Appendix A 47 APPENDIX A MORTALITY BY SEX DURING PRE-HISTORIC TO PRE-MODERN TIMES Location Type Period Findings Source Age Male Life Expectancy Female Life Expectancy Difference (Female–Male) Various sites in Europe 20 skeletal remains of Neanderthal Roughly 150,000 to 30,000 years ago 20 15 5 (10) Vallois 1937 Solo River at Ngandong, Java 11 skeletal remains of Solo man (Homo soloensis or Javanthropus soloensis) Late Pleistocene (about 15,000 to 20,000 years ago) 20 23 23 — Acsa ´di and Nemeske ´ri 1970 Eurasia 76 skeletal remains Upper Paleolithic Period (35,000 to 8300 BCE) 20 15.5 9.8 (5.7) Vallois 1937 Vassilievka III near Dniepropetrovsk of former USSR 35 skeletal remains of Cromagnon Mesolithic (c8000– c2700 BCE) 20–24 23.96 20.33 (3.63) Acsa ´di and Nemeske ´ri 1970 25–29 22.25 18.27 (3.98) 30–35 21.28 18.04 (3.24) 35–39 20.25 18.11 (2.14) 40–44 17.82 16.71 (1.11) 45–49 14.29 13.01 (1.28) 50–54 13.59 12.19 (1.40) 55–59 13.86 12.19 (1.67) 60–64 11.55 8.50 (3.05) 65–69 7.45 4.93 (2.52) 70–74 4.62 3.09 (1.53) 75–79 3.03 2.50 (0.53) 802.50 — (2.50) Fofonovo in the Transbaikal region of Siberia 20 skeletal remains End of Mesolithic (c8000–c2700 BCE) Early Neolithic 20–24 35.85 22.74 (13.11) Acsa ´di and Nemeske ´ri 25–29 30.85 24.45 (6.40) 1970 30–35 25.85 21.59 (4.26) 35–39 20.85 18.49 (2.36) 40–44 16.44 15.10 (1.34) 45–49 12.40 11.89 (0.51) 50–54 9.70 8.45 (1.25) 55–59 9.45 6.66 (2.79) 60–64 7.97 6.94 (1.03) 65–69 6.02 6.57 0.55 70–74 3.74 4.51 0.77 75–79 3.00 2.50 (0.50) 800.50 — (0.50) Male Average Age at Death Female Average Age at Death Difference (Female-Male) Khirokitia on Cyprus 121 skeletal remains 4000–3000 BCE 35.2 33.6 (1.6) Angel 1953 Note: Positive differences indicate greater male mortality, negative differences indicate greater female mortality.
37
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APPENDIX A MORTALITY BY SEX DURING PRE-HISTORIC TO …...Appendix A 47 APPENDIX A MORTALITY BY SEX DURING PRE-HISTORIC TO PRE-MODERN TIMES Location Type Period Findings Source Age
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Appendix A 47
APPENDIX AMORTALITY BY SEX DURING PRE-HISTORIC TO PRE-MODERN TIMES
Location Type Period Findings Source
Age
MaleLife
Expectancy
FemaleLife
ExpectancyDifference
(Female–Male)
Various sites inEurope
20 skeletalremains ofNeanderthal
Roughly 150,000 to30,000 years ago 20 15 5 (10) Vallois 1937
Solo River atNgandong, Java
11 skeletalremains of Soloman (Homosoloensis orJavanthropussoloensis)
Late Pleistocene(about 15,000 to20,000 years ago) 20 23 23 —
Source: Derived from formula and parameter values in Heligman & Pollard 1980.
Appendix D 63
AP
PE
ND
IXD
MA
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nder
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s10
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year
s15
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year
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448
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4.2
26.0
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398,
402,
404–
429
166.
926
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ease
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onic
Obs
truc
tive
Pulm
onar
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25.9
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Why Men Die Younger: Causes of Mortality Differences by Sex64
AP
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ND
IXD
—C
ontin
ued
MA
LE
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ED
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ER
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1998
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rnat
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tion
ofD
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1975
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es
40–4
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ars
45–4
9ye
ars
50–5
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ars
55–5
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ars
60–6
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65–6
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ars
70–7
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ars
75–7
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ars
80–8
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ars
85�
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70.5
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Appendix D 65
AP
PE
ND
IXD
—C
ontin
ued
MA
LE
AN
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AL
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TE
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1975
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ales
Age
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djus
ted
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lU
nder
1ye
ar1–
4ye
ars
5–9
year
s10
–14
year
s15
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year
s20
–24
year
s25
–29
year
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–34
year
s35
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year
s
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orC
ardi
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390–
448
124.
536
1.1
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rtD
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390–
398,
402,
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429
193.
326
8.3
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105.
518
7.7
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30.9
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0.4
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1.5
Infe
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.9
Tot
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2.5
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116.
1
%fr
omA
ccid
ents
&A
dver
seE
ffec
ts7%
4%4%
41%
45%
48%
69%
56%
44%
34%
27%
Why Men Die Younger: Causes of Mortality Differences by Sex66
AP
PE
ND
IXD
—C
ontin
ued
MA
LE
AN
DF
EM
AL
ED
EA
TH
RA
TE
SP
ER
100,
000
PO
PU
LA
TIO
NB
YF
IVE
-YE
AR
AG
EG
RO
UP
S
FO
RM
AJO
RC
AU
SE
SO
FD
EA
TH
INT
HE
U.
S.IN
1998
Cau
seof
Dea
th
Nin
thR
evis
ion,
Inte
rnat
iona
lC
lass
ifica
tion
ofD
isea
ses,
1975
Fem
ales
40–4
4ye
ars
45–4
9ye
ars
50–5
4ye
ars
55–5
9ye
ars
60–6
4ye
ars
65–6
9ye
ars
70–7
4ye
ars
75–7
9ye
ars
80–8
4ye
ars
85�
year
s
Maj
orC
ardi
ovas
cula
rD
isea
ses
390–
448
30.8
52.9
92.4
164.
