The ARM Model to develop emotion-related abilities (Ability EI)

0

Individual Sources, Dynamics, and Expressions of Emotion, Research on Emotions in Organizations vol. 9

Chapter: 6

Title: The ARM Model to develop emotion-related abilities (Ability EI)

Abstract

This chapter introduces the new theoretical framework for developing emotion-related abilities

according to the Emotional Intelligence construct definition of Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (2006).

The ARM model has been devised and demonstrates a triadic cycle of emotional Awareness,

Reflection, and Management relating to affect, cognition, and behaviour. The ARM model

constitutes an approach to nurture emotion-related abilities (ability EI) and responds to criticism

raised by Zeidner, Roberts, and Matthews (2009). The ARM Theory was corroborated by both

learning theory and schools of counselling. The potential to develop emotion-related abilities in

emotional awareness, reflection and reasoning, coping and management is discussed.

Keywords: Emotional Intelligence Development, Ability EI, Developing emotion-related abilities, EI

Interventions

Author: Wolfgang G. Scherl Business School University of Stralsund Zur Schwedenschanze 15 18435 Stralsund Germany Email: [email protected] Phone: 0049 – 3831-456820 Fax: 0049 – 3831-456790 Biography: Wolfgang G. Scherl is Professor at the Business School, University of Stralsund. He did his PhD at the University of Nottingham in organizational psychology in the field of developing emotion-related abilities and Ability Emotional Intelligence. His current research interests focus on developing emotion-related abilities (ability EI), management development, leadership, soft skills and management education. He developed a new theoretical framework to develop emotion-related abilities (ability EI) and operationalized the intervention by applying the MSCEIT instrument.

1

Introduction

The development of Emotional Intelligence (EI) is still in its infancy despite the numerous

consultancies that offer EI training programmes for organisations. Such development concepts are

missing serious scientific underpinnings and the benefits for individuals as well as corporations are,

respectively, questionable and scientifically not evident (Ciarrochi, Chan, & Caputi, 2000; Clarke,

2006; Jordan, Ashkanasy, Haertel, & Hooper, 2002; Lindebaum, 2009; Lopes, Côté, & Salovey,

2006; Matthews, Roberts, & Zeidner, 2004; McEnrue & Groves, 2006; Zeidner, Roberts, &

Matthews, 2002).

Research on EI development makes several claims to provide benefits for individuals, corporations,

and education; however the accomplishment of such EI interventions remains ambiguous (Clarke,

2006; Zeidner, Roberts, & Matthews, 2008). More recently, high magnitude in EI appears to have

several benefits for private and business settings. Individuals with a high level of EI are generally

found to be healthier, emotionally more stable, more resilient, and less susceptible to emotional

exhaustion and burnout (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; McQeen, 2004; Storm & Rothmann, 2003).

The perceived benefits for corporations may include improved performance (Côté & Miners, 2006;

Law, Wong, Huang, & Li, 2008), lower absenteeism and fluctuation rates (Brotheridge & Grandey,

2002), efficient leadership styles (Antonakis, Ashkanasy, & Dasborough, 2009; Gardner & Stough,

2002; Palmer, Walls, Burgess, & Stough, 2001), lower levels of stress, enhanced health and well-

being (Mikolajczak, Luminet, & Menil, 2006), and efficient team processes (Halfhill & Nielsen,

2007; Moriarty & Buckley, 2003). Due to the increasing importance of EI, several researchers

postulate the development of EI, not, however, with concepts recommended by popular science

literature, but rather with scientifically sound and theoretically grounded interventions focusing on

a robust EI framework and emotional abilities (Clarke, 2006; Lopes, et al., 2006; Zeidner, et al.,

2002).

2

However, EI development literature is very optimistic; it recommends EI training and development

to enhance emotion-related abilities and skills, particularly for corporations (Bachkirova & Cox,

2007; Cherniss & Adler, 2000; Ciarrochi, Forgas, & Mayer, 2001) and education (Bay & Mckeage,

2006; Boyatzis, Stubbs, & Taylor, 2002; Qualter, Gardner, & Whiteley, 2007; Wong, Foo, Wang, &

Wong, 2007; Zeidner, et al., 2002, 2008).

The educational sector, particularly primary and secondary education, is concentrating on the

development of emotion-related abilities and skills, and has been integrating such training activities

for years (Cohen, 1999; Elias, Hunter, & Kress, 2001; Elias, Zins, & Weissberg, 1997; Greenberg,

Zins, & Elias, 2003; Hennessy, 2007; Kusche & Greenberg, 2001).

Various programmes in social and emotional learning (SEL) are discussed in Zins, et al. (2007;

2004) to enhance emotion-related abilities and skills (Zeidner, Matthews, & Roberts, 2009). SEL

supports students developing their abilities and skills in effective communication, self-perception,

active listening, emotional self-control, problem-solving, social skills, and in decreasing problem

behaviour in school (Elliott & Gresham, 1993; Greenberg, et al., 2003; Hennessy, 2007; Kelly,

Longbottom, Potts, & Williamson, 2004; Kusche & Greenberg, 2001). Only a few programmes in

SEL applied systematic assessment tools to operationalise their results. Therefore, the benefits of

these SEL programmes on students’ overall EI are ambiguous. However, the bulk of research has

been discussing possibilities for developing EI (Campell, Campell, & Dickinson, 1992; Caruso &

Salovey, 2004; Cherniss & Adler, 2000; Tucker, Sojka, Barone, & McCarthy, 2000), but some rather

critically (Clarke, 2006; Lopes, et al., 2006; Matthews, Emo, Roberts, & Zeidner, 2006; Salovey &

Sluyter, 1997; Zeidner, Matthews, Roberts, & MacCann, 2003; Zeidner, et al., 2002) due both to

different EI conceptualisations and the paucity of appropriate theories and conceptualisations for

developing emotion-related abilities.

3

In particular, Zeidner et al. (2009) raise legitimate criticism against the modus operandi of such EI

interventions. There are two main caveats to be considered. First, research in EI differentiates

between two distinct conceptualisations – namely trait EI and ability EI. If EI can be developed, then

the question emerges whether EI as a construct of emotion-related abilities or traits is addressed. The

first is related to cognitive intelligence and an individual’s maximum performance, and the second is

related to the personality framework and an individual’s typical performance (Boyatzis, 2009;

Freudenthaler & Neubauer, 2007).

Second, EI development programmes are too broadly defined, including various social and emotion-

related abilities, skills and competencies. Excessively defined development programmes have the

least EI-relevant content and neglect to concentrate on a clear EI concept – either ability EI or trait EI

– and their underlying abilities and skills to be developed. Therefore, a clearly defined theoretical

framework to develop EI is essential. Hitherto, only for trait EI have there been some concepts to

develop emotion-related skills and competencies (Cherniss & Adler, 2000; Nelis, Quoidbach,

Hansenne, Kotsou, & Mikolajczak, 2011; Nelis, Quoidbach, Mikolajczak, & Hansenne, 2009).

However, for ability EI a clearly-defined theoretical framework to develop emotion-related abilities

and an individual’s maximum performance is still missing (Zeidner, et al., 2009). This chapter

outlines the first theoretical framework to develop ability EI based on the EI construct definition

from Mayer et al. (2008a). It thus does justice to the legitimate criticism of Zeidner et al. (2009) that

“EI intervention programs should be based on a solid theoretical framework, permitting a clear

definition of EI” (p. 245). Therefore, the concept of ability EI is to be discussed followed by the

developmental model to develop emotion-related abilities (ability EI).

Ability Emotional Intelligence

The question ‘if emotions and intelligence are interrelated or, if so, how they are interrelated or even

more, is there a kind of intelligence that is actually based on emotions?’, was answered by Salovey

and Mayer (1990), who presented their construct of ‘Emotional Intelligence’ (EI) justified by

4

combining emotion and intelligence (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000b). Their definition of EI is

based on emotion-related mental abilities and clearly differentiates to existing trait and competency

models of EI. Salovey and Mayer (1990) originally defined EI as the “ability to monitor one’s own

and others’ emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s thinking

and actions” (p. 189).

It is therefore important to differentiate between intrapersonal and interpersonal emotions and the

substantial information they contribute to cognition and behaviour. However, one important

component in their previous definition is missing, which is considered the prerequisite of EI: the

perception of emotions. “Emotional intelligence cannot begin without the first branch of emotional

intelligence” (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000a:109), that is, emotional perception. Emotional

perception deciphers emotional expressions and signals and uses voice, tone, facial expression, and

emotional reactions to perceive multifaceted emotional information. Emotions can only be monitored

if individuals are aware of them, which has been included in their refined definition of EI. They later

define EI as the “ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought,

to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to regulate emotions reflectively so as to

promote emotional and intellectual growth” (Mayer & Salovey, 1997: 5). Based on this definition

and warranted by consideration of emotion and intelligence, EI is structured into four dimensions

which incorporate emotional perception, integration, understanding and management (Caruso &

Salovey, 2004; Mayer, et al., 2008a; Mayer, et al., 2000a; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2006).

