes in
abundance. The current technique (although reasonably well replicated; n = 3 per site)
may also suffer the same problems. While densities of sharks recorded using replicate
transects are consistent with similar studies conducted elsewhere, it is questionable
whether these techniques will provide necessary resolution to detect any further
declines in shark populations. Two problems emerge when trying to sample large
fishes along visual transects: i) inherently low densities mean that there will nearly
always be very large variance in transect-based counts, ii) it is unclear to what extent
sharks may actively avoid, or be attracted to, divers in the water, and this may
significantly affect estimates of shark densities.. Novel sampling techniques, such as
baited video, may overcome issues associated with diver presence and reveal the high
diversity of reef-associated sharks (Meekan and Cappo 2004), and thereby provide
better methods to monitor sharks assemblages with the Ashmore Reef National Nature
Reserve and Cartier Island Marine Reserves.
4.1.6 Sea snakes
Only two species of Sea Snake were recorded in the current survey (Olive Sea
Snake Aipyurus laevis and Turtle-headed Sea Snake Emydocephalus annulatus)
despite 13 species of Sea Snake reported to occur in the Reserves (Wilson and Swan,
2004). The overall density of Sea Snakes recorded across all sites and zones in 2009
was also much lower than that recorded in 2006 (Figure 11). These findings are
consistent with other research that reports significant recent declines in the abundance
and diversity of Sea Snakes in the Reserves (M. Guinea pers. comm.), though the
reason for these declines in unknown. It is important to note that Sea Snakes were only
recorded anecdotally on the 2006 and 2009 surveys and on-going dedicated surveys
are strongly recommended.
Page 31
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
2006 2009
Mea
n no
. of i
ndiv
idua
ls p
er h
ecta
re
Figure 11. Comparison of mean density (+SE) of Sea Snakes recorded across all survey sites at Asmore Reef in 2006 (Kospartov et al. 2006) and 2009 (the present study).
Page 32
Plate 1. Fishes and reptiles in the Reserves. A). Cymothoid Isopod on Pomacentrus vaiuli B). Neoglyphidodon oxyodon C). Chaetodon punctatofasciatus, D). Pterois volitans – lionfish E). Premnas biaculeatus on Entacmea quadricolor, F) Stegastoma fasciatum – Leopard Shark G). Pseudoanthias tuka on Tubipora musica H). Rare species of Wobbegong - Orectolobus wardi. I). Aipysurus laevis – Olive Sea Snake
Page 33
4.2 Commercially important invertebrates
4.2.1 Holothurians
Eleven species of holothurian were recorded at Cartier Island and Ashmore
Reef during the most recent biological survey in 2009, including one undescribed
species (See Plate 2 A & B). Nine species previously reported from within the Reserves
were not encountered in the present survey (Figure 12), though sampling during this
study was restricted to consolidated reef frameworks. Sampling for this study was
intentionally restricted to permanent sites which are mostly sighted in areas of
contiguous reef matrix, suitable for surveying reef-associated fauna and flora.
Consequently, limited sampling was conducted in sandy areas of the lagoon where
many holothurian species are known to reside. Even so, 151 holothurians were
counted across the 24 transects, of which the most commonly encountered species
were Holuthuria atra (82 individuals) and Pearsonothuria graeffei (29 individuals).
Mean densities of holothurians were higher at Ashmore Reef than Cartier Island
sites, even when comparing comparable reef habitats (exposed reef crests and
slopes). In the shallow reef crest and lagoon habitat, only four species were
encountered (Figure 13). At the southern and south-western shallow sites H. atra was
recorded in high numbers and was surprisingly absent on all deep transects with the
exception of the SW Ashmore site (Figure 13). All eleven species occurred in the deep
reef slope and lagoonal habitat, albeit in low numbers. P. graeffei was the most
commonly recorded holothurian in the deep habitat but importantly, this species also
reached similar densities in the shallow habitat. Two species considered of high
market value (H. nobilis and H. fuscogilva) were very rare in the Reserves. Three other
species considered of medium market value (Stichopus chloronotus, Thelenota ananas
and Actinopyga miliaris) were also recorded in low numbers at only a single deep site
with the exception of S. chloronotus, which reached comparatively higher density in the
shallow habitat at South Cartier Island. The new unidentified species was recorded in
the deep habitat of Ashmore lagoon, but only a single individual was observed.