329
2.4
496.
788
1.8
1,55
6.8
3,00
9.8
7,93
6.2
Hea
rtD
isea
ses
390–
398,
402,
404–
429
22.1
39.0
69.3
127.
522
9.2
383.
966
8.4
1,14
9.9
2,19
0.1
5,87
6.6
Cer
ebro
vasc
ular
Dis
ease
s43
0–43
87.
111
.218
.828
.445
.781
.115
5.3
307.
863
4.2
1,56
3.3
All
Oth
erM
ajor
Car
diov
ascu
lar
Dis
ease
s1.
62.
74.
38.
417
.531
.758
.199
.118
5.5
496.
3
All
Can
cers
140–
208
54.4
96.3
166.
226
6.8
408.
756
9.6
786.
395
6.2
1,17
9.8
1,41
2.5
Res
pira
tory
&In
trat
hora
cic
Org
anC
ance
r16
0–16
58.
117
.138
.174
.512
9.7
185.
724
6.4
260.
426
6.0
202.
5
Dig
estiv
eO
rgan
Can
cer
150–
159
7.6
15.3
27.5
47.4
77.7
117.
617
0.8
231.
532
8.2
469.
9G
enita
lO
rgan
Can
cer
179–
187
7.9
13.2
20.7
29.7
41.6
56.8
72.8
87.4
102.
611
4.6
Bre
ast
Can
cer
174–
175
17.3
28.8
44.2
56.4
69.1
82.0
105.
212
0.4
147.
119
4.7
All
Oth
erC
ance
r21
.137
.263
.210
6.2
168.
324
5.1
361.
948
8.0
664.
190
0.7
Acc
iden
ts&
Adv
erse
Eff
ects
E80
0–E
978,
E98
0–E
999
30.9
28.5
26.3
26.9
28.5
35.2
48.9
72.4
120.
925
5.5
Mot
orV
ehic
leA
ccid
ents
E81
0–E
825
9.3
9.0
8.5
10.0
10.3
12.7
16.5
20.3
23.9
19.2
Suic
ide
E95
0–E
959
6.9
7.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.4
4.2
4.7
5.3
5.8
Hom
icid
e&
Leg
alIn
terv
entio
nE
960–
E97
84.
03.
01.
81.
71.
41.
51.
71.
72.
72.
2A
llO
ther
Acc
iden
ts&
Adv
erse
Eff
ects
10.7
9.5
9.0
9.2
11.8
16.6
26.5
45.7
89.0
228.
3
Chr
onic
Obs
truc
tive
Pulm
onar
yD
isea
ses
490–
496
2.6
4.9
12.1
26.1
57.6
108.
917
8.8
255.
835
2.5
444.
7
Infe
ctio
us&
Para
sitic
Dis
ease
s00
1–01
8,02
0–06
6,07
0–08
8,09
0–13
9,59
010
.110
.010
.614
.520
.229
.542
.662
.110
3.2
215.
5
Pneu
mon
ia&
Influ
enza
480–
487
3.2
4.0
6.0
9.5
17.7
30.6
61.5
128.
529
9.4
985.
8D
iabe
tes
mel
litus
250
4.0
7.5
14.6
26.0
43.8
66.4
98.6
137.
519
5.0
285.
7C
hron
icL
iver
Dis
ease
s&
Cir
rhos
is57
15.
87.
68.
911
.514
.719
.824
.926
.725
.317
.5
All
othe
rs25
.935
.047
.370
.610
9.8
173.
530
4.4
548.
21,
092.
02,
874.
0
Tot
al16
7.7
246.
738
4.4
616.
299
3.4
1,53
0.2
2,42
7.8
3,74
4.2
6,37
7.9
14,4
27.4
%fr
omA
ccid
ents
&A
dver
seE
ffec
ts18
%12
%7%
4%3%
2%2%
2%2%
2%
Appendix D 67
AP
PE
ND
IXD
—C
ontin
ued
MA
LE
AN
DF
EM
AL
ED
EA
TH
RA
TE
SP
ER
100,
000
PO
PU
LA
TIO
NB
YF
IVE
-YE
AR
AG
EG
RO
UP
S
FO
RM
AJO
RC
AU
SE
SO
FD
EA
TH
INT
HE
U.S
.IN
1998
Cau
seof
Dea
th
Nin
thR
evis
ion,
Inte
rnat
iona
lC
lass
ifica
tion
ofD
isea
ses,
1975
Rat
io(M
ale/
Fem
ale)
Age
-A
djus
ted
Tota
lU
nder
1ye
ar1–
4ye
ars
5–9
year
s10
–14
year
s15
–19
year
s20
–24
year
s25
–29
year
s30
–34
year
s35
–39
year
s
Maj
orC
ardi
ovas
cula
rD
isea
ses
390–
448
1.6
0.9
1.1
1.0
1.5
1.2
1.8
1.5
1.5
1.7
2.0
Hea
rtD
isea
ses
390–
398,
402,
404–
429
1.8
1.0
1.0
1.2
1.7
1.1
1.8
1.6
1.8
1.9
2.3
Cer
ebro
vasc
ular
Dis
ease
s43
0–43
81.
10.
71.
40.
8N
/AN
/A2.
01.
20.
91.
01.
0A
llO
ther
Maj
orC
ardi
ovas
cula
rD
isea
ses
1.6
0.9
1.3
–1.
00.
32.
01.
01.
01.
81.
8
All
Can
cers
140–
208
1.4
1.1
1.2
1.0
1.3
1.3
1.5
1.4
1.1
0.8
0.7
Res
pira
tory
&In
trat
hora
cic
Org
anC
ance
r16
0–16
51.
91.
5N
/AN
/AN
/AN
/AN
/AN
/A1
/51.
01.
1
Dig
estiv
eO
rgan
Can
cer
150–
159
1.7
1.2
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.3
Gen
ital
Org
anC
ance
r17
9–18
71.