Emotional perception describes the awareness and identification of the emotions in oneself and

others. It involves the ability to grasp emotions and feelings, and to recognise and differentiate

between honest and dishonest emotional expression. The second dimension, emotional integration,

describes the process of entering into the cognitive system where emotions induce cognitive

processes and may change cognition positively (joy) to facilitate, or negatively (anxiety), to

exacerbate thinking processes.

5

The thinking process can therefore have empowering effects in terms of positive emotions such as

being more creative and facilitating thinking to perceiving a new job as a challenge rather than as a

threat. The thinking process can also have debilitating effects in terms of negative emotions such as

being mentally more restricted and captured due to anxiety or failure. The third dimension, emotional

understanding, describes the abilities of understanding, interpreting and analysing emotions,

interrelations and their different meanings, for instance, the relation between loving and liking a

person or simultaneous emotions of love and hate, and the ability to reason with the emotions

perceived. The second and third dimension, emotional integration and understanding, reveals the

dominant interdependency between emotion and cognition to assimilate and understand emotional

information (information processing). According to the EI construct theory by Mayer and colleagues

(2006), cognition has substantial valence in their second and third EI dimension to ameliorate

emotion-related cognitive processes; emotional integration and emotional understanding are the

“most cognitively saturated” (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2001: 235) abilities in the EI

construct definition. Cognition processes emotional information and makes sense and use of it, also

in terms of problem solving and decision making. Therefore, ARM focuses on the development of

cognitive emotion-related abilities in its second dimension.

The fourth dimension, emotion management, is concerned with coping and how individuals manage

their own emotions (intrapersonal) and those of others (interpersonal). It addresses emotional coping

to enhance or maintain positive emotions, and alleviate negative emotions, but not to suppress them

or the information they may contain. Emotional management is a behavioural-expressive part of EI,

based on the previous dimensions (perception, integration, and understanding) to manage and

regulate emotions, occurring within or between individuals. Consequently, individuals can only

manage what they are aware of, or what they really know about emotions – their own and those of

others. It becomes sensible that emotional perception is the foundation that emotional integration,

understanding and management are built upon (Mayer, et al., 2000a; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso,

2008b).

6

Developing Ability EI - The ARM Model

The theoretical model, the ARM model, incorporates three dimensions to develop emotion-related

abilities or what is labelled ability EI; e.g. emotional Awareness, Reflection and Management

(ARM). ARM was developed to nurture emotion-related abilities (ability EI) where EI is defined as

mental ability, and thus doing justice to emotion and intelligence (Antonakis, et al., 2009; Jordan &

Ashkanasy, 2008; Zeidner, et al., 2009). This model attempts to answer the criticism of Zeidner et al.

(2009; 2002) that the development of ability EI is ambiguous and a clearly structured and elaborated

theoretical framework to develop emotion-related abilities is still missing.

The ARM model is based on the EI construct definition from Mayer et al. (2006) which includes

abilities such as perceiving emotions, using and understanding emotions and managing emotions.

Predicated on this definition of EI and the underlying emotion-related abilities, considerations were

made – first, by learning theory and how individuals gather knowledge and skills, and second, by the

affective, cognitive and behavioural school of counselling. During research on how to develop

emotion-related abilities it appeared, however, difficult to find a unique learning theory and a unique

counselling approach to nurture and develop holistically EI. A triadic approach was suggested and

became successively apparent. During the initial analysis of the EI construct, the four composite EI

dimensions from Mayer et al. (2006) were isolated into four main realms. This process facilitated the

understanding and continuative analysis of each single dimension and the emotion-related abilities

involved. Emotion-related abilities were then structured into three developmental realms: affect,

cognition and behaviour.

According to the EI definition and a developmental perspective of emotion-related abilities, three

main realms relate to: first, the notion that affect subsumes ‘perceiving emotions’; second, the idea

that cognition subsumes ‘using emotions to facilitate thinking’ and the ‘understanding and analysis

of the meaning of emotions perceived’; and third, that behaviour subsumes ‘managing and working

with emotions judiciously’. However, the three realms: affect, cognition and behaviour, are

7

interdependent because only what is known or an individual is aware of can be understood and

managed. A mind map was delineated to reveal initial considerations and thinking processes for how

to separate and develop emotion-related abilities predicated on the EI construct definition from

Mayer et al. (2006).

As previously mentioned, the separation of the EI abilities revealed that learning theory and selected

schools of counselling (SOC) may display some potential to develop these emotion-related abilities.

Subsequently, a new model (ARM model) is proposed to develop emotion-related abilities. The

triadic approach delineates first, ‘A’ for emotional Awareness, for instance, “What do I feel?” or

“Which emotions are accompanying me during the business meeting or exam?” Second, ‘R’

describes the Reflection on emotions, the thinking, the reasoning and discussion about specific

emotions perceived in daily situations, for instance, “Why do I feel like that?”, followed by

questions, “Does it make sense?” or “Is it appropriate to be captured by certain emotions?” It is thus

connecting emotion with cognition to support emotional reasoning, analysis, and reflection on

perceived emotions. Third, ‘M’ describes the Management of emotions, which addresses a practice-

oriented and behaviour-expressive approach. This facilitates to coping with emotional events in both

intrapersonal and interpersonal spheres, and to regulating appropriately and expressing – rather than

suppressing emotions. The ARM model is presented in Figure 1.

>>>>>>>> FIGURE 1 ABOUT HERE

The ARM model to develop emotion-related abilities is founded on the ability model of EI from

Mayer et al. (1997; 2006), which subsumes four dimensions of EI; emotional perception, emotional

integration, emotional understanding, and emotional management. The ARM model encompasses

three developmental dimensions such as affect (awareness and perception), cognition (reasoning and

8

eflection), and behaviour (managing). It incorporates either, learning theories1 to consider different

possibilities of how individuals learn (Kolb & Kolb, 2005), and developmental aspects of selective

schools of counselling2 to facilitate and foster the development of emotion-related abilities (Corey,

2009). In summary, the EI construct covers three developmental realms for nurturing emotion-related

abilities that are affect, cognition, and behaviour (behavioural expression). Three ARM dimensions

facilitate the development of emotion-related abilities such as emotional awareness, reflection, and

management. First, according to EI, affect incorporates abilities in awareness and perception of intra-

and interpersonal emotions. Second, cognition proceeds and involves thinking processes to

assimilate emotions, that is, to reflect on, understand and analyse perceived emotions which can be

either positive or negative in nature. This process can facilitate thinking in terms of positive emotions

(being happy, feeling lucky, being in love) or impede thinking in terms of negative emotions (rage,

being angry, feeling unlucky). The thinking process is also able to change negatively-perceived

emotions into positive ones e.g. to reflect on sadness, or if there might also be another angle to look

at the current situation and find a solution. Further, thinking may transform a feeling of hopelessness

into a more constructive one, i.e. to investigate opportunities and find loopholes and change the

situation or solve a problem.

Therefore, thinking can amend the perceived emotions according to Ellis’ (2003) theory and

consequently, thinking changes again – the emotion-cognition loop is interdependent and interacts

continuously. Thinking and reflecting on emotions reveals the importance of whether the perceived

emotion makes sense (in case of self defeating) or if someone feels unhappy with the actual

circumstances. In that case, cognition can elicit how to change the situation in order to feel happy

once again. In other cases, someone might consider expressing the perceived emotion immediately or

think and reason first about it, thus finding a more constructive possibility to express appropriately

the perceived emotion in order not to insult or offend another person. Third, the behaviour-

1 Learning through Feeling – Thinking – Doing 2 Affective – Cognitive – Behavioural School of Counselling

9

expressive realm of EI entails ways of acting and interacting in an emotionally intelligent way to

manage successfully and regulate emotions perceived. Based on the two aforementioned realms,

affect and cognition of EI, the third realm, behaviour, may complement holistically the circle of

emotion-cognition-behaviour. The management of emotions involves the prerequisite emotion-

related abilities, the awareness and understanding of, and reflection on emotions connected with how

to express and behave in a judicious and emotionally intelligent way. These three realms reveal the

developmental potential of emotion-related abilities in affect, cognition and behaviour.

