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Individual Sources, Dynamics, and Expressions of Emotion,
Research on Emotions in Organizations vol. 9
Chapter: 6
Title: The ARM Model to develop emotion-related abilities
(Ability EI)
Abstract
This chapter introduces the new theoretical framework for
developing emotion-related abilities according to the Emotional
Intelligence construct definition of Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso
(2006). The ARM model has been devised and demonstrates a triadic
cycle of emotional Awareness, Reflection, and Management relating
to affect, cognition, and behaviour. The ARM model constitutes an
approach to nurture emotion-related abilities (ability EI) and
responds to criticism raised by Zeidner, Roberts, and Matthews
(2009). The ARM Theory was corroborated by both learning theory and
schools of counselling. The potential to develop emotion-related
abilities in emotional awareness, reflection and reasoning, coping
and management is discussed.
Keywords: Emotional Intelligence Development, Ability EI,
Developing emotion-related abilities, EI Interventions
Author: Wolfgang G. Scherl Business School University of
Stralsund Zur Schwedenschanze 15 18435 Stralsund Germany Email:
[email protected]
Phone: 0049 3831-456820 Fax: 0049 3831-456790
Biography: Wolfgang G. Scherl is Professor at the Business
School, University of Stralsund. He did his PhD at the University
of Nottingham in organizational psychology in the field of
developing emotion-related abilities and Ability Emotional
Intelligence. His current research interests focus on developing
emotion-related abilities (ability EI), management development,
leadership, soft skills and management education. He developed a
new theoretical framework to develop emotion-related abilities
(ability EI) and operationalized the intervention by applying the
MSCEIT instrument.
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Introduction
The development of Emotional Intelligence (EI) is still in its
infancy despite the numerous
consultancies that offer EI training programmes for
organisations. Such development concepts are
missing serious scientific underpinnings and the benefits for
individuals as well as corporations are,
respectively, questionable and scientifically not evident
(Ciarrochi, Chan, & Caputi, 2000; Clarke,
2006; Jordan, Ashkanasy, Haertel, & Hooper, 2002; Lindebaum,
2009; Lopes, Ct, & Salovey,
2006; Matthews, Roberts, & Zeidner, 2004; McEnrue &
Groves, 2006; Zeidner, Roberts, &
Matthews, 2002).
Research on EI development makes several claims to provide
benefits for individuals, corporations,
and education; however the accomplishment of such EI
interventions remains ambiguous (Clarke,
2006; Zeidner, Roberts, & Matthews, 2008). More recently,
high magnitude in EI appears to have
several benefits for private and business settings. Individuals
with a high level of EI are generally
found to be healthier, emotionally more stable, more resilient,
and less susceptible to emotional
exhaustion and burnout (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; McQeen,
2004; Storm & Rothmann, 2003).
The perceived benefits for corporations may include improved
performance (Ct & Miners, 2006;
Law, Wong, Huang, & Li, 2008), lower absenteeism and
fluctuation rates (Brotheridge & Grandey,
2002), efficient leadership styles (Antonakis, Ashkanasy, &
Dasborough, 2009; Gardner & Stough,
2002; Palmer, Walls, Burgess, & Stough, 2001), lower levels
of stress, enhanced health and well-
being (Mikolajczak, Luminet, & Menil, 2006), and efficient
team processes (Halfhill & Nielsen,
2007; Moriarty & Buckley, 2003). Due to the increasing
importance of EI, several researchers
postulate the development of EI, not, however, with concepts
recommended by popular science
literature, but rather with scientifically sound and
theoretically grounded interventions focusing on
a robust EI framework and emotional abilities (Clarke, 2006;
Lopes, et al., 2006; Zeidner, et al.,
2002).
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However, EI development literature is very optimistic; it
recommends EI training and development
to enhance emotion-related abilities and skills, particularly
for corporations (Bachkirova & Cox,
2007; Cherniss & Adler, 2000; Ciarrochi, Forgas, &
Mayer, 2001) and education (Bay & Mckeage,
2006; Boyatzis, Stubbs, & Taylor, 2002; Qualter, Gardner,
& Whiteley, 2007; Wong, Foo, Wang, &
Wong, 2007; Zeidner, et al., 2002, 2008).
The educational sector, particularly primary and secondary
education, is concentrating on the
development of emotion-related abilities and skills, and has
been integrating such training activities
for years (Cohen, 1999; Elias, Hunter, & Kress, 2001; Elias,
Zins, & Weissberg, 1997; Greenberg,
Zins, & Elias, 2003; Hennessy, 2007; Kusche & Greenberg,
2001).
Various programmes in social and emotional learning (SEL) are
discussed in Zins, et al. (2007;
2004) to enhance emotion-related abilities and skills (Zeidner,
Matthews, & Roberts, 2009). SEL
supports students developing their abilities and skills in
effective communication, self-perception,
active listening, emotional self-control, problem-solving,
social skills, and in decreasing problem
behaviour in school (Elliott & Gresham, 1993; Greenberg, et
al., 2003; Hennessy, 2007; Kelly,
Longbottom, Potts, & Williamson, 2004; Kusche &
Greenberg, 2001). Only a few programmes in
SEL applied systematic assessment tools to operationalise their
results. Therefore, the benefits of
these SEL programmes on students overall EI are ambiguous.
However, the bulk of research has
been discussing possibilities for developing EI (Campell,
Campell, & Dickinson, 1992; Caruso &
Salovey, 2004; Cherniss & Adler, 2000; Tucker, Sojka,
Barone, & McCarthy, 2000), but some rather
critically (Clarke, 2006; Lopes, et al., 2006; Matthews, Emo,
Roberts, & Zeidner, 2006; Salovey &
Sluyter, 1997; Zeidner, Matthews, Roberts, & MacCann, 2003;
Zeidner, et al., 2002) due both to
different EI conceptualisations and the paucity of appropriate
theories and conceptualisations for
developing emotion-related abilities.