21.
3N
/AN
/AN
/AN
/AN
/A0.
80.
40.
20.
1B
reas
tC
ance
r17
4–17
5–
–N
/AN
/AN
/AN
/AN
/AN
/A–
––
All
Oth
erC
ance
r1.
71.
31.
21.
01.
31.
31.
51.
41.
41.
51.
5A
ccid
ents
&A
dver
seE
ffec
tsE
800–
E97
8,E
980–
E99
92.
82.
41.
31.
41.
51.
92.
94.
43.
93.
32.
9M
otor
Veh
icle
Acc
iden
tsE
810–
E82
52.
22.
11.
21.
21.
41.
71.
83.
129
2.6
2.2
Suic
ide
E95
0–E
959
4.3
4.2
N/A
N/A
N/A
2.7
5.0
6.1
5.1
4.2
3.5
Hom
icid
e&
Leg
alIn
terv
entio
nE
960–
E97
83.
53.
41.
11.
20.
91.
55.
46.
04.
43.
32.
7A
llO
ther
Acc
iden
ts&
Adv
erse
Eff
ects
2.7
1.8
1.4
1.7
1.8
2.4
4.1
5.2
4.2
3.6
3.3
Chr
onic
Obs
truc
tive
Pulm
onar
yD
isea
ses
490–
496
1.4
1.1
N/A
N/A
1.0
1.5
1.5
1.7
1.3
1.1
1.0
Infe
ctio
us&
Para
sitic
Dis
ease
s00
1–01
8,02
0–06
6,07
0–08
8,09
0–13
9,59
01.
81.
31.
21.
31.
00.
81.
81.
01.
72.
42.
8
Pneu
mon
ia&
Influ
enza
480–
487
1.5
0.8
1.1
0.9
0.8
1.5
1.0
1.0
1.4
1.4
1.4
Dia
bete
sm
ellit
us25
01.
20.
9N
/AN
/AN
/AN
/A1.
00.
81.
11.
41.
5C
hron
icL
iver
Dis
ease
s&
Cir
rhos
is57
12.
31.
9N
/AN
/AN
/AN
/AN
/AN
/A2.
31.
91.
8
All
othe
rs1.
30.
81.
21.
01.
11.
21.
31.
41.
31.
41.
5
Tot
al1.
61.
01.
21.
21.
31.
62.
43.
12.
52.
11.
8
%fr
omA
ccid
ents
&A
dver
seE
ffec
ts1.
82.
31.
11.
21.
11.
21.
21.
41.
61.
61.
6
Why Men Die Younger: Causes of Mortality Differences by Sex68
AP
PE
ND
IXD
—C
ontin
ued
MA
LE
AN
DF
EM
AL
ED
EA
TH
RA
TE
SP
ER
100,
000
PO
PU
LA
TIO
NB
YF
IVE
-YE
AR
AG
EG
RO
UP
S
FO
RM
AJO
RC
AU
SE
SO
FD
EA
TH
INT
HE
U.S
.IN
1998
Cau
seof
Dea
th
Nin
thR
evis
ion,
Inte
rnat
iona
lC
lass
ifica
tion
ofD
isea
ses,
1975
Rat
io(M
ale/
Fem
ale)
40–4
4ye
ars
45–4
9ye
ars
50–5
4ye
ars
55–5
9ye
ars
60–6
4ye
ars
65–6
9ye
ars
70–7
4ye
ars
75–7
9ye
ars
80–8
4ye
ars
85�
year
s
Maj
orC
ardi
ovas
cula
rD
isea
ses
390–
448
2.3
2.5
2.5
2.3
2.1
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.4
1.0
Hea
rtD
isea
ses
390–
398,
402,
404–
429
2.7
2.9
2.9
2.5
2.3
2.1
1.8
1.6
1.5
1.1
Cer
ebro
vasc
ular
Dis
ease
s43
0–43
81.
21.
31.
21.
31.
41.
31.
21.
21.
10.
9A
llO
ther
Maj
orC
ardi
ovas
cula
rD
isea
ses
1.8
2.1
2.1
2.0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.4
1.1
All
Can
cers
140–
208
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.8
Res
pira
tory
&In
trat
hora
cic
Org
anC
ance
r16
0–16
51.
41.
61.
71.
81.
81.
92.
02.
12.
22.
6
Dig
estiv
eO
rgan
Can
cer
150–
159
1.6
1.8
1.9
1.9
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.3
Gen
ital
Org
anC
ance
r17
9–18
70.
10.
10.
20.
40.
71.
11.
72.
63.
96.
2B
reas
tC
ance
r17
4–17
5–
––
––
––
––
–A
llO
ther
Can
cer
1.6
1.8
1.9
1.8
1.8
1.9
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.5
Acc
iden
ts&
Adv
erse
Eff
ects
E80
0–E
978,
E98
0–E
999
2.9
3.0
2.9
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
2.1
1.7
Mot
orV
ehic
leA
ccid
ents
E81
0–E
825
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.0
2.0
1.7
1.5
1.7
2.1
3.2
Suic
ide
E95
0–E
959
3.5
3.4
3.1
3.7
4.1
5.3
7.0
7.6
9.9
10.0
Hom
icid
e&
Leg
alIn
terv
entio
nE
960–
E97
82.
82.
83.
83.
43.
42.
62.
02.
21.
21.
5A
llO
ther
Acc
iden
ts&
Adv
erse
Eff
ects
3.3
3.4
2.9
2.8
2.4
2.1
1.9
1.6
1.6
1.3
Chr
onic
Obs
truc
tive
Pulm
onar
yD
isea
ses
490–
496
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.5
1.5
1.7
2.0
Infe
ctio
us&
Para
sitic
Dis
ease
s00
1–01
8,02
0–06
6,07
0–08
8,09
0–13
9,59
02.
93.
02.
41.
71.
41.
31.