>>>>>>>>>>>>>> TABLE 1 ABOUT HERE

Having now a ternary but interdependent developmental concept, EI incorporates affect, cognition,

and behaviour, which is outlined in Table 1. It appears that the three main realms of EI apply to a

developmental perspective to combine both the learning cycle (Kolb, 1984), and its underlying

triadic learning theory (feeling, thinking, doing), and the affective, cognitive, and behavioural school

of counselling (Corey, 2009; Hannabuss, 1997; Herbert, 1986) to develop emotion-related abilities.

The Four Disciplines of Ability EI Development

The development of the ARM model to develop ability EI encompasses four disciplines: emotion

intelligence, learning theory, and counselling, incorporating a developmental and coaching-related

perspective to nurture individual growth, and to anticipate future hassles and disturbances, which are

to be discussed in more detail.

Emotions

Emotions not only play a dominant role in people’s working environments but also in their private

lives (Ashkanasy, Haertel, & Zerbe, 2000; Cherniss & Goleman, 2001; Haertel, Zerbe, & Ashkanasy,

2009). Even though emotions are accepted in the latter, they seem to be ignored in the workplace and

in education (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1995; Elias, et al., 1997; Haertel, et al., 2009; Muchinsky,

2000). Only recently the importance of emotions and their impact on and their utilisation for work

10

performance (Ashkanasy, 2002; Ashkanasy, et al., 2000; Bachkirova & Cox, 2007; Elfenbein &

Ambady, 2002; Giardini & Frese, 2006; Gibson, 2006; Haertel, et al., 2009), and education (Bay &

Mckeage, 2006; Dirkx, 2006; Greenberg, et al., 2003; Hennessy, 2007; Lopes, Salovey, Côté, &

Beers, 2005; Moore & Kuol, 2007), has stimulated further research. Emotions cannot be separated

from individuals during their working hours or the time spent in school because emotions are

intrinsically tied to integral human functioning (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1995; Reddy, 2001).

Emotions are phenomena elicited in response to a stimulus and appear in a ternary process,

incorporating affective (sheer feeling of an emotion), cognitive (appraisal of the felt emotion), and

behavioural (coping with and appropriate expression of the felt emotion) components, and can be

either positive or negative (Frijda, 2008; Izard & Ackerman, 2000). Significantly, the interrelation

between emotion and cognition discloses a thinking process appearing consciously and

unconsciously respectively. If a stimulus is causing a positive emotion (e.g. a compliment for

collaboration in class), it is more likely that the student will enjoy the class and thus be committed to

the teacher and the curriculum. Therefore, the student might want to experience the positive emotion

again and again (thinking about), and engage in the class by providing further collaboration (pro-

social behaviour). The ternary process appears in affect; in this case, the sheer perceived emotions

are joy and pleasure, and they are elicited by the teacher’s empowerment (positive stimulus). The

ramifications of the felt positive emotion on cognition and behaviour are supportive and empowering

but could also be devastating if the feedback is negative and ruinous.

Intelligence

In fact the definition of intelligence is yet difficult to depict, there is disagreement on how to explain

or define what is meant by intelligence. Different explanations have been outlined and discussed

which expound intelligence as a purposeful modus operandi, i.e. to allow one to think rationally and

adapt effectively to their environment (Wechsler, 1958), or as intellectual functioning and

differentiation among abstract, mechanical, and social intelligence (Thorndike, 1920). In a similar

11

vein it was proposed that academic and non-academic intelligence be separated to draw on a multiple

factor theory of intelligence because it was realized that individuals have multifaceted abilities in

processing different kinds of data differently (Thurstone, 1938). In contrast, others proposed only a

single intelligence factor for subsuming multifaceted mental abilities (Spearman, 1927).

Through advancing research and continuous refinement of both intelligence theory and testing, the

two-factor theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence was widely acknowledged and scientifically

traceable (Cattell, 1943). Fluid intelligence is mainly based in physiology, heritability, and is

genetically predisposed, as opposed to crystallized intelligence, which can be developed and is based

on knowledge, experience and education. Fluid intelligence demonstrates age-related alterations and

development until early adulthood and a decline afterwards (Berg, 2000; Kaufman & Horn, 1996;

Sternberg, 2003; 2000). Crystallized intelligence demonstrates gradual development over the life-

span by virtue of incremental educational, experiential and vocational knowledge and skills

(Ackerman, 2000; Santrock, 1997; Sternberg, 2000; Wagner, 2000). Further research concentrated

on intelligence as a cognitive performance or “a group of mental abilities” (Mayer, et al., 2000a:

105). These abilities are needed to “successfully complete (i.e. obtain a specific, desired outcome) a

task of defined difficulty, when testing conditions are favourable” (Carroll, 1993: 4). However,

intelligence tests can only operationalise the limited amplitude of cognitive abilities and intellectual

functioning, i.e. most of what is being learned in education and school settings (Neisser, 1979).

Manifold daily problems and challenges need cognitive processes like problem-solving, individual

capability and performance, and social adaptability, which are difficult to cover with prevalent

standardised intelligence tests (Kaufman, 2000; Stern & Guthke, 2001; Sternberg, 2003). On a

critical note, intelligence was therefore considered as “what an intelligence test measures” (Boring,

1923: 35) and intelligence “includes many abilities that the tests definitely do not test” (Neisser,

1979: 218). Even more, it might be difficult to count exclusively on intelligence test scores and

disregard other worthwhile mental abilities or multiple intelligences (Berg, 2000; Gardner, 1983;

Sternberg, 2003).

12

Indeed, intelligence has yet to find a consensual definition because of different theories and

conceptualisations and what might be included to be smart, cunning, or intelligent (Gardner, 1998;

Sternberg, Conway, Ketron, & Bernstein, 1981). Moreover, Gardner (1983, 1998) purported the

theory of multiple intelligences, there under logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, linguistic, bodily-

kinaesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligence. Sternberg and Kaufman (1998) argued for

a triadic theory of intelligence incorporating internal, external and experiential aspects of

intelligence. The different theories of intelligence refer to mental processes and abilities, and how

individuals process information, solve problems, and adapt to their environment. Intelligence

describes contextualized thinking-related abilities and cognitive performances, and not only skills or

behavioural aspects (Berg, 2000). Therefore, intelligence as proposed by Mayer, Caruso, and

Salovey (1999) should meet the three criteria of intelligence: first, intelligence represents a mental

performance and cognitive ability with clearly and objectively defined performance requirements

having veridical answers and not just the belief or wish that individuals behave and perform well

(Carroll, 1993; Mayer, et al., 1999). Second, intelligence should cover thematic-related abilities and

which intelligence is described, e.g. EI, but it should be discriminated from but convergent to an

already established intelligence (IQ) (Carroll, 1993; Mayer & Geher, 1996; Roberts, Zeidner, &

Matthews, 2001). Third, the developmental aspect should be fulfilled in that intelligence can develop

over the life-span and through experience (Ackerman & Rolfhus, 1999; Aronson, Fried, & Good,

2002; Berg, 2000; Daus & Ashkanasy, 2005; Day & Caroll, 2007; Mayer, et al., 1999; Roberts, et al.,

2001; Sternberg, 1998) or through particularly conceptualized interventions (Berg, 2000; Kyllonen,

Roberts, & Stankov, 2008).

In summary, intelligence can be described as multifaceted mental abilities operationalising a

cognitive performance and the intelligence construct in question, e.g. emotion-related abilities and

EI. The intelligence construct should be related to already existing intelligence measures, but also

distinct from them in order to avoid measurement redundancies. Finally, intelligence is malleable and

should alter through experience and age incorporating developmental and learning processes.

13

How Individuals Learn – Learning Theory

So far this chapter has clarified terminology and the understanding of emotion and intelligence.

Processes of change are processes of learning and adaptation. The third discipline necessary to

develop the ARM model to nurture emotion-related abilities emerged from the study of how

individuals learn. Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory depicts different styles of how

individuals learn and obtain knowledge and skills. He is the most cited author in learning style

literature (Desmedt & Valcke, 2004). His theory is based on Dewey (1938), Lewin (1951), and

Piaget (1971)3, the pioneers of learning through experience (learning-by-doing). Kolb (1984)

considers learning as a holistic process of adaptation to the entire world and needs a transaction

between the individual and the environment, and takes affective, cognitive, and behavioural learning

into account.