High-density aggregations of H. leucospilota recorded in 2005 and 2006
surveys were not encountered, however the eastern lagoon where this aggregation
was recorded, was not surveyed in the present study. H. coluber was recorded in 2006
Page 34
on intertidal lagoon walks but this habitat was not examined in the present survey. An
additional seven species were not encountered in the present survey and this is most
likely because surveys were conducted at monitoring sites only, enabling only a subset
of habitat types to be surveyed.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
H. a
tra
P. g
raef
fei
S. c
hlor
onot
us
H. e
dulis
H. n
obilis
S. h
erm
anni
B. a
rgus
H. f
usco
gilv
a
T. a
nana
s
A. m
iliaris
Uni
dent
ified
H. l
euco
spilo
ta
T. a
nax
A. m
aurit
iana
H. f
usco
punc
tata
B. m
arm
orat
a
A. l
ecan
ora
H. t
iman
a
H. c
olub
er
H. f
usco
rubr
a
Holothurian species
Tota
l num
ber o
f ind
ivid
uals
Figure 12. Total number of individuals of each species of holothurian known to exist in the Reserves. Species are presented in order of decreasing abundance. Species with no data were not encountered in the present survey.
Page 35
Figure 13. Mean number (±SE) of holothurians per hectare within shallow reef crest or deeper reef slopes at sites across Cartier Island and Ashmore Reef (sites 3-8). All other holothurian species were only recorded on the reef slope.
The assemblage of holothurians in the Reserves is spatially and temporally
dynamic. In 2005, 16 species of holothurians were recorded at survey sites and two
other species were detected outside survey sites. In 2006, 14 species of holothurian
were recorded on transects (13 species were present in shallow habitat and 10 present
in deep habitat) and again, two additional species were detected in other habitats. In
H. nobilis (whitmaei)
02468
1012
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
H. atra
020406080
100120140
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
CrestM
ean
no. p
er h
ecta
re
Slope
S. chloronotus
0
5
10
15
20
25
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
B. graeffei
05
101520253035
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mea
n no
. per
hec
tare
H. edulis
05
1015202530
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
S. hermanni
0
2
46
8
10
12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
ctar
eM
ean
no. p
er h
e
Page 36
the current survey, only 11 species were encountered on transects at survey sites,
while there was no sampling of diverse habitats that were considered in 2005.
The density of holothurians recorded in 2009 was lower than recorded
previously in 2005 and 2006 (Figure 14). The high density of holothurians recorded at
survey sites in 2006 was driven largely by the aggregation of H. edulis recorded at the
deep East Ashmore site. While a smaller aggregation of the same species was present
at the same site in 2005, this species was recorded in far lower density in 2009. When
compared in detail with 2006 survey results, there have been marked declines in both
the diversity and density of holothurians at both shallow and deep survey sites (Table
6). Overall densities of holothurians are significantly lower now compared to 2005
(ANOVA, Table 5), and much lower than reported in 2006 (Figure 14). For example S.
chloronotus was found in relatively high density in 2006 however in the present survey
its density has declined to zero at most sites. Further three other species recorded in
low density in 2006 (T. anax, H. coluber, H. fuscopunctata) were not detected in
present surveys. A substantial increase in the density of H. atra was recorded in the
shallow habitat at Southern Ashmore sites and the density of P. graeffei while
decreasing at exposed sites, increased in the lagoon. H. nobilis was detected for the
first time in both deep and shallow habitats at the East Ashmore site.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
2005 2006 2009
Years
No.
of i
ndiv
idua
ls p
er h
ecta
re
Figure 14. Mean density of holothurians (+SE) at survey sites in 2005, 2006 and 2009. 2006 data is relevant to Ashmore Reef only.
Page 37
Page 38
Table 5. ANOVA for total abundance of a) holothurians, b) trochus and c) clams, testing for variation between years (2005 and 2009), between depth zones, and among sites at Ashmore Reef and Cartier Island. Count data was log transformed to improve normality.
a) Holothurians
Source df MS F Sig.
Years 1 22.05 105.21 0.00
Site 7 3.23 15.40 0.00
Zone 1 0.43 2.05 0.16
Year * Site 7 2.18 10.41 0.00
Year * Zone 1 0.46 2.20 0.14
Site * Zone 7 1.23 5.89 0.00
Year * Site * Zone 7 0.96 4.57 0.00
b) Trochus
Source df MS F Sig.
Years 1 23488 5.34 0.05
Site 7 4492.1 0.96 0.53
Zone 1 3378.7 2.30 0.17
Year * Site 7 4440.1 3.64 0.06
Year * Zone 1 2341.9 1.93 0.21
Site * Zone 7 1476.3 1.21 0.40
Year * Site * Zone 7 1218.6 1.55 0.16
c) Clams
Source df MS F Sig.