31.
31.
21.
1
Pneu
mon
ia&
Influ
enza
480–
487
1.4
1.6
1.5
1.7
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.6
1.3
Dia
bete
sm
ellit
us25
01.
71.
51.
31.
31.
21.
21.
21.
21.
21.
1C
hron
icL
iver
Dis
ease
s&
Cir
rhos
is57
12.
63.
23.
02.
82.
62.
01.
71.
41.
51.
9
All
othe
rs1.
51.
61.
51.
41.
41.
41.
31.
31.
21.
0
Tot
al1.
81.
81.
71.
71.
61.
61.
61.
51.
41.
2
%fr
omA
ccid
ents
&A
dver
seE
ffec
ts1.
61.
61.
71.
71.
61.
41.
41.
31.
41.
4
Sour
ceof
data
:N
atio
nal
Cen
ter
for
Hea
lthSt
atis
tics
2000
aan
dM
urph
y20
00.
69
AP
PE
ND
IXE
MA
LE
AN
DF
EM
AL
ED
EA
TH
RA
TE
SP
ER
100,
000
PO
PU
LA
TIO
NB
YF
IVE
-YE
AR
AG
EG
RO
UP
S
FO
RM
AJO
RC
AU
SE
SO
FD
EA
TH
INC
AN
AD
AIN
1994
Cau
seof
Dea
th
Nin
thR
evis
ion,
Inte
rnat
iona
lC
lass
ifica
tion
ofD
isea
ses,
1975
Mal
es
Age
-A
djus
ted
Tota
lU
nder
1Y
ear
1–4
Yea
rs5–
9Y
ears
10–1
4Y
ears
15–1
9Y
ears
20–2
4Y
ears
25–2
9Y
ears
30–3
4Y
ears
35–3
9Y
ears
40–4
4
Yea
rs
Cir
cula
tory
Dis
ease
s39
0–45
932
5.4
275.
213
.61.
90.
51.
62.
23.
44.
79.
218
.946
.2H
eart
Dis
ease
s41
0–41
4,42
7–42
822
4.4
191.
13.
50.
40.
10.
50.
71.
12.
34.
211
.733
.8C
ereb
rova
scul
arD
isea
se43
0–43
854
.344
.42.
50.
40.
10.
50.
31.
10.
31.
65.
85.
8A
llO
ther
Cir
cula
tory
Dis
ease
s46
.739
.77.
61.
10.
30.
61.
21.
22.
13.
41.
46.
6A
llC
ance
rs14
0–20
823
9.0
214.
02.
02.
63.
53.
25.
24.
68.
19.
322
.644
.0R
espi
rato
ry&
Intr
atho
raci
cO
rgan
Can
cer
162
74.7
68.3
——
——
——
0.2
0.8
3.0
10.5
Dig
estiv
eO
rgan
Can
cer
150–
154,
157
51.9
46.4
——
——
—0.
10.
41.
14.
59.
7G
enita
lO
rgan
Can
cer
179–
183,
185
30.3
25.0
——
——
——
——
——
Bre
ast
Can
cer
174–
175
0.2
0.2
——
——
——
——
—A
llO
ther
Can
cer
81.9
74.1
2.0
2.6
3.5
3.2
5.2
4.5
7.5
7.4
15.1
23.8
Acc
iden
ts&
Adv
erse
Eff
ects
E80
0–E
999
65.0
62.4
15.7
13.6
8.5
12.5
65.3
79.6
67.2
66.1
71.0
68.6
Mot
orV
ehic
leA
ccid
ents
E81
0–E
825,
E92
9.0
15.8
15.5
3.5
4.0
4.3
5.0
30.6
30.9
19.0
16.4
14.4
13.6
Suic
ide
E95
0–E
959
20.6
20.5
——
—3.
620
.428
.824
.326
.030
.726
.9H
omic
ide
E96
0–E
969
2.3
2.3
2.5
1.0
0.4
0.3
2.9
3.8
4.1
3.4
2.7
2.7
All
Oth
erA
ccid
ents
&A
dver
seE
ffec
ts26
.324
.19.
78.
63.
83.
611
.416
.119
.820
.323
.225
.4C
hron
icO
bstr
uctiv
ePu
lmon
ary
Dis
ease
s49
0–49
3,49
645
.737
.61.
00.
20.
10.
40.
20.
60.
30.
30.
51.
3In
fect
ious
&Pa
rasi
ticD
isea
ses
001–
139
16.3
15.9
9.6
1.2
0.5
0.6
0.7
1.2
10.9
24.1
28.4
29.1
Pneu
mon
ia&
Influ
enza
480–
487
30.6
23.8
6.1
1.0
0.2
0.5
0.1
0.9
0.9
1.4
2.7
2.7
Dia
bete
sm
ellit
us25
020
.017
.3—
——
0.1
0.4
0.7
1.0
2.3
3.7
Chr
onic
Liv
erD
isea
ses
&C
irrh
osis
571
10.7
10.3
1.0
——
——
0.2
0.4
1.2
3.3
5.5
All
othe
rs11
8.2
100.
764
5.3
14.7
5.0
5.4
10.3
11.3
13.6
15.7
17.9
27.7
Tot
al00
1–79
9,E
800–
E99
987
0.9
757.
269
4.3
35.2
18.3
24.2
84.1
102.
210
6.8
128.
316
7.6
228.