More specifically, he incorporates the learning through feeling, thinking, doing, and reflective

observation and describes “learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the

transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984: 26). Later he separates experiential learning into two

modes – grasping (feeling, thinking) and transforming (reflecting, doing) experience (Kolb & Kolb,

2005). The affective learning process of ‘feeling’ is characterised by being aware of a concrete

experience and the enjoyment of relating to others, the valuing of real situations and the interpersonal

(inter) action with others. It focuses on human values, empathy, emotions, and feeling comfortable

with harmony within a group. The feeling-learning process, therefore, aims to amend the intra-

emotional and inter-emotional learning process and raise our awareness of feelings. It further

facilitates what individuals learn from their emotions and feelings without being analytically

examined.

The cognitive learning process of ‘thinking’ and ‘reflective observation’ encompasses two realms.

First, thinking describes learning through logical thinking, abstraction, rationality, analysis, and

3 For an extensive review of learning theories see also Hergenhahn and Olsen (2005)

14

systematically approaches the pros and cons of a situation to facilitate reasoning and decision

making. Second, reflective observation focuses on learning through audio-visual and visual

perspectives, and subsumes the understanding and reflection of situations and individuals’ behaviour

from different perspectives. The cognitive learning relies on thinking and reflection to make sense of

individuals’ observations and fosters the formation of their own opinion. The two cognitive learning

processes have their main emphasis on thinking, whereas reflective observation incorporates a more

situational, social, human perspective which attempts to understand the entire context. A simplistic

and abstract ‘thinking’ process could take place independently of the actual interpersonal and

emotion-related situation. Consequently, reflective observation emphasises reflection and

understanding, incorporating the social context, whereas merely thinking is more concerned with

abstract systems and concepts (Kolb, 1984).

Third, the behavioural learning process of ‘doing’ focuses on active experimentation to actively

change individuals’ behaviour and situations, and on practical applications (DeWolfe-Waddill &

Marquardt, 2003). The emphasis is clearly on doing to accomplish tasks and ‘getting things done’.

The doing learning process is therefore behaviour-oriented, active, meritocratic, and result-oriented

(Kolb, 1984; Mainemelis, Boyatzis, & Kolb, 2002; Sensenig, 2003). To recap, the experiential

learning framework demonstrates the possibility that individuals learn differently and thus perceive

and process information to create knowledge and make use of it in different ways.

Moreover, the experiential learning theory is also well-founded in neuroscience and our

understanding of how the brain functions. Zull (2004) relates experiential learning to brain

functioning and previously argued that “concrete experiences (feeling) come through the sensory

cortex; reflective observation (reflection and understanding) involves the integrated cortex at the

back, creating new abstract concepts (thinking) occurs in the frontal integrative cortex, and the active

testing (doing) involves the motor brain. In other words, the learning cycle arises from the structure

of the brain” (p. 18). Notwithstanding, Damasio (2006), LeDoux (1998), and others (Bar-On, Tranel,

15

Denburg, & Bechara, 2003; Carr, 2004; Corey, 2009; Greenberg & Snell, 1997; LeDoux & Hirst,

1987) demonstrated evidence that feelings and emotions are inextricably bound to reasoning and

cognitive processes. They further argue that positive emotions have supportive effects on what

individuals learn, whereas negative emotions, such as anxieties, may inhibit learning and therefore

restrict their cognitive capacity to learn or make prudential decisions (Antonacopoulou & Gabriel,

2001; Antonakis, et al., 2009; Hayton & Cholakova, 2012).

Nevertheless, individual differences based on genetic dispositions, existing experiences, and the

prevalent environmental situation may influence, which learning modes individuals characteristically

use (Kolb & Kolb, 2005, 2008). Kolb not only considers learning through cognition and information

processing, but also incorporates and combines the three main realms of human learning, affect

(feeling), cognition (thinking), and behaviour (doing), to create an effective model for integrated and

flexible human learning (Cassidy, 2004; Desmedt & Valcke, 2004). In summary, Kolb’s learning

theory has its foundation in pragmatism and social action theories (Dewey, 1938; Lewin, 1951), but

it is also based on cognition with a strong link to thinking (Piaget, 1971). It therefore emphasises, a

process of learning through experience within a social context, incorporating three major aspects of

learning: through feeling, thinking, and doing.

Schools of Counselling (SOC)

The fourth discipline required to develop the ARM model examined different schools of counselling

and investigated how emotion-related abilities can be developed in therapeutic and clinical settings.

The major schools of counselling, explicitly the affective, cognitive, and behavioural schools, apply

different methods and techniques to nurture emotion-related abilities (Corey, 2009).

First, according to Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (2004) EI is defined as emotion-related abilities

(perceiving, understanding, using and managing emotions) predicated on their understanding of

emotion and intelligence. The necessity of devising a theoretical framework which develops

16

emotion-related abilities was then accordingly: the consideration of emotion and intelligence, and

how to develop these emotion-related abilities based on the EI construct definition from Mayer,

Salovey and Caruso (2004, 2006). Therefore, it appears effective to include affective and cognitive

developmental processes as well as the substantial link between both emotion and cognition, to

ameliorate individuals’ emotion-related abilities (Mausolff, 2006; Mayer, et al., 2004).

In addition, the behavioural development process takes into account a behaviour-expressive

perspective and is based on the two aforementioned affective (emotional awareness) and cognitive

(emotional reflection) realms. Affect addresses the first ability EI dimension (perceiving emotions),

whereas cognition addresses the second and third EI construct dimension (using and understanding

emotions). The behavioural-expressive perspective demonstrates whether an individual is actually

capable of behaving in an emotionally intelligent manner and therefore whether he or she can

manage their emotions successfully. The behavioural school of counselling thus appears to be an

ideal candidate for incorporation into a theory for developing emotion-related abilities. Therefore,

learning through experience and role-plays are essential to underpin a holistic notion4 of developing

emotion-related abilities and skills with sustainable effects. The ARM model was devised to provide

opportunities for practice and role-plays within particularly conceptualised training to assimilate and

internalise the relevant emotion-related abilities and skills. It therefore addresses the criteria for

andragogy (Brookfield, 1995; Knowles, 1990).

Second, the challenging and related contents of the approaches used by affective, cognitive and

behavioural schools of counselling delineate appropriate and effective developmental components

for an emotionally intelligent training intervention, such as emotional perception, critical thinking

and reflection on emotions perceived, how emotions affect thinking and behaviour, and how thinking

may change one’s emotional perception.

4 Inclusion what individuals feel, think, and their actual behaviour in terms of action and interaction

17

The ARM model proposes a triadic approach to the different schools of counselling. ARM draws on

affective (emotional Awareness), cognitive (emotional Reflection), and behavioural (emotional

Management) theories and underlying interventions (Corey, 2009; Dryden, 1994; Hannabuss, 1997;

Herbert, 1986). The affective approach expounds Client-centered (Rogers, 1986) and Gestalt (Perls,

1971) counselling; the cognitive approach expounds Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy (Ellis,

1995a) and Transactional Analysis (Berne, 1975). Finally, the behavioural approach, that includes

active and vivid behaviour rehearsals, draws on behaviour therapy (Lazarus, 1971). Moreover,

almost any management training concept has its antecedents in psychology and psychotherapy and

vice versa (Kets de Vries, 2003; Phillips & Fraser, 1982), but research differentiates between

therapeutic and developmental (coaching-oriented) perspectives to support individuals. For instance,

Eugene Gendlin (1998), a student of Carl Rogers (1951), who invented the ‘Focusing’ for

management development. Focusing appears to be beneficial for psychotherapy and is applied to

therapeutic treatment (Bergermann, 2000; Gendlin, 1998). Thus, the considerations for a more

practical use and the modification of therapeutic treatment into a developmental perspective evolved

into the proposed theoretical model (ARM model). ARM develops emotion-related abilities and

fosters individuals in andragogy with effective abilities and skills required in management education

and at the workplace (Antonakis, et al., 2009; Holt & Jones, 2005; Moriarty & Buckley, 2003;

Starkey & Tiratsoo, 2007).

Subsequently, the affective, cognitive and behavioural schools of counselling and their potential to

develop emotion-related abilities will be delineated, according to the EI construct definition from

Mayer et al. (2006). Therefore, the proposed ARM model focuses on developing emotion-related

abilities (ability EI) such as emotional perception by using the affective school of counselling; using

emotions to facilitate thinking and understanding emotions by using the cognitive school of

counselling, and managing emotions by using the behavioural school of counselling. The following

section discusses the conceptualisation of the ARM model.

