Arctic - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

8/12/2019 Arctic - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

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Location of the Arctic

Artificially coloured topographical

map of the Arctic region

MODIS image of the Arctic

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Arctic(/rktk/ or /rtk/) is a polar region located at the

northernmost part of the Earth. The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean

and parts of Canada, Russia, the United States (Alaska), Denmark

(Greenland), Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland. The Arctic region

consists of a vast, ice-covered ocean, surrounded by treeless permafrost.The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle (66 33'N), the

approximate limit of the midnight sun and the polar night. Alternatively,

it can be defined as the region where the average temperature for the

warmest month (July) is below 10 C (50 F); the northernmost tree line

roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region.[1][2]

Socially and politically, the Arctic region includes the northern

territories of the eight Arctic states, although by natural science

definitions much of this territory is considered subarctic. The Arctic

region is a unique area among Earth's ecosystems. The cultures in theregion and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and

extreme conditions. In recent years the extent of the sea ice has declined.[3][4]Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice,[5]

zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land

animals, plants and human societies.

1 Etymology

2 Climate

3 Flora and fauna

3.1 Plants

3.2 Animals

4 Natural resources

5 Paleo-history

6 Indigenous population

7 International cooperation and politics

7.1 Territorial claims

7.2 Exploration

7.3 Pollution

7.4 Preservation

8 Climate change

9 Arctic waters

c - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/w

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10 Arctic lands

11 See also

12 References

13 Bibliography

14 Further reading

15 External links

The word Arctic comes from the Greek (arktikos), "near the Bear, northern"[6]and that from the word

(arktos), meaning bear.[7]The name refers either to the constellation Ursa Major, the "Great Bear",

which is prominent in the northern portion of the celestial sphere, or to the constellation Ursa Minor, the "Little

Bear", which contains Polaris, the Pole Star, also known as the North Star.[8]

The Arctic's climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation mostly comes in the form

of snow. The Arctic's annual precipitation is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm (20 in). High

winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall. Average winter temperatures can be as

low as 40 C (40 F), and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately 68 C (90 F). Coastal Arctic

climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures and heavier snowfalls

than the colder and drier interior areas. The Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to Arctic sea

ice shrinkage and Arctic methane release.

Due to the poleward migration of the planet's isotherms (about 35 mi (56 km) per decade during the past 30

years as a consequence of global warming), the Arctic region (as defined by tree line and temperature) is

currently shrinking.[9]Perhaps the most spectacular result of Arctic shrinkage is sea ice loss. There is a large

variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in

September from 2040 to some time well beyond 2100. About half of the analyzed models show near-complete

to complete sea ice loss in September by the year 2100.[3]

Plants

Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens and mosses, which all

grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. As one moves northward, the amount of warmth available

for plant growth decreases considerably. In the northernmost areas, plants are at their metabolic limits, and

small differences in the total amount of summer warmth make large differences in the amount of energy

available for maintenance, growth and reproduction. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance,

productivity and variety of plants to decrease. Trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs

are common and can reach 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in height; sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the

coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare; non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses


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Muskox

Marine fossils in Canadian Arctic

predominate, along with a few scattered grasses and forbs (like the arctic poppy).

Animals

Herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and

caribou. They are preyed on by the Snowy owl, Arctic fox and wolf. The

polar bear is also a predator, though it prefers to hunt for marine life

from the ice. There are also many birds and marine species endemic tothe colder regions. Other land animals include wolverines, ermines, and

Arctic ground squirrels. Marine mammals include seals, walrus, and

several species of cetaceanbaleen whales and also narwhals, killer

whales and belugas.

The Arctic includes sizable natural resources (oil, gas, minerals, fresh water, fish and if the subarctic is

included, forest) to which modern technology and the economic opening up of Russia have given significant

new opportunities. The interest of the tourism industry is also on the increase.