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In particular, Zeidner et al. (2009) raise legitimate criticism
against the modus operandi of such EI
interventions. There are two main caveats to be considered.
First, research in EI differentiates
between two distinct conceptualisations namely trait EI and
ability EI. If EI can be developed, then
the question emerges whether EI as a construct of
emotion-related abilities or traits is addressed. The
first is related to cognitive intelligence and an individuals
maximum performance, and the second is
related to the personality framework and an individuals typical
performance (Boyatzis, 2009;
Freudenthaler & Neubauer, 2007).
Second, EI development programmes are too broadly defined,
including various social and emotion-
related abilities, skills and competencies. Excessively defined
development programmes have the
least EI-relevant content and neglect to concentrate on a clear
EI concept either ability EI or trait EI
and their underlying abilities and skills to be developed.
Therefore, a clearly defined theoretical
framework to develop EI is essential. Hitherto, only for trait
EI have there been some concepts to
develop emotion-related skills and competencies (Cherniss &
Adler, 2000; Nelis, Quoidbach,
Hansenne, Kotsou, & Mikolajczak, 2011; Nelis, Quoidbach,
Mikolajczak, & Hansenne, 2009).
However, for ability EI a clearly-defined theoretical framework
to develop emotion-related abilities
and an individuals maximum performance is still missing
(Zeidner, et al., 2009). This chapter
outlines the first theoretical framework to develop ability EI
based on the EI construct definition
from Mayer et al. (2008a). It thus does justice to the
legitimate criticism of Zeidner et al. (2009) that
EI intervention programs should be based on a solid theoretical
framework, permitting a clear
definition of EI (p. 245). Therefore, the concept of ability EI
is to be discussed followed by the
developmental model to develop emotion-related abilities
(ability EI).
Ability Emotional Intelligence
The question if emotions and intelligence are interrelated or,
if so, how they are interrelated or even
more, is there a kind of intelligence that is actually based on
emotions?, was answered by Salovey
and Mayer (1990), who presented their construct of Emotional
Intelligence (EI) justified by
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combining emotion and intelligence (Mayer, Salovey, &
Caruso, 2000b). Their definition of EI is
based on emotion-related mental abilities and clearly
differentiates to existing trait and competency
models of EI. Salovey and Mayer (1990) originally defined EI as
the ability to monitor ones own
and others emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the
information to guide ones thinking
and actions (p. 189).
It is therefore important to differentiate between intrapersonal
and interpersonal emotions and the
substantial information they contribute to cognition and
behaviour. However, one important
component in their previous definition is missing, which is
considered the prerequisite of EI: the
perception of emotions. Emotional intelligence cannot begin
without the first branch of emotional
intelligence (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000a:109), that is,
emotional perception. Emotional
perception deciphers emotional expressions and signals and uses
voice, tone, facial expression, and
emotional reactions to perceive multifaceted emotional
information. Emotions can only be monitored
if individuals are aware of them, which has been included in
their refined definition of EI. They later
define EI as the ability to perceive emotions, to access and
generate emotions so as to assist thought,
to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to regulate
emotions reflectively so as to
promote emotional and intellectual growth (Mayer & Salovey,
1997: 5). Based on this definition
and warranted by consideration of emotion and intelligence, EI
is structured into four dimensions
which incorporate emotional perception, integration,
understanding and management (Caruso &
Salovey, 2004; Mayer, et al., 2008a; Mayer, et al., 2000a;
Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2006).
Emotional perception describes the awareness and identification
of the emotions in oneself and
others. It involves the ability to grasp emotions and feelings,
and to recognise and differentiate
between honest and dishonest emotional expression. The second
dimension, emotional integration,
describes the process of entering into the cognitive system
where emotions induce cognitive
processes and may change cognition positively (joy) to
facilitate, or negatively (anxiety), to
exacerbate thinking processes.
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The thinking process can therefore have empowering effects in
terms of positive emotions such as
being more creative and facilitating thinking to perceiving a
new job as a challenge rather than as a
threat. The thinking process can also have debilitating effects
in terms of negative emotions such as
being mentally more restricted and captured due to anxiety or
failure. The third dimension, emotional
understanding, describes the abilities of understanding,
interpreting and analysing emotions,
interrelations and their different meanings, for instance, the
relation between loving and liking a
person or simultaneous emotions of love and hate, and the
ability to reason with the emotions
perceived. The second and third dimension, emotional integration
and understanding, reveals the
dominant interdependency between emotion and cognition to
assimilate and understand emotional
information (information processing). According to the EI
construct theory by Mayer and colleagues
(2006), cognition has substantial valence in their second and
third EI dimension to ameliorate
emotion-related cognitive processes; emotional integration and
emotional understanding are the
most cognitively saturated (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, &
Sitarenios, 2001: 235) abilities in the EI
construct definition. Cognition processes emotional information
and makes sense and use of it, also
in terms of problem solving and decision making. Therefore, ARM
focuses on the development of
cognitive emotion-related abilities in its second dimension.
The fourth dimension, emotion management, is concerned with
coping and how individuals manage
their own emotions (intrapersonal) and those of others
(interpersonal). It addresses emotional coping
to enhance or maintain positive emotions, and alleviate negative
emotions, but not to suppress them
or the information they may contain. Emotional management is a
behavioural-expressive part of EI,
based on the previous dimensions (perception, integration, and
understanding) to manage and
regulate emotions, occurring within or between individuals.
Consequently, individuals can only
manage what they are aware of, or what they really know about
emotions their own and those of
others. It becomes sensible that emotional perception is the
foundation that emotional integration,
understanding and management are built upon (Mayer, et al.,
2000a; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso,
2008b).
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Developing Ability EI - The ARM Model
The theoretical model, the ARM model, incorporates three
dimensions to develop emotion-related
abilities or what is labelled ability EI; e.g. emotional
Awareness, Reflection and Management
(ARM). ARM was developed to nurture emotion-related abilities
(ability EI) where EI is defined as
mental ability, and thus doing justice to emotion and
intelligence (Antonakis, et al., 2009; Jordan &
Ashkanasy, 2008; Zeidner, et al., 2009). This model attempts to
answer the criticism of Zeidner et al.