8
%fr
omA
ccid
ents
&A
dver
seE
ffec
ts7%
8%2%
39%
46%
52%
78%
78%
63%
52%
42%
30%
Why Men Die Younger: Causes of Mortality Differences by Sex70
AP
PE
ND
IXE
—C
ontin
ued
MA
LE
AN
DF
EM
AL
ED
EA
TH
RA
TE
SP
ER
100,
000
PO
PU
LA
TIO
NB
YF
IVE
-YE
AR
AG
EG
RO
UP
S
FO
RM
AJO
RC
AU
SE
SO
FD
EA
TH
INC
AN
AD
AIN
1994
Cau
seof
Dea
th
Nin
thR
evis
ion,
Inte
rnat
iona
lC
lass
ifica
tion
ofD
isea
ses,
1975
Mal
es
45–4
9Y
ears
50–5
4Y
ears
55–5
9Y
ears
60–6
4Y
ears
65–6
9Y
ears
70–7
4Y
ears
75–7
9Y
ears
80–8
4Y
ears
85–8
9Y
ears
90�
Yea
rs
Cir
cula
tory
Dis
ease
s39
0–45
981
.216
3.4
281.
152
3.5
875.
71,
443.
62,
523.
44,
188.
16,
555.
510
,834
.0H
eart
Dis
ease
s41
0–41
4,42
7–42
862
.512
5.4
215.
638
9.9
648.
21,
017.
61,
747.
22,
760.
64,
244.
07,
001.
0C
ereb
rova
scul
arD
isea
se43
0–43
87.
215
.329
.957
.410
2.7
213.
543
6.3
845.
71,
412.
32,
154.
6A
llO
ther
Cir
cula
tory
Dis
ease
s11
.522
.735
.676
.212
4.8
212.
533
9.9
581.
889
9.2
1,67
8.4
All
Can
cers
140–
208
86.3
176.
034
8.3
612.
293
2.4
1,30
0.6
1,76
4.6
2,37
5.2
2,94
4.7
2,97
0.2
Res
pira
tory
&In
trat
hora
cic
Org
anC
ance
r16
227
.258
.112
1.2
238.
235
8.3
464.
956
4.6
616.
859
3.2
363.
6
Dig
estiv
eO
rgan
Can
cer
150–
154,
157
18.3
42.6
85.4
129.
920
0.6
278.
338
0.1
519.
266
4.7
679.
6G
enita
lO
rgan
Can
cer
179–
183,
185
0.5
2.7
12.7
31.1
79.6
150.
627
2.3
467.
177
4.8
900.
6B
reas
tC
ance
r17
4–17
5—
0.4
0.2
0.5
0.2
3.1
1.5
3.1
1.4
—A
llO
ther
Can
cer
40.3
72.2
128.
821
2.5
293.
740
3.7
546.
176
9.0
910.
61,
026.
4A
ccid
ents
&A
dver
seE
ffec
tsE
800–
E99
959
.863
.865
.163
.866
.888
.313
5.8
234.
440
0.2
744.
2M
otor
Veh
icle
Acc
iden
tsE
810–
E82
5,E
929.
012
.612
.415
.113
.913
.119
.725
.633
.825
.730
.6Su
icid
eE
950–
E95
925
.126
.323
.623
.321
.219
.428
.730
.738
.623
.8H
omic
ide
E96
0–E
969
2.2
1.7
2.5
1.2
1.5
0.7
2.6
1.8
——
All
Oth
erA
ccid
ents
&A
dver
seE
ffec
ts19
.923
.423
.925
.431
.048
.578
.916
8.1
335.
968
9.8
Chr
onic
Obs
truc
tive
Pulm
onar
yD
isea
ses
490–
493,
496
1.3
5.4
19.1
44.4
110.
222
3.6
436.
370
9.5
1,06
2.1
1,49
5.2
Infe
ctio
us&
Para
sitic
Dis
ease
s00
1–13
923
.314
.215
.113
.219
.530
.243
.461
.412
2.9
166.
5
Pneu
mon
ia&
Influ
enza
480-
487
2.9
5.1
9.0
21.4
38.0
81.3
188.
945
2.9
1,01
2.1
2,06
2.8
Dia
bete
sm
ellit
us25
05.
910
.321
.935
.361
.510
1.5
156.
923
6.3
370.
241
1.2
Chr
onic
Liv
erD
isea
ses
&C
irrh
osis
571
11.3
17.5
26.9
37.7
52.6
52.3
44.9
43.6
45.7
17.0
All
othe
rs37
.753
.478
.613
2.3
215.
539
9.4
716.
81,
334.
22,
428.
64,
305.
8
Tot
al00
1-79
9,E
800-
E99
930
9.7
509.
186
5.1
1,48
3.8
2,37
2.2
3,72
0.8
6,01
1.0
9,63
5.6
14,9
42.0
23,0
06.9
%fr
omA
ccid
ents
&A
dver
seE
ffec
ts19
%13
%8%
4%3%
2%2%
2%3%
3%
71
AP
PE
ND
IXE
—C
ontin
ued
MA
LE
AN
DF
EM
AL
ED
EA
TH
RA
TE
SP
ER
100,
000
PO
PU
LA
TIO
NB
YF
IVE
-YE
AR
AG
EG
RO
UP
S
FO
RM
AJO
RC
AU
SE
SO
FD
EA
TH
INC
AN
AD
AIN
1994
Cau
seof
Dea
th
Nin
thR
evis
ion,
Inte
rnat
iona
lC
lass
ifica
tion
ofD
isea
ses,
1975
Fem
ales
Age
-A
djus
ted
Tota
lU
nder
1ye
ar1-
4ye
ars
5-9
year
s10
-14
year
s15
-19
year
s20
-24
year
s25
-29
year
s30
-34
year
s35
-39
year
s40
-44
year
s
Cir
cula
tory
Dis
ease
s39
0–45
919
9.0
262.
210
.21.
40.
42.
01.
01.
93.
25.
59.
215
.8H
eart
Dis
ease
s41
0–41
4,42
7–42
812
2.6
161.
51.
10.
40.
20.
60.
20.
80.
61.
13.
67.
0C
ereb
rova
scul
arD
isea
se43
0–43
845
.260
.10.
5—
—0.
50.
40.
30.
82.
43.
15.
4A
llO
ther
Cir
cula
tory
Dis
ease
s31
.240
.68.
61.
00.
20.
90.
40.
81.
82.
02.
53.