The Arctic is one of the last and most extensive continuous wilderness areas in the world, and its significance in

preserving biodiversity and genotypes is considerable. The increasing presence of humans fragments vital

habitats. The Arctic is particularly susceptible to the abrasion of groundcover and to the disturbance of the rare

reproduction places of the animals that are characteristic to the region. The Arctic also holds 1/5 of the Earth's

water supply.

During the Cretaceous, the Arctic still had seasonal snows, though only

a light dusting and not enough to permanently hinder plant growth.

Animals such as Chasmosaurus,Hypacrosaurus, Troodon, and

Edmontosaurusmay have all migrated north to take advantage of the

summer growing season, and migrated south to warmer climes when the

winter came. A similar situation may also have been found amongst

dinosaurs that lived in Antarctic regions, such asMuttaburrasaurusof

Australia.

The earliest inhabitants of North America's central and eastern Arctic are referred to as the Arctic small tooltradition (AST) and existed c. 2500 BC. AST consisted of several Paleo-Eskimo cultures, including the

Independence cultures and Pre-Dorset culture.[10][11]The Dorset culture (Inuktitut: Tuniitor Tunit) refers to the

next inhabitants of central and eastern Arctic. The Dorset culture evolved because of technological and

economic changes during the period of 1050550 BC. With the exception of the Quebec/Labrador peninsula,

the Dorset culture vanished around 1500 AD.[12]Supported by genetic testing, evidence shows that Dorset

culture, known as the Sadlermiut, survived in Aivilik, Southampton and Coats Islands, until the beginning of

the 20th century.[13]


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Polar bears on the sea ice of the

Arctic Ocean, near the North Pole.

USSHonolulupictured.

Dorset/Thule culture transition dates around the 9th10th centuries. Scientists theorize that there may have been

cross-contact of the two cultures with sharing of technology, such as fashioning harpoon heads, or the Thule

may have found Dorset remnants and adapted their ways with the predecessor culture.[14]Others believe the

Thule displaced the Dorset. By 1300, the Inuit, present-day Arctic inhabitants and descendants of Thule culture,

had settled in west Greenland, and moved into east Greenland over the following century. Over time, the Inuit

have migrated throughout the Arctic regions of Canada, Greenland, Russia and the United States.[15]

Other Circumpolar North indigenous peoples include the Buryat, Chukchi, Evenks, Inupiat, Khanty, Koryaks,Nenets, Sami, Yukaghir, and Yupik, who still refer to themselves as Eskimo which means "snowshoe netters",

not "raw meat eaters" as it is sometimes mistakenly translated.[16]

The eight Arctic nations (Canada, Denmark (Greenland & The Faroe

Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and USA) are all

members of the Arctic Council, as are organizations representing six

indigenous populations. The Council operates on consensus basis,

mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundaryor resource disputes.

Though Arctic policy priorities differ, every Arctic nation is concerned

about sovereignty/defense, resource development, shipping routes, and

environmental protection. Much work remains on regulatory agreements

regarding shipping, tourism, and resource development in Arctic waters.

Research in the Arctic has long been a collaborative international effort,

evidenced perhaps most notably by the International Polar Year. The

International Arctic Science Committee, hundreds of scientists and specialists of the Arctic Council, and the

Barents Euro-Arctic Council are more examples of collaborative international Arctic research.

Territorial claims

No country owns the geographic North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The surrounding

Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean Canada, Denmark (via Greenland), Iceland, Norway, Russia, and

the United States are limited to a 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) economic zone around their coasts.

Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has ten years to make

claims to an extended continental shelf beyond its 200 nautical mile zone.[17]Due to this, Norway (which

ratified the convention in 1996),[18]

Russia (ratified in 1997),[18]

Canada (ratified in 2003)[18]

and Denmark(ratified in 2004)[18]launched projects to establish claims that certain sectors of the Arctic seabed should

belong to their territories.