(2009; 2002) that the development of ability EI is ambiguous and
a clearly structured and elaborated
theoretical framework to develop emotion-related abilities is
still missing.
The ARM model is based on the EI construct definition from Mayer
et al. (2006) which includes
abilities such as perceiving emotions, using and understanding
emotions and managing emotions.
Predicated on this definition of EI and the underlying
emotion-related abilities, considerations were
made first, by learning theory and how individuals gather
knowledge and skills, and second, by the
affective, cognitive and behavioural school of counselling.
During research on how to develop
emotion-related abilities it appeared, however, difficult to
find a unique learning theory and a unique
counselling approach to nurture and develop holistically EI. A
triadic approach was suggested and
became successively apparent. During the initial analysis of the
EI construct, the four composite EI
dimensions from Mayer et al. (2006) were isolated into four main
realms. This process facilitated the
understanding and continuative analysis of each single dimension
and the emotion-related abilities
involved. Emotion-related abilities were then structured into
three developmental realms: affect,
cognition and behaviour.
According to the EI definition and a developmental perspective
of emotion-related abilities, three
main realms relate to: first, the notion that affect subsumes
perceiving emotions; second, the idea
that cognition subsumes using emotions to facilitate thinking
and the understanding and analysis
of the meaning of emotions perceived; and third, that behaviour
subsumes managing and working
with emotions judiciously. However, the three realms: affect,
cognition and behaviour, are
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interdependent because only what is known or an individual is
aware of can be understood and
managed. A mind map was delineated to reveal initial
considerations and thinking processes for how
to separate and develop emotion-related abilities predicated on
the EI construct definition from
Mayer et al. (2006).
As previously mentioned, the separation of the EI abilities
revealed that learning theory and selected
schools of counselling (SOC) may display some potential to
develop these emotion-related abilities.
Subsequently, a new model (ARM model) is proposed to develop
emotion-related abilities. The
triadic approach delineates first, A for emotional Awareness,
for instance, What do I feel? or
Which emotions are accompanying me during the business meeting
or exam? Second, R
describes the Reflection on emotions, the thinking, the
reasoning and discussion about specific
emotions perceived in daily situations, for instance, Why do I
feel like that?, followed by
questions, Does it make sense? or Is it appropriate to be
captured by certain emotions? It is thus
connecting emotion with cognition to support emotional
reasoning, analysis, and reflection on
perceived emotions. Third, M describes the Management of
emotions, which addresses a practice-
oriented and behaviour-expressive approach. This facilitates to
coping with emotional events in both
intrapersonal and interpersonal spheres, and to regulating
appropriately and expressing rather than
suppressing emotions. The ARM model is presented in Figure
1.
>>>>>>>> FIGURE 1 ABOUT HERE
The ARM model to develop emotion-related abilities is founded on
the ability model of EI from
Mayer et al. (1997; 2006), which subsumes four dimensions of EI;
emotional perception, emotional
integration, emotional understanding, and emotional management.
The ARM model encompasses
three developmental dimensions such as affect (awareness and
perception), cognition (reasoning and
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eflection), and behaviour (managing). It incorporates either,
learning theories1 to consider different
possibilities of how individuals learn (Kolb & Kolb, 2005),
and developmental aspects of selective
schools of counselling2 to facilitate and foster the development
of emotion-related abilities (Corey,
2009). In summary, the EI construct covers three developmental
realms for nurturing emotion-related
abilities that are affect, cognition, and behaviour (behavioural
expression). Three ARM dimensions
facilitate the development of emotion-related abilities such as
emotional awareness, reflection, and
management. First, according to EI, affect incorporates
abilities in awareness and perception of intra-
and interpersonal emotions. Second, cognition proceeds and
involves thinking processes to
assimilate emotions, that is, to reflect on, understand and
analyse perceived emotions which can be
either positive or negative in nature. This process can
facilitate thinking in terms of positive emotions
(being happy, feeling lucky, being in love) or impede thinking
in terms of negative emotions (rage,
being angry, feeling unlucky). The thinking process is also able
to change negatively-perceived
emotions into positive ones e.g. to reflect on sadness, or if
there might also be another angle to look
at the current situation and find a solution. Further, thinking
may transform a feeling of hopelessness
into a more constructive one, i.e. to investigate opportunities
and find loopholes and change the
situation or solve a problem.
Therefore, thinking can amend the perceived emotions according
to Ellis (2003) theory and
consequently, thinking changes again the emotion-cognition loop
is interdependent and interacts
continuously. Thinking and reflecting on emotions reveals the
importance of whether the perceived
emotion makes sense (in case of self defeating) or if someone
feels unhappy with the actual
circumstances. In that case, cognition can elicit how to change
the situation in order to feel happy
once again. In other cases, someone might consider expressing
the perceived emotion immediately or
think and reason first about it, thus finding a more
constructive possibility to express appropriately
the perceived emotion in order not to insult or offend another
person. Third, the behaviour-
1 Learning through Feeling Thinking Doing
2 Affective Cognitive Behavioural School of Counselling
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expressive realm of EI entails ways of acting and interacting in
an emotionally intelligent way to
manage successfully and regulate emotions perceived. Based on
the two aforementioned realms,
affect and cognition of EI, the third realm, behaviour, may
complement holistically the circle of
emotion-cognition-behaviour. The management of emotions involves
the prerequisite emotion-
related abilities, the awareness and understanding of, and
reflection on emotions connected with how
to express and behave in a judicious and emotionally intelligent
way. These three realms reveal the
developmental potential of emotion-related abilities in affect,
cognition and behaviour.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>> TABLE 1
ABOUT HERE
Having now a ternary but interdependent developmental concept,
EI incorporates affect, cognition,
and behaviour, which is outlined in Table 1. It appears that the
three main realms of EI apply to a
developmental perspective to combine both the learning cycle
(Kolb, 1984), and its underlying
triadic learning theory (feeling, thinking, doing), and the
affective, cognitive, and behavioural school
of counselling (Corey, 2009; Hannabuss, 1997; Herbert, 1986) to
develop emotion-related abilities.