Years 1 3.02 9.59 0.00
Site 7 1.41 4.46 0.00
Zone 1 0.60 1.89 0.17
Year * Site 7 0.29 0.94 0.48
Year * Zone 1 0.27 0.84 0.36
Site * Zone 7 0.43 1.37 0.23
Year * Site * Zone 7 0.23 0.72 0.65
Table 6. Comparisons of the density (individuals per hectare) of holothurian species on transects between 2006 and 2009. Standard errors are given in brackets. Figures for Cartier Island are not presented because Cartier was not surveyed in 2006. Black cells indicates a decrease in density, grey cells indicates an increase in density.
Shallow Habitat
Ashmore
South
Ashmore SW
Ashmore East
Ashmore
North
Ash. Lagoon
Ash Mid. Lag.
Year 2006 2009 2006 2009 2006 2009 2006 2009 2006 2009 2006 2009 H. atra 0 96
A total of 38 individual trochus were encountered on transects, which surveyed a
total of 10 hectares, representing a mean density of 3.8 (+1.61 SE) individuals per hectare.
At the same sites in 2005, almost 14x more trochus were recorded with 528 individual
trochus encountered, at a mean density of 28.46 (+8.37 SE) individuals per hectare.
Clearly, there has been a significant decline in the abundance of trochus (ANOVA, Table
5B). In 2006, 261 individual trochus were encountered at the same Ashmore Reef sites
and the mean density was 39.0 (+17.52 SE) individuals per hectare (Figure 15). The
apparent decline in the number of trochus recorded on transects in the present survey is
alarming, but these results should be interpreted with caution because trochus are mobile
and tend to aggregate so it is possible that aggregations formally present at the survey
sites have moved. For example, in 2005 there was a high-density aggregation of trochus
on the reef slope at site 5 (on the east side of Ashmore reef), whereas in 2006 the largest
aggregation was detected on the reef crest at site 3. In the current survey 92% of trochus
individuals were recorded on the reef slope at site 3. It is conceivable, that these
aggregations located on different parts of the reef are ostensibly the same individuals.
The abundance of trochus has declined from 2005 to 2009, but it is important to
recognise that there appears to be considerable temporal variation in these populations.
From Ceccarelli et al. (2007) it is apparent that at the reef-wide level trochus mean
densities increased from 0.96 (±0.15 SE) individuals per hectare in 1999 to 37.7 (±6.7 SE)
individuals per hectare in 2005 (Ceccarelli et al., 2007). In 2009, mean densities are
approximately equivalent to densities recorded in 1999.
Page 41
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
2005 2006 2009Year
Mea
n no
. per
hec
tare
Figure 15. Mean density of trochus (+SE) at survey sites in 2005, 2006 and 2009. 2006 data is relevant to Ashmore Reef only.
The average basal shell width of trochus at survey sites in the current survey was
82.61 (+1.97 SE) (Figure 16). This is substantially larger than the mean basal width
recorded in 2005 and 2006 surveys however this result is driven by the lower variability in
mean trochus sizes in the current survey due to the absence of juvenile trochus (<55mm)
(Figure 17). In both 2005 and 2006 a large proportion of juveniles were recorded it the
shallow habitat at survey sites (Ceccarelli et al., 2007) however no juveniles were present
in the shallow habitat in the current survey despite thorough searching. As in previous
years, there is still a lack of large trochus individuals. While the largest proportion of
individual trochus occurs in the medium size category in the current survey, it is important
to note that this relates to a comparatively small number of individuals recorded on the reef
slope at site 3 (south side of Ashmore Reef) and may represent a single cohort.
Page 42
60
65
70
75
80
85
2005 2006 2009
Mea
n ba
sal s
hell
wid
th (m
m)
Figure 16. Mean trochus basal shell width in the Reserves in 2006 and 2009 (2006 data excludes Cartier Island).
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
<45
46-5
5
56-6
5
66-7
5
76-8
5
86-9
5
96-1
05
106-
115
116-
125
>126
Size class (mm)
Pro
porti
on o
f ind
ivid
uals
(%)
200520062009
Figure 17. Size frequency distribution of trochus recorded on transects in the Reserves in 2006 and 2009 (2006 data does not include Cartier Island).
Page 43
4.2.3 Clams
Tridacnid clams were surveyed along the same transects used to survey
holothurians and trochus. Five species of clam were counted (Hippopus hippopus,
Tridacna maxima, T. crocea, T, squamosa, and T. derasa), but no giant clams (T. gigas)
were encountered on transects. The mean density of clams at survey sites was 7.75
(+2.01 SE) individuals per hectare. Ashmore Reef supported a higher density of clams
than Cartier Island. Tridacna maxima was the most common species encountered in both
shallow and deep habitat, but the distribution of clams was very patchy on transects (as
indicated by the large error bars, Figure18). H. hippopus and T. crocea were only recorded
on the shallow reef crest or reef top (2-5 metres depth), while T. squamosa and T. derasa
were only recorded on the reef slope (8-10 metres depth)
Overall densities of tridacnid clams recorded at survey sites in 2009 are
significantly lower than were recorded in 2005 for the exact same study sites (ANOVA,
Table 5), but also reflect a sustained decline in abundance since 2006 (Figure 19).