On August 2, 2007, two Russian bathyscaphes, MIR-1 and MIR-2, for the first time in history descended to the

Arctic seabed beneath the North Pole and placed there a Russian flag made of rust-proof titanium alloy. The

mission was a scientific expedition, but the flag-placing during Arktika 2007, raised concerns of a race for

control of the Arctic's vast petroleum resources.[19]

Foreign ministers and other officials representing Canada, Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States met


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Long-range pollution pathways to the

Arctic

in Ilulissat, Greenland on May 28, 2008 at the Arctic Ocean Conference and announced the Ilulissat

Declaration,[20][21]blocking any "new comprehensive international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean,"

and pledging "the orderly settlement of any possible overlapping claims."[22]

As of 2012, Denmark is claiming the continental shelf between Greenland and the North Pole.[23]The Russian

Federation is claiming a large swath of seabed along the Lomonosov Ridge but confined to its sector of the

Arctic.

Exploration

Since 1937, the whole Arctic region has been extensively explored by Soviet and Russian manned drifting ice

stations. Between 1937 and 1991, 88 international polar crews established and occupied scientific settlements

on the drift ice and were carried thousands of kilometers by the ice flow.[24]

Pollution

The Arctic is comparatively clean, although there are certain

ecologically difficult localized pollution problems that present a seriousthreat to people's health living around these pollution sources. Due to the

prevailing worldwide sea and air currents, the Arctic area is the fallout

region for long-range transport pollutants, and in some places the

concentrations exceed the levels of densely populated urban areas. An

example of this is the phenomenon of Arctic haze, which is commonly

blamed on long-range pollutants. Another example is with the

bioaccumulation of PCB's (polychlorinated biphenyls) in Arctic wildlife

and people.

Preservation

There have been many proposals to preserve the Arctic over the years. Most recently a group of stars at the Rio

Earth Summit, on June 21, 2012, proposed protecting the Arctic, similar to the Antarctic protection. The initial

focus of the campaign will be a UN resolution creating a global sanctuary around the pole, and a ban on oil

drilling and unsustainable fishing in the Arctic.[25]

The Arctic is especially vulnerable to the effects of global warming, as has become apparent in the melting sea

ice in recent years. Climate models predict much greater warming in the Arctic than the global average,[28]

resulting in significant international attention to the region. In particular, there are concerns that Arctic

shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial

rise in sea levels worldwide.[29]The climate models on which the IPCC report Nr.4 is based give a range of

predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, showing near-complete to complete loss in September anywhere from 2040 to

some time well beyond 2100. About half of the analyzed models show near-complete to complete sea ice loss in

September by the year 2100.[3]More recently, the Catlin Arctic Survey concluded that summer ice loss would

occur around 2029.[30][31]

It has been apparent though since 2007, that those models grossly underestimate sea

ice loss.[32]


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Arctic sea ice coverage as of 2007

compared to 2005 and compared to

19792000 average

The development of Arctic sea ice

area as measured with satellites.[26]

The development of Arctic sea ice

volume as estimated by measurement

corrected numerical simulation shows

probability of total sea ice loss insummer for the near future.

[27]

As can be seen in the two plot at the right, since about 1995 to 2000, all

three size numbers of the Arctic sea ice shield (extent, area and volume)

are decreasing in an accelerated way. This downward movement is

modulated by statistical variations, which lead to considerable media

attention, when a new record has been reached.

Concerning melting records, 2012 was a productive year, thus

corroborating the tendency of the past decade. This may have been

furthered by a strong summer storm cyclone, a rare event in the Arctic,which spread the already very thin ice and caused mixing of the cold

surface waters with deeper warmer water layers. According to the

University of Bremen, in September 2011 the Arctic ice cap was smaller

than ever recorded (the satellite measurements started in the 1970s).[33][34]Arctic ice is declining in area and thinning. Arctic temperatures

have risen more than twice as fast as the global average over the past

half century. The speed of change has shocked scientists. If current

trends continue, a largely ice-free Arctic in the summer is likely within

30 years up to 40 years earlier than was anticipated by the IPCC

Fourth Assessment Report.[35]