The Four Disciplines of Ability EI Development
The development of the ARM model to develop ability EI
encompasses four disciplines: emotion
intelligence, learning theory, and counselling, incorporating a
developmental and coaching-related
perspective to nurture individual growth, and to anticipate
future hassles and disturbances, which are
to be discussed in more detail.
Emotions
Emotions not only play a dominant role in peoples working
environments but also in their private
lives (Ashkanasy, Haertel, & Zerbe, 2000; Cherniss &
Goleman, 2001; Haertel, Zerbe, & Ashkanasy,
2009). Even though emotions are accepted in the latter, they
seem to be ignored in the workplace and
in education (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1995; Elias, et al.,
1997; Haertel, et al., 2009; Muchinsky,
2000). Only recently the importance of emotions and their impact
on and their utilisation for work
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performance (Ashkanasy, 2002; Ashkanasy, et al., 2000;
Bachkirova & Cox, 2007; Elfenbein &
Ambady, 2002; Giardini & Frese, 2006; Gibson, 2006; Haertel,
et al., 2009), and education (Bay &
Mckeage, 2006; Dirkx, 2006; Greenberg, et al., 2003; Hennessy,
2007; Lopes, Salovey, Ct, &
Beers, 2005; Moore & Kuol, 2007), has stimulated further
research. Emotions cannot be separated
from individuals during their working hours or the time spent in
school because emotions are
intrinsically tied to integral human functioning (Ashforth &
Humphrey, 1995; Reddy, 2001).
Emotions are phenomena elicited in response to a stimulus and
appear in a ternary process,
incorporating affective (sheer feeling of an emotion), cognitive
(appraisal of the felt emotion), and
behavioural (coping with and appropriate expression of the felt
emotion) components, and can be
either positive or negative (Frijda, 2008; Izard & Ackerman,
2000). Significantly, the interrelation
between emotion and cognition discloses a thinking process
appearing consciously and
unconsciously respectively. If a stimulus is causing a positive
emotion (e.g. a compliment for
collaboration in class), it is more likely that the student will
enjoy the class and thus be committed to
the teacher and the curriculum. Therefore, the student might
want to experience the positive emotion
again and again (thinking about), and engage in the class by
providing further collaboration (pro-
social behaviour). The ternary process appears in affect; in
this case, the sheer perceived emotions
are joy and pleasure, and they are elicited by the teachers
empowerment (positive stimulus). The
ramifications of the felt positive emotion on cognition and
behaviour are supportive and empowering
but could also be devastating if the feedback is negative and
ruinous.
Intelligence
In fact the definition of intelligence is yet difficult to
depict, there is disagreement on how to explain
or define what is meant by intelligence. Different explanations
have been outlined and discussed
which expound intelligence as a purposeful modus operandi, i.e.
to allow one to think rationally and
adapt effectively to their environment (Wechsler, 1958), or as
intellectual functioning and
differentiation among abstract, mechanical, and social
intelligence (Thorndike, 1920). In a similar
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vein it was proposed that academic and non-academic intelligence
be separated to draw on a multiple
factor theory of intelligence because it was realized that
individuals have multifaceted abilities in
processing different kinds of data differently (Thurstone,
1938). In contrast, others proposed only a
single intelligence factor for subsuming multifaceted mental
abilities (Spearman, 1927).
Through advancing research and continuous refinement of both
intelligence theory and testing, the
two-factor theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence was
widely acknowledged and scientifically
traceable (Cattell, 1943). Fluid intelligence is mainly based in
physiology, heritability, and is
genetically predisposed, as opposed to crystallized
intelligence, which can be developed and is based
on knowledge, experience and education. Fluid intelligence
demonstrates age-related alterations and
development until early adulthood and a decline afterwards
(Berg, 2000; Kaufman & Horn, 1996;
Sternberg, 2003; 2000). Crystallized intelligence demonstrates
gradual development over the life-
span by virtue of incremental educational, experiential and
vocational knowledge and skills
(Ackerman, 2000; Santrock, 1997; Sternberg, 2000; Wagner, 2000).
Further research concentrated
on intelligence as a cognitive performance or a group of mental
abilities (Mayer, et al., 2000a:
105). These abilities are needed to successfully complete (i.e.
obtain a specific, desired outcome) a
task of defined difficulty, when testing conditions are
favourable (Carroll, 1993: 4). However,
intelligence tests can only operationalise the limited amplitude
of cognitive abilities and intellectual
functioning, i.e. most of what is being learned in education and
school settings (Neisser, 1979).
Manifold daily problems and challenges need cognitive processes
like problem-solving, individual
capability and performance, and social adaptability, which are
difficult to cover with prevalent
standardised intelligence tests (Kaufman, 2000; Stern &
Guthke, 2001; Sternberg, 2003). On a
critical note, intelligence was therefore considered as what an
intelligence test measures (Boring,
1923: 35) and intelligence includes many abilities that the
tests definitely do not test (Neisser,
1979: 218). Even more, it might be difficult to count
exclusively on intelligence test scores and
disregard other worthwhile mental abilities or multiple
intelligences (Berg, 2000; Gardner, 1983;
Sternberg, 2003).
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Indeed, intelligence has yet to find a consensual definition
because of different theories and
conceptualisations and what might be included to be smart,
cunning, or intelligent (Gardner, 1998;
Sternberg, Conway, Ketron, & Bernstein, 1981). Moreover,
Gardner (1983, 1998) purported the
theory of multiple intelligences, there under
logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, linguistic, bodily-
kinaesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligence.