4A
llC
ance
rs14
0–20
815
3.9
178.
31.
62.
42.
53.
02.
34.
16.
613
.131
.958
.5R
espi
rato
ry&
Intr
atho
raci
cO
rgan
Can
cer
162
31.7
35.7
——
——
——
0.1
0.5
4.1
9.0
Dig
estiv
eO
rgan
Can
cer
150–
154,
157
30.8
37.0
——
—0.
10.
10.
10.
51.
03.
76.
3G
enita
lO
rgan
Can
cer
179–
183,
185
13.9
15.8
——
——
—0.
40.
92.
34.
06.
4B
reas
tC
ance
r17
4–17
529
.833
.8—
——
——
—0.
73.
312
.222
.3A
llO
ther
Can
cer
47.7
56.0
1.6
2.4
2.5
2.9
2.2
3.6
4.4
6.0
7.9
14.5
Acc
iden
ts&
Adv
erse
Eff
ects
E80
0–E
999
25.0
28.1
17.7
10.4
5.1
7.5
20.5
18.9
17.5
17.5
18.9
21.0
Mot
orV
ehic
leA
ccid
ents
E81
0–E
825,
E92
9.0
6.3
6.4
2.1
4.0
2.1
3.0
11.5
7.9
6.6
5.9
4.2
5.4
Suic
ide
E95
0–E
959
5.2
5.3
——
—1.
24.
95.
75.
05.
98.
48.
1H
omic
ide
E96
0–E
969
1.2
1.2
5.3
0.4
0.5
0.7
1.3
2.3
1.9
1.4
1.5
0.9
All
Oth
erA
ccid
ents
&A
dver
seE
ffec
ts12
.315
.210
.36.
02.
52.
62.
83.
04.
04.
34.
86.
6C
hron
icO
bstr
uctiv
ePu
lmon
ary
Dis
ease
s49
0–49
3,49
617
.822
.30.
50.
1—
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.5
Infe
ctio
us&
Para
sitic
Dis
ease
s00
1–13
95.
16.
16.
41.
50.
70.
40.
51.
11.
33.
13.
02.
6Pn
eum
onia
&In
fluen
za48
0–48
718
.826
.12.
70.
90.
30.
20.
1—
0.4
0.6
0.9
1.4
Dia
bete
sm
ellit
us25
014
.418
.0—
0.3
0.1
0.2
——
0.7
0.4
1.8
1.7
Chr
onic
Liv
erD
isea
ses
&C
irrh
osis
571
4.4
4.9
—0.
1—
——
—0.
10.
61.
12.
5
All
othe
rs90
.211
3.6
517.
928
.513
.816
.731
.034
.037
.649
.878
.811
9.4
Tot
al00
1–79
9,E
800–
E99
952
8.6
659.
655
7.0
28.5
13.8
16.7
31.0
34.0
37.6
49.8
78.8
119.
4
%fr
omA
ccid
ents
&A
dver
seE
ffec
ts5%
4%3%
36%
37%
45%
66%
56%
47%
35%
24%
18%
Why Men Die Younger: Causes of Mortality Differences by Sex72
AP
PE
ND
IXE
—C
ontin
ued
MA
LE
AN
DF
EM
AL
ED
EA
TH
RA
TE
SP
ER
100,
000
PO
PU
LA
TIO
NB
YF
IVE
-YE
AR
AG
EG
RO
UP
S
FO
RM
AJO
RC
AU
SE
SO
FD
EA
TH
INC
AN
AD
AIN
1994
Cau
seof
Dea
th
Nin
thR
evis
ion,
Inte
rnat
iona
lC
lass
ifica
tion
ofD
isea
ses,
1975
Fem
ales
45–4
9ye
ars
50–5
4ye
ars
55–5
9ye
ars
60–6
4ye
ars
65–6
9ye
ars
70–7
4ye
ars
75-7
9ye
ars
80-8
4ye
ars
85-8
9ye
ars
90�
year
s
Cir
cula
tory
Dis
ease
s39
0–45
926
.454
.510
0.8
201.
637
8.0
740.
01,
435.
32,
844.
45,
298.
410
,399
.0H
eart
Dis
ease
s41
0–41
4,42
7–42
812
.430
.161
.013
2.1
241.
947
2.1
908.
41,
770.
33,
206.
66,
355.
0C
ereb
rova
scul
arD
isea
se43
0–43
88.
313
.519
.034
.672
.114
5.5
319.
568
3.9
1,32
6.0
2,40
9.7
All
Oth
erC
ircu
lato
ryD
isea
ses
5.7
10.9
20.8
34.9
64.0
122.
420
7.4
390.
276
5.8
1,63
4.3
All
Can
cers
140–
208
111.
818
5.6
300.
141
4.8
578.
474
9.8
964.
81,
196.
61,
437.
31,
684.
3R
espi
rato
ry&
Intr
atho
raci
cO
rgan
Can
cer
162
22.1
39.2
77.0
112.
514
7.6
188.
318
5.0
182.
515
2.5
107.
4D
iges
tive
Org
anC
ance
r15
0–15
4,15
714
.426
.345
.168
.611
0.8
154.
522
4.9
314.
542
6.5
544.
4G
enita
lO
rgan
Can
cer
179–
183,
185
14.6
23.3
31.8
38.0
51.2
62.7
81.2
92.5
85.0
98.6
Bre
ast
Can
cer
174–
175
34.5
51.4
73.7
76.3
103.
211
6.8
144.
718
1.8
221.
331
3.4
All
Oth
erC
ance
r26
.245
.472
.511
9.4
165.
622
7.5
329.
042
5.3
552.
062
0.5
Acc
iden
ts&
Adv
erse
Eff
ects
E80
0–E
999
18.9
22.9
26.0
24.7
28.8
40.6
65.8
135.
728
0.7
636.
8M
otor
Veh
icle
Acc
iden
tsE
810–
E82
5,E
929.
05.
46.
26.
36.
69.