Declines in abundance are very consistent among sites (even at Cartier Reef). This rate of
decline indicates that exploitation of clams continues to occur in the Reserves and/or that
clam populations are experiencing elevated rates of mortality due to some other cause
(e.g. ocean warming or ocean acidification).
Page 44
Figure 18. Mean (± SE) density of clams on shallow reef crest (white bars) or deeper reef slopes (grey bars) at sites across Cartier Island (sites 1-2) and Ashmore Reef (sites 3-8).
Sites
Sites
T. maxima
0
5
10
15
20
25
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
T. crocea
00.5
11.5
22.5
33.5
44.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mea
n no
. per
hec
taree
hect
ar p
er
ean
no.
M
H. hippopus
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mea
n no
. per
hec
tare
T. squamosa
0123456789
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mea
n no
. per
hec
tare
T. derasa
0123456789
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mea
n no
. per
hec
tare
Page 45
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
2005 2006 2009Year
Mea
n no
. per
hec
tare
Figure 19. Mean density of clams (+SE) at survey sites in 2005, 2006 and 2009. 2006 data is relevant to Ashmore Reef only.
Page 46
Plate 2. Selection of invertebrates occurring in the Reserves. A & B). Undescribed species of sea cucumber, C) Pearsonothuria graeffei D). Tridacna crocea E). Tridacna maxima F). Hippopus hippopus G). Trochus niloticus H). Panulirus versicolor, I). Colonial Ascidians
Page 47
4.3 Habitat structure
4.3.1 Hard coral cover
Mean cover of hard (scleractinian) corals across the 8 sites surveyed at Cartier
Island and Ashmore Reef was 26.25% (±1.5 SE), ranging from 18.2 (±2.8 SE) at site 8 in
the Ashmore lagoon, up to 31.3% (±4.0 SE) at site 3 on the south-west corner of Ashmore
Reef. Coral cover varied significantly among sites and between depth zones (ANOVA,
Table 7), but there was no consistent pattern of depth variation among sites (Figure 20). At
site 1 on the south side of Cartier Island, coral cover was the highest on the reef slope due
to a high abundance of Isopora colonies. In contrast, coral cover was higher on the reef
crest at site 2 (on the north side of Cartier), where there was high cover of corals from the
Family Pocilloporidae.
Table 7. ANOVA for hard coral cover, testing for differences between depth zones and among sites at Ashmore Reef and Cartier Island. Proportional cover of corals was arcsin(sqrt(x)) transformed to improve normality
Source df MS F Sig.
Site 7 0.03 3.37 0.01 Zone 1 0.01 0.45 0.51
Site * Zone 7 0.03 2.53 0.03 Error 32 0.01
Coral cover recorded in 2009 at Cartier Island and Ashmore reef was much higher
than has been recorded during the two previous surveys conducted in 1999 (Skewes et al.
1999) and 2005 (Kospartov et al. 2006). At Ashmore Reef, reef-wide cover of hard
(scleractinian) corals is now 29.4% (±1.8 SE), representing a 3-fold increase in percentage
cover since 2005, and more than 6-fold increase since 1999 (Figure 21). Area cover of soft
corals has also increased significantly over the same period up from 1.42% (±0.7 SE) in
1995 to 8.3% (±1.4 SE) in 2009. Cover of both hard and soft corals has increased steadily
at Cartier Island since 1999, but started from a higher base level and has not experienced
the same rate of increase (Figure 21).
Page 48
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sites
Cor
al C
over
(%)
CrestSlope
Figure 20. Mean percent scleractinian coral cover (± SE) in each depth zone (shallow reef crest or reef top, versus deeper reef slope) across 8 sites at Cartier Island (sites 1 & 2) and Ashmore Reef (sites 3-8).
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1999 2005 2009
Cor
al c
over
(%)
Ashmore ReefCartier Island
Figure 21. Temporal variation mean (± SE) cover of hard and soft corals at Cartier Island and Ashmore Reef, based on comparisons between this study and comparable surveys conducted in by Skewes et al (1999) and Kospartov et al (2006).