Sternberg and Kaufman (1998) argued for
a triadic theory of intelligence incorporating internal,
external and experiential aspects of
intelligence. The different theories of intelligence refer to
mental processes and abilities, and how
individuals process information, solve problems, and adapt to
their environment. Intelligence
describes contextualized thinking-related abilities and
cognitive performances, and not only skills or
behavioural aspects (Berg, 2000). Therefore, intelligence as
proposed by Mayer, Caruso, and
Salovey (1999) should meet the three criteria of intelligence:
first, intelligence represents a mental
performance and cognitive ability with clearly and objectively
defined performance requirements
having veridical answers and not just the belief or wish that
individuals behave and perform well
(Carroll, 1993; Mayer, et al., 1999). Second, intelligence
should cover thematic-related abilities and
which intelligence is described, e.g. EI, but it should be
discriminated from but convergent to an
already established intelligence (IQ) (Carroll, 1993; Mayer
& Geher, 1996; Roberts, Zeidner, &
Matthews, 2001). Third, the developmental aspect should be
fulfilled in that intelligence can develop
over the life-span and through experience (Ackerman &
Rolfhus, 1999; Aronson, Fried, & Good,
2002; Berg, 2000; Daus & Ashkanasy, 2005; Day & Caroll,
2007; Mayer, et al., 1999; Roberts, et al.,
2001; Sternberg, 1998) or through particularly conceptualized
interventions (Berg, 2000; Kyllonen,
Roberts, & Stankov, 2008).
In summary, intelligence can be described as multifaceted mental
abilities operationalising a
cognitive performance and the intelligence construct in
question, e.g. emotion-related abilities and
EI. The intelligence construct should be related to already
existing intelligence measures, but also
distinct from them in order to avoid measurement redundancies.
Finally, intelligence is malleable and
should alter through experience and age incorporating
developmental and learning processes.
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How Individuals Learn Learning Theory
So far this chapter has clarified terminology and the
understanding of emotion and intelligence.
Processes of change are processes of learning and adaptation.
The third discipline necessary to
develop the ARM model to nurture emotion-related abilities
emerged from the study of how
individuals learn. Kolbs (1984) experiential learning theory
depicts different styles of how
individuals learn and obtain knowledge and skills. He is the
most cited author in learning style
literature (Desmedt & Valcke, 2004). His theory is based on
Dewey (1938), Lewin (1951), and
Piaget (1971)3, the pioneers of learning through experience
(learning-by-doing). Kolb (1984)
considers learning as a holistic process of adaptation to the
entire world and needs a transaction
between the individual and the environment, and takes affective,
cognitive, and behavioural learning
into account.
More specifically, he incorporates the learning through feeling,
thinking, doing, and reflective
observation and describes learning is the process whereby
knowledge is created through the
transformation of experience (Kolb, 1984: 26). Later he
separates experiential learning into two
modes grasping (feeling, thinking) and transforming (reflecting,
doing) experience (Kolb & Kolb,
2005). The affective learning process of feeling is
characterised by being aware of a concrete
experience and the enjoyment of relating to others, the valuing
of real situations and the interpersonal
(inter) action with others. It focuses on human values, empathy,
emotions, and feeling comfortable
with harmony within a group. The feeling-learning process,
therefore, aims to amend the intra-
emotional and inter-emotional learning process and raise our
awareness of feelings. It further
facilitates what individuals learn from their emotions and
feelings without being analytically
examined.
The cognitive learning process of thinking and reflective
observation encompasses two realms.
First, thinking describes learning through logical thinking,
abstraction, rationality, analysis, and
3 For an extensive review of learning theories see also
Hergenhahn and Olsen (2005)
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systematically approaches the pros and cons of a situation to
facilitate reasoning and decision
making. Second, reflective observation focuses on learning
through audio-visual and visual
perspectives, and subsumes the understanding and reflection of
situations and individuals behaviour
from different perspectives. The cognitive learning relies on
thinking and reflection to make sense of
individuals observations and fosters the formation of their own
opinion. The two cognitive learning
processes have their main emphasis on thinking, whereas
reflective observation incorporates a more
situational, social, human perspective which attempts to
understand the entire context. A simplistic
and abstract thinking process could take place independently of
the actual interpersonal and
emotion-related situation. Consequently, reflective observation
emphasises reflection and
understanding, incorporating the social context, whereas merely
thinking is more concerned with
abstract systems and concepts (Kolb, 1984).
Third, the behavioural learning process of doing focuses on
active experimentation to actively
change individuals behaviour and situations, and on practical
applications (DeWolfe-Waddill &
Marquardt, 2003). The emphasis is clearly on doing to accomplish
tasks and getting things done.
The doing learning process is therefore behaviour-oriented,
active, meritocratic, and result-oriented
(Kolb, 1984; Mainemelis, Boyatzis, & Kolb, 2002; Sensenig,
2003). To recap, the experiential
learning framework demonstrates the possibility that individuals
learn differently and thus perceive
and process information to create knowledge and make use of it
in different ways.
Moreover, the experiential learning theory is also well-founded
in neuroscience and our
understanding of how the brain functions. Zull (2004) relates
experiential learning to brain
functioning and previously argued that concrete experiences
(feeling) come through the sensory
cortex; reflective observation (reflection and understanding)
involves the integrated cortex at the
back, creating new abstract concepts (thinking) occurs in the
frontal integrative cortex, and the active
testing (doing) involves the motor brain. In other words, the
learning cycle arises from the structure
of the brain (p. 18). Notwithstanding, Damasio (2006), LeDoux
(1998), and others (Bar-On, Tranel,
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15
Denburg, & Bechara, 2003; Carr, 2004; Corey, 2009; Greenberg
& Snell, 1997; LeDoux & Hirst,
1987) demonstrated evidence that feelings and emotions are
inextricably bound to reasoning and
cognitive processes. They further argue that positive emotions
have supportive effects on what
individuals learn, whereas negative emotions, such as anxieties,
may inhibit learning and therefore
restrict their cognitive capacity to learn or make prudential
decisions (Antonacopoulou & Gabriel,
2001; Antonakis, et al., 2009; Hayton & Cholakova,
2012).