As the volume of sea ice until recently could not be measured by remote

sensing as easy as its extent, numerical models have been made to

estimate the ice thickness field between known points, which then is

summed up to yield ice volume. The resulting volume over time reveals

a much stronger loss of ice than ice extent studies suggest.[27]

The current Arctic shrinkage is leading to fears of Arctic methane

release.[36]Release of methane stored in permafrost could cause abrupt

and severe global warming,[37]

as methane is a potent greenhouse gas.On millennial time-scales, decomposition of methane hydrates in the

Arctic seabed could also amplify global warming. Previous methane

release events have been linked to the great dying, a mass extinction

event at the boundary of the Permian and Triassic, and the Paleocene

Eocene Thermal Maximum, in which temperatures abruptly increased.

Apart from concerns regarding the detrimental effects of warming in the

Arctic, some potential opportunities have gained attention. The melting

of the ice is making the Northwest Passage, the shipping routes through

the northernmost latitudes, more navigable, raising the possibility that

the Arctic region will become a prime trade route.[38]In addition, it is

believed that the Arctic seabed may contain substantial oil fields which

may become accessible if the ice covering them melts.[39]These factors

have led to recent international debates as to which nations can claim sovereignty or ownership over the waters

of the Arctic.[40][41][42][43]

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Arctic Report Card[44]presents annually updated,

peer-reviewed information on recent observations of environmental conditions in the Arctic relative to historical

records.


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Eidsfjord in Vesterlen, Norway is250 km (160 mi) inside the Arctic

Circle, but the comparatively

temperate Norwegian sea gives a

mean annual temperature of 4 C

(39 F) and a three-month summer

above 10C.[45]

Arctic Ocean

Baffin Bay

Beaufort Sea

Barents Sea

Bering Sea

Bering Strait

Chukchi Sea

Davis Strait

Denmark Strait

East Siberian

Sea

Greenland Sea

Hudson Bay

Kara Sea

Laptev Sea

Nares Strait

Norwegian Sea


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Geographic Designation National Affiliation Designation

Alaska United States State

Aleutian Islands United States Alaskan Archipelago

Arkhangelsk Oblast Russia Federal subject

Canadian Arctic Archipelago Canada Canadian Archipelago

Diomede Island (Big) Russia Island

Diomede Island (Little) United States Island

Finnmark Norway County

Franz Josef Land Russia Federal subject archipelago

Greenland Denmark Autonomous country

Grmsey Iceland Island

Jan Mayen Norway Island

Lapland Finland Region

Lapland Sweden Province

New Siberian Islands Russia Archipelago

Nordland Norway County

Norrbotten Sweden Province

Northwest Territories Canada Territory

Novaya Zemlya Russia Federal subject archipelago

Nunavik Canada Northern part of Quebec

Nunavut Canada Territory

Russian Arctic islands Russia Islands

Spmi Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia Fennoscandia region

Sakha Republic Russia Federal subject

Severnaya Zemlya Russia Federal subject archipelago

Siberia Russia Region

Svalbard Norway Governor of Svalbard archipelago

Troms Norway County

Yukon Canada Territory

Wrangel Island Russia Zapovednik (nature reserve)

Poverty in the Arctic

List of countries by northernmost point


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globalsecurityclimatechangeandthearctic.html) 24-page special journal issue (fall 2009), Swords and

Ploughshares, Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security (ACDIS), University

of Illinois

The Battle for the Next Energy Frontier: The Russian Polar Expedition and the Future of Arctic

Hydrocarbons (http://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/Aug2007-

TheBattleforthenextenergyfrontier-ShamilYenikeyeff-and-TimothyFentonKrysiek.pdf), by Shamil

Midkhatovich Yenikeyeff and Timothy Fenton Krysiek, Oxford Energy Comment, Oxford Institute for

Energy Studies, August 2007

GLOBIO Human Impact maps (http://www.globio.info/region/polar/#arctic)Report on human impacts on

the Arctic

Krupnik, Igor, Michael A. Lang, and Scott E. Miller, eds. Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to

International Polar Year Science.(http://www.sil.si.edu/smithsoniancontributions/proceedings

/sc_RecordSingle.cfm?series=IPY&toplevel=1) Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly

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Kpyl, Juha & Mikkola, Harri: The Global Arctic: The Growing Arctic Interests of Russia, China, the

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Arctic Report Card (http://www.arctic.noaa.gov)

International Arctic Research Center (http://www.iarc.uaf.edu)

Arctic Theme Page (http://www.arctic.noaa.gov) Comprehensive Arctic Resource from NOAA.