710
.912
.814
.610
.16.
2Su
icid
eE
950–
E95
98.
18.
19.
45.
55.
15.
25.
23.
74.
01.
2H
omic
ide
E96
0–E
969
0.8
1.2
1.1
0.6
0.3
0.4
1.0
1.5
1.3
—A
llO
ther
Acc
iden
ts&
Adv
erse
Eff
ects
4.6
7.4
9.2
12.0
13.7
24.1
46.8
115.
926
5.3
629.
4C
hron
icO
bstr
uctiv
ePu
lmon
ary
Dis
ease
s49
0–49
3,49
61.
35.
011
.027
.854
.898
.317
1.9
247.
629
9.7
432.
0In
fect
ious
&Pa
rasi
ticD
isea
ses
001–
139
3.8
2.5
5.5
5.5
10.0
20.0
23.8
43.5
75.6
136.
1Pn
eum
onia
&In
fluen
za48
0–48
71.
82.
24.
18.
620
.043
.110
9.7
257.
158
7.1
1,67
5.5
Dia
bete
sm
ellit
us25
03.
16.
712
.223
.839
.965
.711
7.3
188.
327
9.4
405.
8C
hron
icL
iver
Dis
ease
s&
Cir
rhos
is57
15.
36.
89.
912
.820
.921
.723
.321
.614
.216
.2A
llot
hers
24.2
32.4
53.1
84.2
148.
126
6.2
534.
098
9.2
2,06
4.0
4,39
7.3
Tot
al00
1–79
9,E
800–
E99
919
6.6
318.
652
2.7
803.
81,
278.
92,
045.
43,
445.
95,
924.
010
,336
.419
,783
.0
%fr
omA
ccid
ents
&A
dver
seE
ffec
ts10
%7%
5%3%
2%2%
2%2%
3%3%
73
AP
PE
ND
IXE
—C
ontin
ued
MA
LE
AN
DF
EM
AL
ED
EA
TH
RA
TE
SP
ER
100,
000
PO
PU
LA
TIO
NB
YF
IVE
-YE
AR
AG
EG
RO
UP
S
FO
RM
AJO
RC
AU
SE
SO
FD
EA
TH
INC
AN
AD
AIN
1994
Cau
seof
Dea
th
Nin
thR
evis
ion,
Inte
rnat
iona
lC
lass
ifica
tion
ofD
isea
ses,
1975
Rat
io(M
ale/
Fem
ale)
Age
-A
djus
ted
Tota
lU
nder
1ye
ar1-
4ye
ars
5-9
year
s10
-14
year
s15
-19
year
s20
-24
year
s25
-29
year
s30
-34
year
s35
-39
year
s
Cir
cula
tory
Dis
ease
s39
0-45
91.
61.
01.
31.
41.
30.
82.
21.
81.
51.
72.
1H
eart
Dis
ease
s41
0–41
4,42
7–42
81.
81.
23.
21.
00.
50.
83.
51.
43.
83.
83.
3C
ereb
rova
scul
arD
isea
se43
0–43
81.
20.
75.
0N
/AN
/A1.
00.
83.
70.
40.
71.
9A
llO
ther
Cir
cula
tory
Dis
ease
s1.
51.
00.
91.
11.
50.
73.
01.
51.
21.
70.
6A
llC
ance
rs14
0–20
81.
61.
21.
31.
11.
41.
12.
31.
11.
20.
70.
7R
espi
rato
ry&
Intr
atho
raci
cO
rgan
Can
cer
162
2.4
1.9
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
2.0
1.6
0.7
Dig
estiv
eO
rgan
Can
cer
150–
154,
157
1.7
1.3
N/A
N/A
N/A
——
1.0
0.8
1.1
1.2
Gen
ital
Org
anC
ance
r17
9–18
3,18
52.
21.
6N
/AN
/AN
/AN
/AN
/A—
——
—B
reas
tC
ance
r17
4–17
5—
—N
/AN
/AN
/AN
/AN
/AN
/A—
——
All
Oth
erC
ance
r1.
71.
31.
31.
11.
41.
12.
41.
31.
71.
21.
9A
ccid
ents
&A
dver
seE
ffec
tsE
800–
E99
92.
62.
20.
91.
31.
71.
73.
24.
23.
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83.
8M
otor
Veh
icle
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iden
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810–
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5,E
929.
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icid
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14.
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7H
omic
ide
E96
0–E
969
1.9
1.9
0.5
2.5
0.8
0.4
2.2
1.7
2.2
2.4
1.8
All
Oth
erA
ccid
ents
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seE
ffec
ts2.
11.
60.
91.
41.
51.
44.
15.
45.
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lmon
ary
Dis
ease
s49
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3,49
62.
61.
72.
02.
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/A4.
01.
02.
00.
81.
05.
0In
fect
ious
&Pa
rasi
ticD
isea
ses
001–
139
3.2
2.6
1.5
0.8
0.7
1.5
1.4
1.1
8.4
7.8
9.5
Pneu
mon
ia&
Influ
enza
480–
487
1.6
0.9
2.3
1.1
0.7
2.5
1.0
N/A
2.3
2.3
3.0
Dia
bete
sm
ellit
us25
01.
41.
0N
/A—
——
N/A
N/A
1.0
2.5
1.3
Chr
onic
Liv
erD
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osis
571
2.4
2.1
N/A
—N
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/AN
/AN
/A4.
02.
0A
llot
hers
1.3
0.9
1.2
1.3
1.1
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.8
1.8
1.5
Tot
al00
1–79
9,E
800–
E99
91.
61.
11.
21.
21.
31.
42.
73.
02.
82.
62.
1
%fr
omA
ccid
ents
&A
dver
seE
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ts1.
61.
90.
71.
11.
31.
21.
21.
41.
41.
51.