Nevertheless, individual differences based on genetic
dispositions, existing experiences, and the
prevalent environmental situation may influence, which learning
modes individuals characteristically
use (Kolb & Kolb, 2005, 2008). Kolb not only considers
learning through cognition and information
processing, but also incorporates and combines the three main
realms of human learning, affect
(feeling), cognition (thinking), and behaviour (doing), to
create an effective model for integrated and
flexible human learning (Cassidy, 2004; Desmedt & Valcke,
2004). In summary, Kolbs learning
theory has its foundation in pragmatism and social action
theories (Dewey, 1938; Lewin, 1951), but
it is also based on cognition with a strong link to thinking
(Piaget, 1971). It therefore emphasises, a
process of learning through experience within a social context,
incorporating three major aspects of
learning: through feeling, thinking, and doing.
Schools of Counselling (SOC)
The fourth discipline required to develop the ARM model examined
different schools of counselling
and investigated how emotion-related abilities can be developed
in therapeutic and clinical settings.
The major schools of counselling, explicitly the affective,
cognitive, and behavioural schools, apply
different methods and techniques to nurture emotion-related
abilities (Corey, 2009).
First, according to Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (2004) EI is
defined as emotion-related abilities
(perceiving, understanding, using and managing emotions)
predicated on their understanding of
emotion and intelligence. The necessity of devising a
theoretical framework which develops
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16
emotion-related abilities was then accordingly: the
consideration of emotion and intelligence, and
how to develop these emotion-related abilities based on the EI
construct definition from Mayer,
Salovey and Caruso (2004, 2006). Therefore, it appears effective
to include affective and cognitive
developmental processes as well as the substantial link between
both emotion and cognition, to
ameliorate individuals emotion-related abilities (Mausolff,
2006; Mayer, et al., 2004).
In addition, the behavioural development process takes into
account a behaviour-expressive
perspective and is based on the two aforementioned affective
(emotional awareness) and cognitive
(emotional reflection) realms. Affect addresses the first
ability EI dimension (perceiving emotions),
whereas cognition addresses the second and third EI construct
dimension (using and understanding
emotions). The behavioural-expressive perspective demonstrates
whether an individual is actually
capable of behaving in an emotionally intelligent manner and
therefore whether he or she can
manage their emotions successfully. The behavioural school of
counselling thus appears to be an
ideal candidate for incorporation into a theory for developing
emotion-related abilities. Therefore,
learning through experience and role-plays are essential to
underpin a holistic notion4 of developing
emotion-related abilities and skills with sustainable effects.
The ARM model was devised to provide
opportunities for practice and role-plays within particularly
conceptualised training to assimilate and
internalise the relevant emotion-related abilities and skills.
It therefore addresses the criteria for
andragogy (Brookfield, 1995; Knowles, 1990).
Second, the challenging and related contents of the approaches
used by affective, cognitive and
behavioural schools of counselling delineate appropriate and
effective developmental components
for an emotionally intelligent training intervention, such as
emotional perception, critical thinking
and reflection on emotions perceived, how emotions affect
thinking and behaviour, and how thinking
may change ones emotional perception.
4 Inclusion what individuals feel, think, and their actual
behaviour in terms of action and interaction
-
17
The ARM model proposes a triadic approach to the different
schools of counselling. ARM draws on
affective (emotional Awareness), cognitive (emotional
Reflection), and behavioural (emotional
Management) theories and underlying interventions (Corey, 2009;
Dryden, 1994; Hannabuss, 1997;
Herbert, 1986). The affective approach expounds Client-centered
(Rogers, 1986) and Gestalt (Perls,
1971) counselling; the cognitive approach expounds
Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy (Ellis,
1995a) and Transactional Analysis (Berne, 1975). Finally, the
behavioural approach, that includes
active and vivid behaviour rehearsals, draws on behaviour
therapy (Lazarus, 1971). Moreover,
almost any management training concept has its antecedents in
psychology and psychotherapy and
vice versa (Kets de Vries, 2003; Phillips & Fraser, 1982),
but research differentiates between
therapeutic and developmental (coaching-oriented) perspectives
to support individuals. For instance,
Eugene Gendlin (1998), a student of Carl Rogers (1951), who
invented the Focusing for
management development. Focusing appears to be beneficial for
psychotherapy and is applied to
therapeutic treatment (Bergermann, 2000; Gendlin, 1998). Thus,
the considerations for a more
practical use and the modification of therapeutic treatment into
a developmental perspective evolved
into the proposed theoretical model (ARM model). ARM develops
emotion-related abilities and
fosters individuals in andragogy with effective abilities and
skills required in management education
and at the workplace (Antonakis, et al., 2009; Holt & Jones,
2005; Moriarty & Buckley, 2003;
Starkey & Tiratsoo, 2007).
Subsequently, the affective, cognitive and behavioural schools
of counselling and their potential to
develop emotion-related abilities will be delineated, according
to the EI construct definition from
Mayer et al. (2006). Therefore, the proposed ARM model focuses
on developing emotion-related
abilities (ability EI) such as emotional perception by using the
affective school of counselling; using
emotions to facilitate thinking and understanding emotions by
using the cognitive school of
counselling, and managing emotions by using the behavioural
school of counselling. The following
section discusses the conceptualisation of the ARM model.
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18
The ARM Conceptualisation
The ARM model is a theoretical concept for developing
emotion-related abilities (ability EI). It has
three underlying dimensions which focus on developing abilities
in the affective, cognitive, and
behaviour-oriented realms. The affective ARM dimension develops
abilities such as emotional
perception and awareness. The cognitive ARM dimension develops
abilities such as cogitation,
thinking, reflecting, and analysing emotional information. The
integration of emotional information
facilitates the development of abilities in thinking and
understanding of emotions. The behavioural-
expressive dimension develops abilities such as emotional
management and how to manage and
regulate emotions in oneself and others. The following sections
outline the conceptualisation of the
three ARM dimensions in more detail.