Page 49
Shallow reef habitat (3-5m depth)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
CartierSouth
CartierNorth
AshmoreSouth
AshmoreSW
AshmoreEast
AshmoreNorth
Ashmorelagoon
Ashmoremiddlelagoon
Mean
hard
co
ral
cover
(+S
E)
2005 2009
Deep reef habitat (8-10m depth)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
CartierSouth
CartierNorth
AshmoreSouth
AshmoreSW
AshmoreEast
AshmoreNorth
AshmoreLagoon
Ashmoremiddlelagoon
Mean
hard
co
ral
cover
(+S
E)
2005 2009
Figure 22. Temporal comparison of hard coral cover for i) the reef crest and ii) the reef slope, comparing coral cover recorded in 2009 to comparable data from surveys undertaken by Kospartov et al (2006).
Sustained increases in coral cover since 1999 are suggestive of coral recovery in
the aftermath of the 1998 coral bleaching events. Coral cover typically takes 5-10 years to
Page 50
recover following major disturbances (e.g., Halford et al. 2004), but this will depend on the
local abundance of corals and availability of brood stock in the aftermath of the
disturbance. In 2005, there was a general absence of new recruits and large colonies and
also a high proportion of dead coral (Kospartov et al, 2006). Whilst there is still a lack of
large colonies, it is evident that 2006/2007 were successful years for coral recruitment
especially within the families Acroporidae and Pocilliporidae.
4.3.2 Coral composition
The relative abundance of different coral genera varied significantly between depth
zones and among sites at Ashmore Reef and Cartier Island (Figure 23, Table 8), but there
were no consistent differences between zones. The reef crest communities at site 2 (at
Cartier Island) were among the most unique, characterised by very high cover of
Stylophora. Elsewhere, coral communities tended to be dominated by Acropora and/ or
Seriatopora. Variation in coral composition may occur due to stochastic variation in
recruitment patterns, but may also reflect differences in the successional stages of
recovery at different sites. Ongoing monitoring of community structure is critical to test for
potential changes due to differential susceptibility to major disturbances.
Table 8. MANOVA for community structure of hard corals (based on the 10 most abundant genera), testing for differences between depth zones and among sites at Ashmore Reef and Cartier Island. Proportional cover of corals was arcsine(square-root(x)) transformed to improve normality.
Figure 23. CDA of community structure for hard corals, comparing the shallow reef crest (open circles), versus deeper reef slope (grey circles) across 8 sites at Cartier Island (sites 1 & 2) and Ashmore Reef (sites 3-8). The influence of dominant coral genera on community structure are indicated by structural vectors.
4.3.3 Benthic composition
The predominate substrate encountered within the 8 permanent survey sites is
consolidated carbonate pavement. Where there are no live corals, the substrate is
generally occupied by turf algae (Table 9), which is typical of offshore coral reef habitats
(Wismer et al. 2009), but particularly at shallow exposed sites (Figure 24, Table 10).
Calcareous algae made up a large proportion of the shallow benthic community at the
south and southwest Ashmore sites. North Cartier Island (site 2) is distinguished from
other sites surveyed in the Reserves by both the high cover of non-scleractinian coral
(12%) in the shallow habitat, and the high percent cover of soft coral (53%) in deep
habitat.
Table 9. Mean percent cover (± SE) of major benthic categories at Cartier Island and Ashmore Reef.
Cartier Island Ashmore Reef
Turf Algae 33.1 (± 6.9) 22 (± 3)
Hard coral 25.6 (± 2.8) 29.4 (± 1.8)
Soft Coral 12.4 (± 6.2) 8.3 (± 1.4)
Coralline Algae 6.1 (± 1.1) 7.1 (± 1.1)
Halimeda 5.0 (± 1.6) 2.7 (± 0.5)
Sponge 1.0 (± 0.4) 4.9 (± 0.8)
Macroinvertebrates 0.1 (± 0.1) 0.9 (± 0.3)
Table 10. MANOVA for community structure of coral reef benthos, comparing dominant coral genera and non-coral benthos, testing for differences between depth zones and among sites at Ashmore Reef and Cartier Island. Proportional cover of all categories was arcsin(sqrt(x)) transformed to improve normality.
Effect Value F Hypothesis df Error df Sig.
Site 5.74 5.93 119 154 0.000
Zone 0.93 12.14 17 16 0.001
Site * Zone 4.80 2.82 119 154 0.000
Page 53
-12
12
-12 12
Nepthea
Halimeda
Pocillopora
Montipora
Seriatopora
Rubble
Sponge
Clavularina
Milleopora
CCA
Acropora
Isopora
Sand
Heliopora
Turf
1-C
1-S
2-C
2-S
3-C
3-S
4-C
4-S
5-C
5-S
6-C 6-S
7-C
7-S
8-C
8-S
Axis 2 28.1%
Axis 1 31.9%
Figure 24. CDA of community structure for all coral reef benthos, comparing the relative abundance of major coral genera and non-coral benthos across 8 sites at Cartier Island (sites 1 & 2) and Ashmore Reef (sites 3-8). Centroids are labelled with the site number followed by either C (reef crest) or S (reef slope). The influence of dominant coral genera and non-coral benthos on community structure are indicated by structural vectors.