18

The ARM Conceptualisation

The ARM model is a theoretical concept for developing emotion-related abilities (ability EI). It has

three underlying dimensions which focus on developing abilities in the affective, cognitive, and

behaviour-oriented realms. The affective ARM dimension develops abilities such as emotional

perception and awareness. The cognitive ARM dimension develops abilities such as cogitation,

thinking, reflecting, and analysing emotional information. The integration of emotional information

facilitates the development of abilities in thinking and understanding of emotions. The behavioural-

expressive dimension develops abilities such as emotional management and how to manage and

regulate emotions in oneself and others. The following sections outline the conceptualisation of the

three ARM dimensions in more detail.

ARM – Emotional Awareness

The ARM model addresses the first dimension of the affective realm of EI development, emotional

‘Awareness’, and supports learning through feeling trust, confidence, and feeling safe within a group.

Learning theory (Kolb, 2008), in particular learning through feeling involves the awareness of a

concrete experience or situation both an intrapersonal and interpersonal perspectives and the

information they entail. The learning process is determined through human values, expressions,

empathy, feeling secure, trust, appreciation and respect (Kolb & Kolb, 2008; Kolb, 1984).

The approaches used by the affective school of counselling, explicitly, Client-centered (Rogers,

1986) and Gestalt theory (Matthew & Sayers, 1999), support the first ARM dimension developing

emotion-related abilities in emotional awareness and perception. The Client-centered approach

fosters an empathetic and trustful relationship between facilitator and client, and counts on the self-

actualising tendency of individuals towards development and growth. This may facilitate the

processes of perceiving and the disclosing of emotional distress and problems. Attentive and

empathetic listening further supports the self-awareness of individuals allowing them to realise their

capacities, strengths and weaknesses.

19

Similarly, Gestalt theory aims to perceive individuals as holistic entities with their idiosyncratic

awareness of emotions, perceptions, beliefs, and thoughts not isolated from their environment. An

individual’s awareness and the perception of their ‘Gestalt’ are in the foreground considering both

intra- and interpersonal emotional awareness and perception, to improve their sensitive

understanding of themselves and others. An individual’s Gestalt or the image they perceive is not

judged or evaluated by others since it is their idiosyncratic perception. Both Client-centered and

Gestalt theory provide methods for facilitating the development of emotion-related abilities in

intrapersonal and interpersonal emotional awareness and perception. It thus addresses the first ARM

dimension, emotional ‘Awareness’.

ARM – Emotional Reflection

The second and cognitive ARM dimension, emotional ‘Reflection’, refers to learning theory (Kolb &

Kolb, 2008; Kolb, 1984). In particular, learning through thinking and reflection, analysis and the

understanding of emotions is contextualised in specific situations. The approaches used by the

cognitive school of counselling, particularly Transactional Analysis (TA) (Berne, 1975) and

Rational-Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) (Ellis, 1995b) provide methods for developing

emotion-related abilities in reasoning, analysis and reflection on perceived emotions.

First, TA demonstrates different communication styles inherent in any individual to develop abilities

in reasoning, analyses and understanding the communication in oneself and others. This process may

provide individuals with different options for how to think and communicate constructively in

emotion-laden situations. The three ego communication styles depict differently structured

motivations of individuals. For instance, the child ego, responds in an emotional mode without

thinking whether it might be appropriate to express emotions. The parent ego responds to what might

be adequate according to societal norms and expectations, neglecting the emotional perspective, and

whether an individual feels it is the right thing to do. The adult ego responds in a more balanced way

in that it is considers both awareness (affect) and reflection (cognition) on emotions, and therefore

20

facilitates an emotionally intelligent communication and behaviour. Second, REBT questions

irrational or ‘self-defeating’ tendencies or counterproductive self-images individuals might have. It

develops different options to look at certain perceptions from a more prudent perspective. Negative

or counter-productive emotional perceptions and self-assessments may destructively influence

individuals, their self-esteem, self-confidence, and overall potential. This may cause emotional

disturbances and impair their overall cognitive performance and wellbeing. The questioning process

and the mutual interaction of emotion and cognition thereof may modify emotional awareness

channelling it into a positive and self-encouraging direction. It facilitates progress in order to

construe putative threats as chances or challenges, which fosters rational thinking and analysis,

adaptive emotions, and functional behaviour patterns. The reflection process can thereby generally

improve abilities in emotional awareness to become more constructive and consequently, may amend

reflection and thinking as presented in Table 2.

>>>>>>>>>>>> TABLE 2 ABOUT HERE

The interdependent emotion-cognition-loop enables individuals to reflect on the emotions perceived

to infer whether or not it is the right time and the right situation to express them. For instance, it is

evidently not the right situation to express great happiness about a promotion, when a colleague has

just been dismissed. Consequently, TA and REBT foster cognitive processes that is thinking,

analysis and reflection on the emotions perceived, and thus address the second ARM dimension to

develop abilities in emotional ‘Reflection’.

ARM – Emotional Management

The third, behaviour-related ARM dimension, emotional ‘Management’, refers to learning theory

(Kolb & Kolb, 2008; Kolb, 1984). More specifically, emotional management focuses on learning

through doing and focuses on behavioural-expressive components that enable an individual’s

learning process incorporates practice and experience of emotionally intelligent behaviour (in

rehearsals and simulations). The approach used by the behavioural school of counselling, particularly

21

in behaviour theory (Eysenck, 1960; Lazarus, 1971; Skinner, 1953; Wolpe, 1982), depicts that

adaptive or functional behaviour can be learnt whereas maladaptive or dysfunctional behaviour can

be diminished or replaced. Efficient learning methods are ‘operant learning’ (reinforcement),

‘imitative learning’ (role models), cognitive learning (contracts), and ‘emotional learning’ (classical

conditioning) (see Covey, 2009). Therefore, emotionally intelligent behaviour and abilities can be

learnt from both group members and facilitators through reinforcement to corroborate or complement

appropriate behaviour or to learn from role models and their effective behavioural strategies. Further

learning through personal contracts can support individuals in setting certain targets and which

explicit behaviour (behavioural change to manage emotion) they want to achieve. Classical

conditioning can initiate a learning process through stimuli (eliciting an emotion) and response

(behavioural reaction) with reinforcement to modify behaviour, thereby transform it into emotionally

intelligent behaviour (Corey, 2009; Matthew & Sayers, 2001).

The emotional management of the underlying ARM model is physically a more active part, yet

interdependent with the first (emotional awareness) and second dimension (emotional reflection). In

emotional management ‘learning by doing’ dominates behavioural-oriented learning and emotional

coping strategies particularly drawn on behaviour rehearsals (role-plays), goal setting tasks,

workshops, and emotional simulations. This modus operandi facilitates the internalising of

prerequisite abilities in emotional awareness, followed by abilities in emotional reflection. Only what

is perceived and conscious – can be managed constructively.

To date, scholars have acknowledged the interdependencies of emotion, cognition, and behaviour.

Research in developing ability EI employs various role-play situations in order to develop emotion-

related abilities and coping styles and how to deal with emotional events in specific situations.

Moreover, Jordan et al. (2002), Slaski and Cartright (2003), Lopes et al. (2004), Murray et al. (2004),

Haertel et al. (2005), and Nelis et al. (2011; 2009) ascertained that EI can effectively be trained using

22

interpersonal role-play tasks and simulations of real life situations5. This is concordant with learning

theory and adult education or andragogy. Andragogy delineates a more practical and experiential

learning orientation and focuses on emotion-laden daily life situations, which can be appropriately

applied into behaviour rehearsals and role-plays (Knowles, 1990).

Finally, the behavioural aspect may support individuals in EI interventions to internalise and practise

abilities they have developed through the underlying ARM model, for instance, emotional awareness

through the Client-centered theory and Gestalt; emotional reflection through TA and REBT in order

to connect emotion with cognition to reason, analyse, reflect on and make sense and use of emotional

information. The behavioural dimension, emotional management, combined with emotional

awareness and reflection, may convey emotion-related abilities and skills practically applied to

adaptive and pro-social (emotionally intelligent) behaviour. Rehearsals and role plays may nurture

abilities in emotional management. It consequently might gain increases in emotion-related abilities

(EI) after the training supported by others (Murray, et al., 2004; Nelis, et al., 2009; Slaski &

Cartwright, 2003).

Conclusion

This chapter discussed the conceptualisation of an innovative theoretical framework to develop

emotion-related abilities (ability EI). The ARM model answers the critique raised by Zeidner et al.