ARM Emotional Awareness
The ARM model addresses the first dimension of the affective
realm of EI development, emotional
Awareness, and supports learning through feeling trust,
confidence, and feeling safe within a group.
Learning theory (Kolb, 2008), in particular learning through
feeling involves the awareness of a
concrete experience or situation both an intrapersonal and
interpersonal perspectives and the
information they entail. The learning process is determined
through human values, expressions,
empathy, feeling secure, trust, appreciation and respect (Kolb
& Kolb, 2008; Kolb, 1984).
The approaches used by the affective school of counselling,
explicitly, Client-centered (Rogers,
1986) and Gestalt theory (Matthew & Sayers, 1999), support
the first ARM dimension developing
emotion-related abilities in emotional awareness and perception.
The Client-centered approach
fosters an empathetic and trustful relationship between
facilitator and client, and counts on the self-
actualising tendency of individuals towards development and
growth. This may facilitate the
processes of perceiving and the disclosing of emotional distress
and problems. Attentive and
empathetic listening further supports the self-awareness of
individuals allowing them to realise their
capacities, strengths and weaknesses.
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19
Similarly, Gestalt theory aims to perceive individuals as
holistic entities with their idiosyncratic
awareness of emotions, perceptions, beliefs, and thoughts not
isolated from their environment. An
individuals awareness and the perception of their Gestalt are in
the foreground considering both
intra- and interpersonal emotional awareness and perception, to
improve their sensitive
understanding of themselves and others. An individuals Gestalt
or the image they perceive is not
judged or evaluated by others since it is their idiosyncratic
perception. Both Client-centered and
Gestalt theory provide methods for facilitating the development
of emotion-related abilities in
intrapersonal and interpersonal emotional awareness and
perception. It thus addresses the first ARM
dimension, emotional Awareness.
ARM Emotional Reflection
The second and cognitive ARM dimension, emotional Reflection,
refers to learning theory (Kolb &
Kolb, 2008; Kolb, 1984). In particular, learning through
thinking and reflection, analysis and the
understanding of emotions is contextualised in specific
situations. The approaches used by the
cognitive school of counselling, particularly Transactional
Analysis (TA) (Berne, 1975) and
Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) (Ellis, 1995b) provide
methods for developing
emotion-related abilities in reasoning, analysis and reflection
on perceived emotions.
First, TA demonstrates different communication styles inherent
in any individual to develop abilities
in reasoning, analyses and understanding the communication in
oneself and others. This process may
provide individuals with different options for how to think and
communicate constructively in
emotion-laden situations. The three ego communication styles
depict differently structured
motivations of individuals. For instance, the child ego,
responds in an emotional mode without
thinking whether it might be appropriate to express emotions.
The parent ego responds to what might
be adequate according to societal norms and expectations,
neglecting the emotional perspective, and
whether an individual feels it is the right thing to do. The
adult ego responds in a more balanced way
in that it is considers both awareness (affect) and reflection
(cognition) on emotions, and therefore
-
20
facilitates an emotionally intelligent communication and
behaviour. Second, REBT questions
irrational or self-defeating tendencies or counterproductive
self-images individuals might have. It
develops different options to look at certain perceptions from a
more prudent perspective. Negative
or counter-productive emotional perceptions and self-assessments
may destructively influence
individuals, their self-esteem, self-confidence, and overall
potential. This may cause emotional
disturbances and impair their overall cognitive performance and
wellbeing. The questioning process
and the mutual interaction of emotion and cognition thereof may
modify emotional awareness
channelling it into a positive and self-encouraging direction.
It facilitates progress in order to
construe putative threats as chances or challenges, which
fosters rational thinking and analysis,
adaptive emotions, and functional behaviour patterns. The
reflection process can thereby generally
improve abilities in emotional awareness to become more
constructive and consequently, may amend
reflection and thinking as presented in Table 2.
>>>>>>>>>>>> TABLE 2 ABOUT
HERE
The interdependent emotion-cognition-loop enables individuals to
reflect on the emotions perceived
to infer whether or not it is the right time and the right
situation to express them. For instance, it is
evidently not the right situation to express great happiness
about a promotion, when a colleague has
just been dismissed. Consequently, TA and REBT foster cognitive
processes that is thinking,
analysis and reflection on the emotions perceived, and thus
address the second ARM dimension to
develop abilities in emotional Reflection.
ARM Emotional Management
The third, behaviour-related ARM dimension, emotional
Management, refers to learning theory
(Kolb & Kolb, 2008; Kolb, 1984). More specifically,
emotional management focuses on learning
through doing and focuses on behavioural-expressive components
that enable an individuals
learning process incorporates practice and experience of
emotionally intelligent behaviour (in
rehearsals and simulations). The approach used by the
behavioural school of counselling, particularly
-
21
in behaviour theory (Eysenck, 1960; Lazarus, 1971; Skinner,
1953; Wolpe, 1982), depicts that
adaptive or functional behaviour can be learnt whereas
maladaptive or dysfunctional behaviour can
be diminished or replaced. Efficient learning methods are
operant learning (reinforcement),
imitative learning (role models), cognitive learning
(contracts), and emotional learning (classical
conditioning) (see Covey, 2009). Therefore, emotionally
intelligent behaviour and abilities can be
learnt from both group members and facilitators through
reinforcement to corroborate or complement
appropriate behaviour or to learn from role models and their
effective behavioural strategies. Further
learning through personal contracts can support individuals in
setting certain targets and which
explicit behaviour (behavioural change to manage emotion) they
want to achieve. Classical
conditioning can initiate a learning process through stimuli
(eliciting an emotion) and response
(behavioural reaction) with reinforcement to modify behaviour,
thereby transform it into emotionally
intelligent behaviour (Corey, 2009; Matthew & Sayers,
2001).