Percentage cover of fleshy (macro) algae was very low at both Cartier Island and
Ashmore Reef, typically occupying <10% of reef habitats. The only sites with substantial
amounts of fleshy algae were the reef crests at sites 3 and 4 on the south side of Ashmore
(Figure 25). This finding is consistent with Kospartov et al (2006) which recorded that
macroalgae occupied <10% of the total survey area, even though coral cover was much
lower than recorded now. As reported in 2005 surveys, the calcareous green alga
Halimeda spp. reaches higher densities at Cartier Island than Ashmore Reef. However at
Cartier, reef-wide mean cover has dropped by 3.3% but remained relatively constant
(2.8% & 2.7%) at Ashmore. Halimeda is an important member of the Reserves reef system
because it contributes significant amounts of aragonitic calcium carbonate to reefal
sediments and together with coralline algae is important to reef building (Stoddart, 1969). It
is possible that the higher Halimeda biomass at Cartier Island reflects localized periodic
Page 54
upwellings of nutrient rich water that stimulates productivity (see Andrews and Gentien
Figure 25. Proportional composition of major habitat categories within each depth zone across 8 sites at Cartier Island (sites 1 & 2) and Ashmore Reef (sites 3-8)
Soft coral cover (Order Alcyonacea) was an important component of the benthic
cover at some sites at Cartier and Ashmore Reefs, where it accounted for >20% and up to
50% of benthic cover. Cover of soft coral was highest on the reef slope at site 2 (north
Cartier Island) but was completely absent from transects conducted at the South Cartier
site (Figure 25). At Ashmore Reef, soft coral was more prevalent on the reef slope and
was most abundant at site 7 in Ashmore lagoon (Figure 25). Thirteen types of soft coral
were recorded on point-intercept transects. At Cartier Island, Clavularia was the dominant
soft coral taxon, whilst at Ashmore Reef Isis hippuris was the most commonly recorded
taxon (Figure 26). Briarium and Sinularia were recorded from Cartier Island only and
Klyxum and Pinnigorgia were recorded from Ashmore Reef only. Ten taxa of soft coral
recorded during 2005 surveys were not encountered in the current survey. Some taxa
were observed off transects, e.g. Xenia.
Page 55
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Aca
ntho
gorg
ia
Bria
rium
Cap
nella
Cla
vula
rina
Mel
ithae
idae Isis
Junc
ella
Kly
xum
Lobo
phyt
ym
Nep
thea
Pin
nigo
rgia
Sar
coph
ytum
Sin
ular
ia
Mea
n co
ver (
%)
Cartier IslandAshmore Reef
Figure 26. Mean percent cover (± SE) of different genera of soft corals at Cartier Island versus Ashmore Reef. Data was pooled among depth zones and across replicate sites at each reef in the Reserves
4.3.4 Coral diversity
One hundred and eighty-six species of Scleractinian (zooxanthellate hermatypic
hard coral) from 14 families and 51 genera were recorded in the Reserves in the present
survey (See Appendix 1). Non-scleractinian corals including octocorals (blue coral/organ
pipe coral) and hydrozoans (fire coral) were also recorded. Twenty-four scleractinian
species were recorded from the reserves for the first time (Table 11) and two of these
species are recorded from Western Australia for the first time. Twelve species were re-
recorded for the first time since 1997 surveys by Griffith (1997). An additional 24 species
previously recorded in the Reserves during 2006 surveys (Kospartov et al. 2006) were not
detected in the present survey (Table 12). Rather than indicating local extinctions, it is
probable that species recorded in 2006 but not the in present survey still occur in the
reserves however the intensive belt transect methodology deployed in the current survey
prevented the detection of rare species or those occurring outside the 2-5m and 8-10m
habitat zones examined here. It is also possible that some observer/identification bias has
occurred between surveys conducted by different benthic specialists, particularly within
Page 56
genera such as Montipora however without the collection of skeletal samples the extent to
which this has occurred is difficult to quantify
Table 11. New coral records from Ashmore Reef and Cartier Island Marine Reserves. Asterix indicates species recorded from Western Australia for the first time.
Figure 27. Mean scleractinian species richness at the eight Reserve sites showing the deep sites have higher coral biodiversity than shallow sites.