WWF International Arctic Programme (http://www.panda.org/arctic) Arctic environment and

conservation information

Bering Sea Climate and Ecosystem (http://www.beringclimate.noaa.gov) Current state of the Bering Sea

Climate and Ecosystem. Comprehensive resource on the Bering Sea with viewable oceanographic,

atmospheric, climatic, biological and fisheries data with ecosystem relevance, recent trends, essays on

key Bering Sea issues, maps, photos, animals and more. From NOAA.

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/GPO/gpo23245)

Maps

Arctic Environmental Atlas (http://maps.grida.no/arctic) Circum-Arctic interactive map, with multiple

layers of information

Interactive Satellite Map (http://www.arctic.io/observations/) with daily update (true color/infrared)

Media

The Emerging Arctic (http://www.cfr.org/arctic/emerging-arctic/p32620#!/) An Infoguide from the

Council on Foreign Relations

"Global Security, Climate Change, and the Arctic" (http://acdis.illinois.edu/newsarchive/newsitem-

VideoGlobalSecurityClimateChangeandtheArctic.html) streaming video of November 2009 symposium

at the University of Illinois

Implications of an Ice-Free Arctic for Global Security (http://acdis.illinois.edu/newsarchive/newsitem-

ImplicationsofanIceFreeArcticforGlobalSecurity.html) November 2009 radio interview with Professor

Klaus Dodds (Royal Holloway, University of London)

The Canadian Museum of Civilization The Story of the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 19131918

(http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/hist/cae/indexe.shtml)

UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics library (http://maps.grida.no/go/searchRegion/regionid

/geoarctic) Information resources from the UN Environment programme

Arctic Institute of North America Digital Library (http://contentdm.ucalgary.ca

/cdm4/browse.php?CISOROOT=/aina3) Over 8000 photographs dating from the late 19th century

through the 20th century.

euroarctic.com (http://www.euroarctic.com/) News service from the Barents region provided by

Norwegian Broadcasting Corp (NRK), Swedish Radio (SR) and STBC Murman.

arcticfocus.com (http://www.arcticfocus.com/) Independent News service covering Arctic region with

daily updates on environment, Arctic disputes and business

Vital Arctic Graphics (http://www.vitalgraphics.net/arctic.cfm) Overview and case studies of the Arctic

environment and the Arctic Indigenous Peoples.

Arctic and Taiga Canadian Atlas (http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/themes.aspx?id=artic&

lang=En)

Scientific Facts on Arctic Climate Change (http://www.greenfacts.org/en/arctic-climate-change

/index.htm)

PolarTREC (http://www.polartrec.com) PolarTREC-Teachers and Researchers Exploring and

Collaborating

Arctic Change (http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/detect/):Information on the present state of Arctic ecosystems

and climate, presented in historical context (from NOAA, updated regularly)


14 6/20/2014


14/14

Monthly Sea Ice Outlook (http://www.arcus.org/search/seaiceoutlook/)

UN Environment Programme Key Polar Centre at UNEP/GRID-Arendal (http://polar.grida.no/)

Arctic Geobotanical Atlas, University of Alaska Fairbanks (http://www.arcticatlas.org)

Polar Discovery (http://polardiscovery.whoi.edu/)

Arctic Transform (http://www.arctic-transform.eu/) Transatlantic Policy Options for Supporting

Adaptation in the Marine Arctic

ArcticStat Circumpolar Database (http://www.arcticstat.org/)

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Categories: Arctic Polar regions of the Earth

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