(2002, 2009) and others ‘whether EI as a cognitive ability can be developed or schooled’ and if so,

then a scientific elaborated theoretical framework is definitely still missing. This chapter fills in the

research gap for several reasons. First, the ARM model is doing justice which considers emotion,

intelligence, and emotional intelligence. Second, the ARM model is based on EI as cognitive ability

according to the EI construct definition from Mayer et al. (2006). The ARM theory aims to develop

an individual’s maximum performance (abilities) rather than their typical performance (traits,

5 How to promote behavioural interventions is outlined in Cherniss & Adler (2000)

23

competencies). Third, the EI construct (Mayer, et al., 2006) was analysed and demerged to

investigate the underlying emotion-related abilities in more detail. During the analysis of the EI

construct three main realms became apparent: the perception of emotions (affect), reasoning and

reflection of emotions (cognition), and coping with and managing emotions (behaviour). The third

and second EI dimensions are subsumed under the cognitive ARM realm because they are the most

‘cognitively saturated’ parts within the ability EI framework (Mayer, et al., 2001: 235). This modus

operandi facilitates the developmental aspect in order to develop emotion-related abilities. However,

it does not suggest refining the ability EI construct definition. Fourth, during the conceptualisation of

the ARM theory both learning theories and schools of counselling were investigated and analysed to

ascertain the potential for developing ability EI – or more specifically, for developing emotion-

related abilities of the EI construct in perceiving, reflecting and reasoning, and managing emotions.

Experiential learning theory (Kolb & Kolb, 2005) and the affective, cognitive, and behavioural

school of counselling (Corey, 2005) were applied to nurture emotion-related abilities according to

the ARM theory. Finally, ongoing research is needed to apply and operationalise the benefits of the

first theoretical framework (ARM model) to develop emotion-related abilities (ability EI) by using

rigour ability EI measures (i.e. MSCEIT).

24

Bibliography

Ackerman, P. L. (2000). Domain-specific knowledge as the "dark matter" of adult intelligence: Gf/Gc, personality and interest correlates. Journal of Gerontology, 55(2), 69-84.

Ackerman, P. L., & Rolfhus, E. L. (1999). The locus of adult intelligence: Knowledge, abilities, and nonability traits. Psychology and Aging, 14(2), 314-330.

Antonacopoulou, E. P., & Gabriel, Y. (2001). Emotion, learning and organizational change. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 14(5), 435-451.

Antonakis, J., Ashkanasy, N. M., & Dasborough, M. T. (2009). Does leadership need emotional intelligence? The Leadership Quaterly, 20(2), 247-261.

Aronson, J., Fried, C. B., & Good, C. (2002). Reducing the Effects of Stereotype Threat on African American College Students by Shaping Theories of Intelligence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 113-125.

Ashforth, B. E., & Humphrey, R. H. (1995). Emotion in the workplace: A reappraisal. Human Relations, 48(2), 97-126.

Ashkanasy, N. M. (2002). Studies of cognition and emotion in organisations: Attribution, affective events, emotional intelligence and perception of emotion. Australian Journal of Management, 27(Special Issue), 12-20.

Ashkanasy, N. M., Haertel, C. E. J., & Zerbe, W. (2000). Emotions on the workplace: research, theory and practice. London: Quorum Books.

Bachkirova, T., & Cox, E. (2007). Coaching with emotions in organisations: Investigation of personal theories. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 28(7), 600-612.

Bar-On, R., Tranel, D., Denburg, N. L., & Bechara, A. (2003). Exploring the neurological substrate of emotional and social intelligence. Brain, 126, 1790-1800.

Bay, D., & Mckeage, K. (2006). Emotional intelligence in undergraduate accounting students: Preliminary assessments. Accounting Education: An international journal, 15(4), 439-454.

Berg, C. A. (2000). Intellectual development in adulthood. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of intelligence (pp. 117-140). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bergermann, W. (2000). Focusing. Munich: Carl-Auer-Systeme Berne, E. (1975). Transactional Analysis in Psychotherapy. New York: Condor. Boring, E. G. (1923). Intelligence as the tests test it. New Republic, 35(6), 35-37. Boyatzis, R. E. (2009). Competencies as a behavioral approach to emotional intelligence. Journal of

Management Development, 28(9), 749-770. Boyatzis, R. E., Stubbs, E. C., & Taylor, S. N. (2002). Learning Cognitive and Emotional

Intelligence Competencies Through Graduate Managment Education. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 1(2), 150-162.

Brookfield, S. (1995). Adult learning: An Overview. In A. Tuinjman (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Education. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

Brotheridge, C. M., & Grandey, A. A. (2002). Emotional labor and burnout: Comparing two perspectives of "people work". Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60, 17-39.

Campell, L., Campell, B., & Dickinson, D. (1992). Teaching and learning through multiple intelligences. Standwood, WA: New Horizons for Learning.

Carr, A. (2004). Positive Psychology: The Science of Happiness and Human Strength. New York: Brunner-Routledge.

Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human Cognitive Abilities: A Survey of Factor-Analytic Studies. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (2004). The emotionally intelligent manager: How to develop and use the four key emotional skills of leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Cassidy, S. (2004). Learning styles: An overview of theories, models, and measures. Educational Psychology, 24(4), 419-444.

Cattell, R. B. (1943). The measurement of adult intelligence. Psychological Bulletin, 40(3), 153-194. Cherniss, C., & Adler, M. (2000). Promoting emotional intelligence in organisations. Alexandria:

American Society for Training and Development.

25

Cherniss, C., & Goleman, D. (2001). The Emotionally Intelligent Workplace: How to Select For, Measure, and Improve Emotional Intelligence in Individuals, Groups, and Organizations (1 ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Ciarrochi, J., Chan, A. Y. C., & Caputi, P. (2000). A critical evaluation of the emotional intelligence construct Personality and Individual Differences, 28(28), 539-561.

Ciarrochi, J., Forgas, J. P., & Mayer, J. D. (2001). Emotional Intelligence in Everyday Life - A Scientific Inquiry. East Sussex: Psychology Press.

Clarke, N. (2006). Emotional intelligence training: A case of caveat Emptor. Human Resource Development Review, 5(4), 422-441.

Cohen, J. (1999). Educating minds and hearts: Social emotional learning and the passage into adolescence. New York: Teachers College Press.

Corey, G. (2005). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Belmont, California: Thomson-Brooks-Cole.

Corey, G. (2009). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Belmont, California: Thomson-Brooks-Cole.

Côté, S., & Miners, C. T. H. (2006). Emotional intelligence and job performance. Administrative Science Quaterly, 51(1), 1-28.

Damasio, A. R. (2006). Descartes' error : emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York: Putnam.

Daus, C. S., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2005). The case for the ability-based model of emotional intelligence in organizational behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 453-466.

Day, A. L., & Caroll, S. A. (2007). Faking emotional intelligence (EI): Comparing response distortion on ability and trait-based EI measures. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 10.

Desmedt, E., & Valcke, M. (2004). Mapping the learning styles "jungle": An overview of the literature based on citation analysis. Educational Psychology, 24(4), 445-464.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Macmillan. DeWolfe-Waddill, D., & Marquardt, M. (2003). Adult learning orientations and action learning.

Human Resource Development Review, 2(4), 406-429. Dirkx, J. M. (2006). Engaging Emotions in Adult Learning: a Jungian Perspective on Emotion and

Transformative Learning. New Directions for Adult Continuing Education, 109, 15-26. Dryden, W. (1994). Rational-Emotive counselling in action. London: Sage. Elfenbein, H. A., & Ambady, N. (2002). Predicting workplace outcomes from the ability to

eavesdrop on feelings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(5), 963-971. Elias, M. J., Hunter, L., & Kress, J. S. (2001). Emotional intelligence in education. In J. Ciarrochi, J.

P. Forgas & J. D. Mayer (Eds.), Emotional intelligence in everyday life: A scientific inquiry (pp. 133-149). East Sussex: Psychology Press.

Elias, M. J., Zins, J., & Weissberg, R. P. (1997). Promoting social and emotional learning: Guidelines for educators. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum.

Elliott, S. N., & Gresham, F. M. (1993). Social skills interventions for children. Behavior Modification, 17(3).

Ellis, A. (1995a). Changing rational-emotive therapy (RET) to rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 13(2).

Ellis, A. (1995b). Changing rational-emotive therapy (RET) to rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 13(2), 85-89.

Ellis, A. (2003). Early theories and practices of rational emotive behavior therapy and how they have been augmented and revised during the last three decades. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 21(3/4), 219-243.

Eysenck, H. J. (1960). Behaviour therapy and the neuroses : Readings in modern methods of treatment derived from learning theory. Oxford: Pergamon.

Freudenthaler, H. H., & Neubauer, A. C. (2007). Measuring emotional management abilities: Further evidence of the importance to distinguish between typical and maximum performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 42(8), 1561-1572.