Overall, 9397 hard coral colonies were counted across the 48 belt transects. The
species with the largest number of colonies recorded on transects was Seriatopora hystrix
(10.6%, n = 1003 colonies). By ranking species according to their summed abundance,
we describe 35 species (18.8% of the hard coral assemblage) as being ‘key’ species
within the reserves because their total colony count is within 75% of that of S. hystrix
(listed in Table 14). These ‘key’ species are critical for reef building and are the primary
contributors to the observed level of coral cover (see next section). It is important to note
however that a large proportion of the S. hystrix colonies at Ashmore Reef were juveniles
(<3 years old) that appear to have established since the 2003 bleaching event. Eight
species of common Acropora corals appear on the list of ‘key’ species confirming Acropora
as one of the most important genera of corals in the context of reef building. Again, a
large proportion of the Acropora colonies recorded were juveniles of approximately two
years of age. Species with particularly high numbers of juvenile recruits include A.
cerealis, A. microphthalma, A. nana, A. millepora and A. acuminata. It is important to note
however that species belonging to 14 different genera appear on the list so numerous
types of coral are functionally important for reef-building within the Reserves. Octocoral
(Heliopora coerulea i.e. blue coral) and Hydrozoans (Millepora spp. i.e. fire coral) also are
important contributors to reef growth in the Reserves. Isopora palifera is a particularly
Page 59
important microhabitat building coral forming solid vertical upgrowths on the exposed reef
fronts.
The largest proportion of coral species are rare within the reserves (41.4% of the
assemblage, n = 77) meaning their sum of abundance is only 10% or less of that recorded
for S. hystrix. Amongst those species classified here as rare are Favia maritima and
Psammocora obtusangula (i.e. the two new species records for Western Australia),
Lithophyllon undulatum (a species whose Australian range is restricted to WA and NT),
and Lobophyllia robusta (Ashmore Reef is the western-most limit of this species). Six
colonies of Tubipora musica (organ pipe coral) were recorded on transects however
additional colonies were observed off transects. The remaining 39.8% (n=74) of species
recorded in the Reserves reach intermediate local abundance.
Page 60
Table 14. Ranked list of ‘key’ hard coral species that occur within the Reserves. Key species are classified as those species with a total sum of abundance 75% or more of the most abundant species S. hystrix of which 1003 colonies were recorded on transects. All corals are scleractinian unless stated.
Plate 3. Selection of hard coral occurring in the Reserves. A). Acropora cytherea B). Coscinarea columna C). Favia maritima (new species record for WA). D). Merulina scabricula E). close up of plating Acropora species F). Lobophyllia hemprichii G). Goniastrea aspera (above) and Pachyseris speciosa H). Three genera, Porites, Pocillopora and Isopora commonly occur together in-situ in the Reserves.
Page 62
Plate 4. Soft coral and sea fans occurring within the Reserves. A). Sinularia. B). Isis (centre) and Junceella. C). Antipatharian (black coral). D). Klyxum. E). Melithaeid Fan.
Page 63
Percentage cover of scleractinian corals recorded across all transects was
unrelated to species richness of corals on the same transects (Figure 28), which has
important implications for management because it demonstrates that percent coral cover
estimates alone do not adequately represent coral biodiversity or reef condition.
Essentially this is because in coral communities it is commonly observed that a small
number of species can dominate the community and obtain a high level of cover. In such
situations, the monopolizing species (e.g. thickets of branching Acropora) are often clonal
hence, even though there is a high level of coral cover, there is a low level of species and
genetic variability within the community making it vulnerable to density dependent
processes. For example, high host density is a major factor driving disease prevalence
and transmission in animals (Altizer and Augistine, 1997; Rudolf and Antonics, 2005),
especially under thermal stress (Bruno et al, 2007). High coral cover reduces the distance
between neighbouring coral colonies (Connell, 2004) and thus between infected and
healthy hosts, increasing the potential for horizontal disease transmission between corals
in close proximity. It is important therefore that both coral cover estimates and coral
biodiversity estimates are collected in tandem in standardized and replicated ways.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0 20 40Coral cover (%)
Spe
cies
rich
ness
60
Figure 28. Regression of hard coral cover against species richness of scleractinian corals on each individual transect (n = 48). No significant relationship exists between these two variables (Regression analysis, r2 = 0.03, df = 45, p=0.28).
Densities of two major invertebrate corallivores, Drupella snails and Crown-of-
Thorns Starfish (Acanthaster planci) were very low at Ashmore Reef and Cartier Island.
Drupella sp. were detected on 9 species of coral (A. acuminata, A. austera, A. intermedia,
A. nasuta, A. subulata, A. verweyi, P. eudoxyi, P. verrucosa, S. hystrix) across 3 sites at
Ashmore Reef (3, 4 and 6), and were most abundant at site 3. No A. planci were counted
on transects, though solitary individuals were observed at the sites 3 and 6. There was
also evidence of feeding scars , presumably caused A. planci on 2 species of coral at
Ashmore Reef (A. digitifera and A. subulata) and 3 species at Cartier Island (Astreopora
myriopthalma, Montipora peltiformis and Pocillopora verrucosa). Most massive and
encrusting Porites colonies also had numerous distinct feeding scars (Plate 5C) at both
exposed and lagoonal Ashmore Reef sites, caused by coral-feeding fishes (Cole et al.