The emotional management of the underlying ARM model is
physically a more active part, yet
interdependent with the first (emotional awareness) and second
dimension (emotional reflection). In
emotional management learning by doing dominates
behavioural-oriented learning and emotional
coping strategies particularly drawn on behaviour rehearsals
(role-plays), goal setting tasks,
workshops, and emotional simulations. This modus operandi
facilitates the internalising of
prerequisite abilities in emotional awareness, followed by
abilities in emotional reflection. Only what
is perceived and conscious can be managed constructively.
To date, scholars have acknowledged the interdependencies of
emotion, cognition, and behaviour.
Research in developing ability EI employs various role-play
situations in order to develop emotion-
related abilities and coping styles and how to deal with
emotional events in specific situations.
Moreover, Jordan et al. (2002), Slaski and Cartright (2003),
Lopes et al. (2004), Murray et al. (2004),
Haertel et al. (2005), and Nelis et al. (2011; 2009) ascertained
that EI can effectively be trained using
-
22
interpersonal role-play tasks and simulations of real life
situations5. This is concordant with learning
theory and adult education or andragogy. Andragogy delineates a
more practical and experiential
learning orientation and focuses on emotion-laden daily life
situations, which can be appropriately
applied into behaviour rehearsals and role-plays (Knowles,
1990).
Finally, the behavioural aspect may support individuals in EI
interventions to internalise and practise
abilities they have developed through the underlying ARM model,
for instance, emotional awareness
through the Client-centered theory and Gestalt; emotional
reflection through TA and REBT in order
to connect emotion with cognition to reason, analyse, reflect on
and make sense and use of emotional
information. The behavioural dimension, emotional management,
combined with emotional
awareness and reflection, may convey emotion-related abilities
and skills practically applied to
adaptive and pro-social (emotionally intelligent) behaviour.
Rehearsals and role plays may nurture
abilities in emotional management. It consequently might gain
increases in emotion-related abilities
(EI) after the training supported by others (Murray, et al.,
2004; Nelis, et al., 2009; Slaski &
Cartwright, 2003).
Conclusion
This chapter discussed the conceptualisation of an innovative
theoretical framework to develop
emotion-related abilities (ability EI). The ARM model answers
the critique raised by Zeidner et al.
(2002, 2009) and others whether EI as a cognitive ability can be
developed or schooled and if so,
then a scientific elaborated theoretical framework is definitely
still missing. This chapter fills in the
research gap for several reasons. First, the ARM model is doing
justice which considers emotion,
intelligence, and emotional intelligence. Second, the ARM model
is based on EI as cognitive ability
according to the EI construct definition from Mayer et al.
(2006). The ARM theory aims to develop
an individuals maximum performance (abilities) rather than their
typical performance (traits,
5 How to promote behavioural interventions is outlined in
Cherniss & Adler (2000)
-
23
competencies). Third, the EI construct (Mayer, et al., 2006) was
analysed and demerged to
investigate the underlying emotion-related abilities in more
detail. During the analysis of the EI
construct three main realms became apparent: the perception of
emotions (affect), reasoning and
reflection of emotions (cognition), and coping with and managing
emotions (behaviour). The third
and second EI dimensions are subsumed under the cognitive ARM
realm because they are the most
cognitively saturated parts within the ability EI framework
(Mayer, et al., 2001: 235). This modus
operandi facilitates the developmental aspect in order to
develop emotion-related abilities. However,
it does not suggest refining the ability EI construct
definition. Fourth, during the conceptualisation of
the ARM theory both learning theories and schools of counselling
were investigated and analysed to
ascertain the potential for developing ability EI or more
specifically, for developing emotion-
related abilities of the EI construct in perceiving, reflecting
and reasoning, and managing emotions.
Experiential learning theory (Kolb & Kolb, 2005) and the
affective, cognitive, and behavioural
school of counselling (Corey, 2005) were applied to nurture
emotion-related abilities according to
the ARM theory. Finally, ongoing research is needed to apply and
operationalise the benefits of the
first theoretical framework (ARM model) to develop
emotion-related abilities (ability EI) by using
rigour ability EI measures (i.e. MSCEIT).
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24
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Appendix
Figure 1
Figure 1: ARM Model to develop Ability Emotional
Intelligence
EI Development:
Emotional Awareness
(Feeling)
Gestalt (Perls) Client-centered (Rogers)
Emotional Reflection
(Thinking)
REBT (Ellis) Transactional TA (Berne)
Emotional Management
(Doing)
Experimentation Role Play, work shops, simulation
Affective
Cognitive
BehaviouralMayerSaloveyCarusoEI Model
Emotional Perception
Emotional Management
Emotional UnderstandingEmotional Integration
ARM Model to EI training
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Table1
Affect
(Awareness)
Cognition
(Reflection)
Behaviour
(Management)
Emotional Intelligence (Mayer & Salovey, 1997)
Emotional awareness and
perception
Integrate emotions into
thinking, understand and reflect on emotions
Manage and regulate
emotions
Learning Theory
Experiential Learning (Kolb, 1984)
Learning through feeling
Learning through thinking
Learning through doing
Developmental Perspective
Schools of Counselling (SOC)
Affective SOC
> Gestalt (Perls, 1971) > Client-Centered Therapy
(Rogers, 1986)
Cognitive SOC
> Transactional Analysis
(Berne, 1975) > Rational-Emotive
Behaviour Therapy
(Ellis, 1995)
Behaviour SOC
> Role Rehearsals
> Simulations, Activities
(Lazarus, 1958; Eysenck, 1960; Wolpe, 1966; Krumboltz, 1969)
Table 1: ARM Dimensions to develop emotion-related abilities in
relation to learning theory and SOC
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33
Table 2
Cognitive consequences of rational and irrational thinking:
Cognitive process Cause emotions Manifest in
Irrational Cognition Maladaptive Emotions Dysfunctional
Behaviour Patterns
Rational Cognition Adaptive Emotions Functional Behaviour
Patterns
Table 2: Cognition related to Emotion & Behaviour, Source:
Adapted from Corey (2009), p. 132