26

Frijda, N. H. (2008). The psychologist's point of view. In M. Lewis, Haviland-Jones, J.M., & Feldman-Barett, L. (Ed.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 68-87). London: Guilford Press.

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books. Gardner, H. (1998). A Multiplicity of Intelligences. Scientific American, 6. Gardner, L., & Stough, C. (2002). Examining the relationship between leadership and emotional

intelligence in senior level managers. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 23(2), 68-78.

Gendlin, E. T. (1998). Focusing-oriented psychotherapy: A manual of the experiential method. New York: Guilford.

Giardini, A., & Frese, M. (2006). Reducing the negative effects of emotion work in service occupations: Emotional competence as a psychological resource. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 11(1), 63-75.

Gibson, D. E. (2006). Emotional episodes at work: An experimental exercise in feeling and expressing emotions. Journal of Management Education, 30(3), 477-501.

Greenberg, M. T., & Snell, J. L. (1997). Brain development and emotional development: The role of teaching in organizing the frontal lobe. In P. Salovey, & Sluyter, D.J. (Ed.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Educational implications (pp. 93-126). New York: BasicBooks.

Greenberg, M. T., Zins, J. E., & Elias, M. J. (2003). Enhancing School-Based Prevention and Youth Development Through Coordinated Social, Emotional and Academic Learning. American Psychologist, 58(6/7), 466-474.

Haertel, C., McWilliams, J., & Ma, R. (2005). Developing emotional intelligence in high potential middle managers: The role of experiential learning. Paper presented at the EURAM Conference 2005.

Haertel, C. E. J., Zerbe, W. J., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2009). Research on emotions in organizations: Emotions in organizations and cultures. London: Emerald.

Halfhill, T. R., & Nielsen, T. M. (2007). Quantifying the "Softer Side" of management education: An example using teamwork competencies. Journal of Management Education, 31(1), 64-81.

Hannabuss, S. (1997). Counseling approaches and the workplace. Library Management, 18(8), 373-379.

Hayton, J. C., & Cholakova, M. (2012). The role of affect in the creation of intentional pursuit of entrepreneurial ideas. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 36(1), 41-68.

Hennessy, B. A. (2007). Promoting social competence in school-aged children: The effects of the open circle program. Journal of School Psychology

45(3), 349-360. Herbert, M. (1986). Psychology for social workers. London: Billing & Sons. Holt, S., & Jones, S. (2005). Emotional Intelligence and Organizational Performance: Implications

for Performance Consultants and Educators. Performance Improvement, 44(10), 15-21. Izard, C. E., & Ackerman, B. P. (2000). Motivational, organizational, and regulatory functions of

discrete emotions. In H.-J. Michael L., J.M. (Ed.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 253-264). London: Guilford Press.

Jordan, P. J., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2008). The future of emotional intelligence testing: Where to from here? Paper presented at the Annual conference of the society for industrial and organizational psychology.

Jordan, P. J., Ashkanasy, N. M., Haertel, C. E. J., & Hooper, G. S. (2002). Workgroup emotional intelligence Scale development and relationship to team process effectiveness and goal focus. Human Resource Management Review, 12, 195-214.

Kaufman, A. S. (2000). Tests of intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of intelligence (pp. 445-476). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Kaufman, A. S., & Horn, J. L. (1996). Age changes on tests of fluid and crystallized ability for women and men on the Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test (KAIT) at ages 17-94 years. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 11(2), 97-121.

27

Kelly, B., Longbottom, J., Potts, F., & Williamson, J. (2004). Applying Emotional Intelligence: Exploring the Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies curriculum. Educational Psychology in Practice, 20(3), 221-240.

Kets de Vries, M. F. R. (2003). Organizational paradoxes: Clinical approaches to management. London: Routledge.

Knowles, M. S. (1990). The adult learner: A neglected species. Houston: Gulf Publishing. Kolb, A. Y., & Kolb, D. A. (2005). Learning styles and learning spaces: Enhancing experiential

learning in higher education. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 4(2), 193-212.

Kolb, A. Y., & Kolb, D. A. (2008). Experiential learning theory: A dynamic, holistic approach to management learning, education and development. In S. J. Armstrong & C. Fukami (Eds.),

Handbook of management learning, education and development. London: Sage. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.

London: Prentice-Hall. Kusche, C. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2001). PATHS in your classroom: Promoting emotional literacy

and alleviating emotional distress. In J. Cohen (Ed.), Social emotional learning and the elementary school child: A guide for educators (pp. 140-161). New York: Teachers College Press.

Kyllonen, P. C., Roberts, R. D., & Stankov, L. (2008). Extending intelligence: Enhancement and new constructs New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Law, K. S., Wong, C., Huang, G. H., & Li, X. (2008). The effects of emotional intelligence on job performance and life satisfaction for the research and development scientists in China. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 25(1), 51-69.

Lazarus, A. A. (1971). Behavior Therapy and Beyond. New York: McGraw-Hill. LeDoux, J. (1998). The emotional brain. London: Orion Books. LeDoux, J., & Hirst, W. (1987). Mind and brain: Dialogues in cognitive neuroscience. New York:

Cambridge University Press. Lewin, K. (1951). Field theory in social sciences. New York: Harper & Row. Lindebaum, D. (2009). Rhetoric or remedy? A critique on developing emotional intelligence.

Academy of Management Learning and Education. Lopes, P. N., Côté, S., & Salovey, P. (2006). An ability model of emotional intelligence:

Implications for assessment and training. In V. U. Druskat, F. Sala & G. Mount (Eds.), Linking emotional intelligence and performance at work (pp. 153-180). London: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Lopes, P. N., Cote, S., & Salovey, P. (2004). An ability model of emotional intelligence: Implications for assessment and training. In V. Druskat, Sala, F., & Mount, G. (Ed.), Advances in Emotional Intelligence: Research and Practice: Vol. 2. Emotional intelligence and workplace performance: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Lopes, P. N., Salovey, P., Côté, S., & Beers, M. (2005). Emotion Regulation Abilities and the Quality of Social Interaction. Emotion, 5(1), 113-118.

Mainemelis, C., Boyatzis, R. E., & Kolb, D. A. (2002). Learning styles and adaptive flexibility: Testing experiental learning theory. Management Learning, 33(1), 5-33.

Matthew, B., & Sayers, P. (1999). The application of Gestalt to organizational interventions in universities International Journal for Academic Development, 4(2), 134-141.

Matthew, B., & Sayers, P. (2001). Emotional Intelligence: The art of non-judgemental feedback. Paper presented at the International Conference on Engineering Education.

Matthews, G., Emo, A. K., Roberts, R. D., & Zeidner, M. (2006). What is this thing called emotional intelligence? In K. R. Murphy (Ed.), A critique of emotional intelligence: What are the problems and how can they be fixed? New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Matthews, G., Roberts, R. D., & Zeidner, M. (2004). Seven Myths About Emotional Intelligence. Psychological Inquiry, 15(3), 179-196.

Mausolff, C. (2006). A Cognitive Approach to Emotional Intelligence Training.

28

Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence. Intelligence, 27(4), 267-298.

Mayer, J. D., & Geher, G. (1996). Emotional Intelligence and the identification of emotion. Intelligence, 22(2), 89-113.

Mayer, J. D., Roberts, R. D., & Barsade, S. G. (2008a). Human abilities: Emotional intelligence. The Annual Review of Psychology, 59(1), 507-536.

Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What Is Emotional Intelligence? In P. Salovey, & Sluyter, D.J. (Ed.), Emotional Development and Emotional Intelligence (pp. 3-23). New York: Basic Books.

Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2000a). Emotional intelligence as zeitgeist, as personality, and as a mental ability. In R. Bar-On, & Parker, J.D.A (Ed.), The handbook of emotional intelligence: Theory, development, assessment, and application at home, school, and in the workplace (pp. 92-113). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2000b). Models of Emotional Intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of Intelligence (pp. 396-420). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2004). Emotional Intelligence: Theory, Findings, and Implications. Psychological Inquiry, 15(3), 197-215.

Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2006). Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional intelligence test. User's Manual, Multi-Health-Systems Inc.

Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2008b). What is emotional intelligence and what does it predict? In P. C. Kyllonen, Roberts, R.D., & Stankov, L. (Ed.), Extending intelligence: Enhancement and new constructs (pp. 319-348). London: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., Caruso, D. R., & Sitarenios, G. (2001). Emotional Intelligence as a Standard Intelligence. Emotion, 1(3), 232-242.

McEnrue, M. P., & Groves, K. (2006). Choosing Among Tests of Emotional Intelligence: What Is the Evidence. Human Resource Developement Quarterly, 17(1), 9-42.