2009).
4.4.2 Coral disease
Prevalence of coral disease on belt transects was very low at Cartier Island and
Ashmore Reef. No coral disease was recorded at Cartier Island, but one instance of a
tumor was observed on A. microcladosI at site 1, and one colony of Porites lutea exhibited
a pigmentation response at site 2. At Ashmore Reef, only 11 isolated cases of coral
disease were observed across all 36 transects. At the southern Ashmore site, black band
disease was observed on A. myriopthalma and Galaxea fascicularis. Also at this site,
white syndrome was observed on Porites lichen and Echinopora mammiformis. Tumors
were observed on M. peltiformis. There were also a variety of pigmentation responses on
corals that appeared to be in response to abrasive impacts due to the large amount of
rubble at this site. At the east Ashmore site, P. cylindrica was observed with black band
disease and various white, pink and yellow pigmentation responses were observed on
Montipora folveolata and Porites lutea. At the north Ashmore site, white syndrome was
observed on A.austera, A. gemmifera and Montipora aequituberculata. At the Ashmore
lagoon site, white syndrome was observed on Acropora intermedia, Acropora tenuis and
Fungia repanda.
Page 65
Plate 5. Selection of degraded reef shots. A). White band disease transmitted between Acropora colonies. B). A recently dead Acropora colony. C). Fish feeding scars on Porites lutea. D). White band disease advancing up the branches of Isopora palifera. E). Compound ascidian overgrowing a dead coral. F). Acropora rubble dominates the southern exposed reef site. G). Filamentous algae growing on rubble at the Southern exposed site.
Page 66
5 Conclusions
5.3 Biogeography
Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve and Cartier Island Marine Reserve are
evolutionary significant biodiversity hotspots. The reasons for this are 2-fold. Firstly, the
Reserves lie at the edge of the continental shelf in the Timor Sea directly in the path of the
fast westward surface flowing South Equatorial Current (10°S - 15° S) that introduces low
salinity North Pacific water into the Indian Ocean (Wyrtki, 1987). However this is not the
only current influencing the region. The Indonesian through-flow current is augmented by
outflows from the Indonesian Seas (Godfrey, 1996) and Anticyclonic eddies (100-150km
diameter) associated with the South Java Current and the Eastern Gyral Current (Sprintall
et al., 2002) drive recirculation in the vicinity of the Reserves (Feng et al. 2005) (Figure
29). This unique amalgamation of currents with mixed origins creates unique opportunities
for diversification.
The second reason why Ashmore and Cartier are evolutionarily significant hotspots
is that these reefs are thought to have persisted during glacial maxima when sea levels
were more than 100m below present levels. Paleoclimatic events during the Pleistocene
epoch led to an unprecedented level of speciation (Hewitt, 2000) due to the cyclic
emergence and transgression of Australia’s continental shelf that led to population
bottlenecks during lowered sea stands and population expansions at times of high sea
level. In the Timor Shelf region, sea level fluctuations caused the Reserves to become
increasingly isolated. Recent research on Sea Snakes shows that in the Ashmore Reef
region Aipysurus laevis (olive sea snakes) are genetically distinct and more genetically
diverse than populations from the GBR and Gulf of Carpentaria (Lukoschek et al., 2007b).
Such traits make the Ashmore Reef region of great importance for conservation.
9. To facilitate temporal comparisons, data should be centralized into an accessible
database (excel format).
10. Process-orientated monitoring (e.g., measuring coral growth, mortality, and coral
recruitment) would significantly augment monitoring of standard state variables (e.g., coral
cover). Though timely, these studies would improve understanding of the dynamics of
coral reef assemblages and enable better predictions about the future status of coral reef
assemblages.
11. Implementation of targeted research may be relatively cost-effective if DEHWA support
collaborative partnerships with the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, and
other relevant academic institutions, to enable process-orientated monitoring and targeted
research in the Reserves into critically important issues such as the status of Sea Snakes,
Dugongs, valuable macro-invertebrates and parasitic Isopods.
12. Significant supplementary information might be gleaned through the continual
presence of the crew aboard the Ashmore Guardian. DEWHA should engage the crew of
the Ashmore Guardian to record marine megafauna sightings (i.e. Turtles, Dugongs, Sea
Snakes, Whales, Manta Rays) and/ or conduct formal social surveys of fisherman to
record their place of origin, intended destination, fishing routes, intended catches, actual
catches, time at sea.
Page 72
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