McQeen, A. C. H. (2004). Emotional intelligence in nursing work. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 47(1), 101-108.

Mikolajczak, M., Luminet, O., & Menil, C. (2006). Predicting resistance to stress: Incremental validity of trait emotional intelligence over alexithymia and optimism. Psichothema, 18, 79-88.

Moore, S., & Kuol, N. (2007). Matters of the Heart: Exploring the emotional dimensions of educational experience in recollected accounts of excellent teaching International Journal for Academic Development, 12(2), 87-98.

Moriarty, P., & Buckley, F. (2003). Increasing team emotional intelligence through process. Journal of European Industrial Training, 27(2-4), 98-110.

Muchinsky, P. M. (2000). Emotions in the workplace: The neglect of organizational behavior. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 21(7), 801-805.

Murray, J. P., Jordan, P. J., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2004). The Link between Emotional Intelligence and Work Skills: Identificaiton of Training Interventions. Paper presented at the 4th Conference on Emotions and Organizational Life.

Neisser, U. (1979). The concept of intelligence. Intelligence, 3, 217-227. Nelis, D., Quoidbach, J., Hansenne, M., Kotsou, I., & Mikolajczak, M. (2011). Increasing emotional

competencies leads to higher well-being, better subjective health, enhanced relationship quality, and increased employability. Emotion, 11(2), 354-366.

Nelis, D., Quoidbach, J., Mikolajczak, M., & Hansenne, M. (2009). Increasing emotional intelligence: (How) Is it possible? Personality and Individual Differences, 47(1), 36-41.

Palmer, B. R., Walls, M., Burgess, Z., & Stough, C. (2001). Emotional intelligence and effective leadership. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 22(1), 5-10.

Perls, F. S. (1971). Gestalt therapy. New York: Verbatim Bantam. Phillips, K., & Fraser, T. (1982). The management of interpersonal skills training. Alderhot: Gower. Piaget, J. (1971). The Science of education and the psychology of the child. New York: Penguin.

29

Qualter, P., Gardner, K. J., & Whiteley, H. E. (2007). Emotional intelligence: Review of research and educational implications. Pastoral Care in Education, 25(1), 11-20.

Reddy, W. M. (2001). The navigation of feelings: A framework for the history of emotions. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Roberts, R. D., Zeidner, M., & Matthews, G. (2001). Does Emotional Intelligence Meet Traditional Standards for an Intelligence? Some New Data and Conclusions. Emotion, 1(3), 196-231.

Rogers, C. (1951). Client-centered therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Rogers, C. (1986). Client-centered approach to therapy. In I. L. Kutash, & Wolf, A. (Ed.),

Psychotherapist's Casebook: Theory and technique in practice (pp. 197-208). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional Intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and Personality, 9(3), 185-211.

Salovey, P., & Sluyter, D. J. (1997). Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Educational implications.

Santrock, J. W. (1997). Life-span development. Dubuque, Iowa: Brown. Sensenig (2003). Thinking feeling doing: Keys to learning. Provider, 28(3), 39-42. Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Macmillan. Slaski, M., & Cartwright, S. (2003). Emotional intelligence training and its implications for stress,

health and performance. Stress and Health, 19(4), 233-239. Spearman, C. (1927). The abilities of man: Their nature and measurement. London: MacMillan. Starkey, K., & Tiratsoo, N. (2007). The business school and the bottom line. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press. Stern, E., & Guthke, S. (2001). Perspektiven der Intelligenzforschung. Berlin: Pabst. Sternberg, R. (2003). A broad view of intelligence-the theory of successful intelligence. Consulting

Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 55(3), 139-154. Sternberg, R., Conway, B. E., Ketron, J. L., & Bernstein, M. (1981). People's Conceptions of

Intelligence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41(1), 37-55. Sternberg, R. J. (1998). Intelligence as developing expertise. Contemporary Educational Psychology,

24, 359-375. Sternberg, R. J. (2000). Handbook of intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press. Sternberg, R. J., & Kaufman, J. C. (1998). Human Abilities. Annual Review Psychology, 49, 479-

502. Storm, K., & Rothmann, I. (2003). The Relationship Between Personality Dimensions, Coping and

Burnout of Pharmacists in a Corporate Pharmacy Group. Journal of Industrial Psychology, 29(4).

Thorndike, E. L. (1920). Intelligence and its uses. Harper's Magazine, 140, 227-235. Thurstone, L. L. (1938). Primary mental abilities, psychometric monographs no 1. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press. Tucker, M. L., Sojka, J. Z., Barone, F. J., & McCarthy, A. M. (2000). Training Tomorrow's Leaders:

Enhancing the Emotional Intelligence of Business Graduates. Journal of Education for Business, 75(6), 331-338.

Wagner, R. K. (2000). Practical intelligence. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of Intelligence (pp. 380-395). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wechsler, D. (1958). The measurement and appraisal of adult intelligence. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.

Wolpe, J. (1982). The practice of Behavior Therapy (3Rev ed.). London: Elsevier. Wong, C., Foo, M., Wang, C., & Wong, P. (2007). The feasibility of training and development of EI:

An exploratory study in Singapore, Hong Kong and Taiwan. Intelligence, 35, 141-150. Zeidner, M., Matthews, G., & Roberts, R. (2009). What we know about emotional intelligence: How

it affects learning, work, relationships, and our mental health. Massachusetts: MIT press. Zeidner, M., Matthews, G., Roberts, R. D., & MacCann, C. (2003). Development of Emotional

Intelligence: Towards a Multi-Level Investment Model. Human Development, 46(2-3), 69-96.

30

Zeidner, M., Roberts, R. D., & Matthews, G. (2002). Can Emotional Intelligence Be Schooled? A Critical Review. Educational Psychologist, 37(4), 215-231.

Zeidner, M., Roberts, R. D., & Matthews, G. (2008). The science of emotional intelligence: Current consensus and controversies. European Psychologist, 13(1), 64-78.

Zins, J. E., Payton, J. W., Weissberg, R. P., & O'Brian, M. U. (2007). Social and emotional learning for successful school performance. In G. Matthews, M. Zeidner & R. D. Roberts (Eds.), Emotional intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. New York: Oxford University Press.

Zins, J. E., Weissberg, R. P., Wang, M. C., & H.J., W. (2004). Building academic success on social and emotional learning: What does the research say? New York: Teachers College Press.

Zull, J. E. (2002). The art of changing the brain: Enriching teaching by exploring the biology of learning. New York: Basic Books.

Zull, J. E. (2004). The art of changing the brain. Educational Leadership, 62(1), 68-72.

31

Appendix

Figure 1

Figure 1: ARM Model to develop Ability Emotional Intelligence

EI Development:

Emotional

Awareness(Feeling)

Gestalt (Perls) Client-centered (Rogers)

Emotional

Reflection(Thinking)

REBT (Ellis) Transactional TA (Berne)

Emotional

Management(Doing)

Experimentation Role Play, work shops, simulation

Affective

Cognitive

BehaviouralMayerSaloveyCarusoEI Model

Emotional Perception

Emotional Management

Emotional UnderstandingEmotional Integration

ARM Model to EI training

32

Table1

Affect

(Awareness)

Cognition

(Reflection)

Behaviour

(Management)

Emotional Intelligence

(Mayer & Salovey, 1997)

Emotional awareness and

perception

Integrate emotions into

thinking, understand and

reflect on emotions

Manage and regulate

emotions

Learning Theory

Experiential Learning

(Kolb, 1984)

Learning through feeling

Learning through thinking

Learning through doing

Developmental Perspective

Schools of Counselling

(SOC)

Affective SOC

> Gestalt (Perls, 1971)

> Client-Centered Therapy

(Rogers, 1986)

Cognitive SOC

> Transactional Analysis

(Berne, 1975)

> Rational-Emotive

Behaviour Therapy

(Ellis, 1995)

Behaviour SOC

> Role Rehearsals

> Simulations, Activities

(Lazarus, 1958; Eysenck,

1960; Wolpe, 1966;

Krumboltz, 1969)

Table 1: ARM Dimensions to develop emotion-related abilities in relation to learning theory and SOC

33

Table 2

Cognitive consequences of rational and irrational thinking:

Cognitive process Cause emotions Manifest in

Irrational Cognition Maladaptive Emotions Dysfunctional Behaviour Patterns

Rational Cognition Adaptive Emotions Functional Behaviour Patterns

Table 2: Cognition related to Emotion & Behaviour, Source: Adapted from Corey (2009), p. 132