8
Why Men Die Younger: Causes of Mortality Differences by Sex74
AP
PE
ND
IXE
—C
ontin
ued
MA
LE
AN
DF
EM
AL
ED
EA
TH
RA
TE
SP
ER
100,
000
PO
PU
LA
TIO
NB
YF
IVE
-YE
AR
AG
EG
RO
UP
S
FO
RM
AJO
RC
AU
SE
SO
FD
EA
TH
INC
AN
AD
AIN
1994
Cau
seof
Dea
th
Nin
thR
evis
ion,
Inte
rnat
iona
lC
lass
ifica
tion
ofD
isea
ses,
1975
Rat
io(M
ale/
Fem
ale)
40–4
4ye
ars
45–4
9ye
ars
50–5
4ye
ars
55–5
9ye
ars
60–6
4ye
ars
65–6
9ye
ars
70–7
4ye
ars
75–7
9ye
ars
80–8
4ye
ars
85–8
9ye
ars
90�
year
s
Cir
cula
tory
Dis
ease
s39
0–45
92.
93.
13.
02.
82.
62.
32.
01.
81.
51.
21.
0H
eart
Dis
ease
s41
0–41
4,42
7–42
84.
85.
04.
23.
53.
02.
72.
21.
91.
61.
31.
1C
ereb
rova
scul
arD
isea
se43
0–43
81.
10.
91.
11.
61.
71.
41.
51.
41.
21.
10.
9A
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ther
Cir
cula
tory
Dis
ease
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92.
02.
11.
72.
22.
01.
71.
61.
51.
21.
0A
llC
ance
rs14
0–20
80.
80.
80.
91.
21.
51.
61.
71.
82.
02.
01.
8R
espi
rato
ry&
Intr
atho
raci
cO
rgan
Can
cer
162
1.2
1.2
1.5
1.6
2.1
2.4
2.5
3.1
3.4
3.9
3.4
Dig
estiv
eO
rgan
Can
cer
150–
154,
157
1.5
1.3
1.6
1.9
1.9
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.2
Gen
ital
Org
anC
ance
r17
9–18
3,18
5—
—0.
10.
40.
81.
62.
43.
45.
09.
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reas
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ance
r17
4–17
5—
——
——
——
——
——
All
Oth
erC
ance
r1.
61.
51.
61.
81.
81.
81.
81.
71.
81.
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7A
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ents
&A
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800–
E99
93.
33.
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82.
52.
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icle
Acc
iden
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810–
E82
5,E
929.
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02.
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02.
32.
54.
9Su
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950–
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54.
24.
23.
75.
58.
39.
719
.8H
omic
ide
E96
0–E
969
3.0
2.8
1.4
2.3
2.0
5.0
1.8
2.6
1.2
—N
/AA
llO
ther
Acc
iden
ts&
Adv
erse
Eff
ects
3.8
4.3
3.2
2.6
2.1
2.3
2.0
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.1
Chr
onic
Obs
truc
tive
Pulm
onar
yD
isea
ses
490–
493,
496
2.6
1.0
1.1
1.7
1.6
2.0
2.3
2.5
2.9
3.5
3.5
Infe
ctio
us&
Para
sitic
Dis
ease
s00
1–13
911
.26.
15.
72.
72.
42.
01.
51.
81.
41.
61.
2Pn
eum
onia
&In
fluen
za48
0–48
71.
91.
62.
32.
22.
51.
91.
91.
71.
81.
71.
2D
iabe
tes
mel
litus
250
2.2
1.9
1.5
1.8
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.0
Chr
onic
Liv
erD
isea
ses
&C
irrh
osis
571
2.2
2.1
2.6
2.7
2.9
2.5
2.4
1.9
2.0
3.2
1.0
All
othe
rs1.
81.
61.
61.
51.
61.
51.
51.
31.
31.
21.
0
Tot
al00
1–79
9,E
800–
E99
91.
91.
61.
61.
71.
81.
91.
81.
71.
61.
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2
%fr
omA
ccid
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01.
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31.
21.
21.
11.
01.
0
Sour
ceof
data
:St
atis
tics
Can
ada
1996
,Ta
bles
3&
5.
Appendix F 75
APPENDIX FMORTALITY OF ANIMALS BY SEX
Animal Results Source
Sex withApparent Lower
Mortality Detail
Mealworms Female Males averaged 60 days and females averaged 111days.
Rockstein 1974
NematodesAnguillula aceti Female Males appear to be shorter-lived than females. Geiser 1924Echinorhynchus Female Males appear to be shorter-lived than females. Geiser 1924Ascaris Female Males appear to be shorter-lived than females. Geiser 1924
CrustaceansDaphnia magna(parthogenetic)
Female Of 4,000 animals kept at 18� C, the average durationof life was 39 days in males, 45 days in females; at28� C it was 22 days in males, 29 days in females.
MacArthur & Baillie 1929
Moina rectirostris(parthogenetic)
Female Duration of life in males was 20-25 days, in females25–30 days.
Papanicolaou 1910
Simocephalusvetulus(parthogenetic)
Female Duration of life in males was 1 1/2 months, infemales 2 1/2 months.
Papanicolaou 1910
Shore Crab(Carcinedesmoenas)
Female Males were shorter-lived than females. Punnett 1904b
Gammarus locusta Female In aquaria, of 50 males and 50 females, the mortalityrate was much higher in males than in females.
Blegvad 1922
Mysis neglecta Female In Nyborg Fjord, males apparently die before females. Blegvad 1922Mysis inermis Female In Nyborg Fjord, males die before females. Blegvad 1922Mysis flexuosa Female In Nyborg Fjord, males apparently die before females. Blegvad 1922
Paludina benalensis Female 1 3 wild & captivity Annandale & Sewell 1921Paludina malleata Female 4 7 wild Niwa 1950Lioplax sp. Female In captivity, males live to be about 1 year of age,
while females live to be about 2 years of age.Van Cleave & Chambers 1935
Of 2,546 wasps, the wild-type males lived on average24.1 days, the wild-type females 29.3 days, and thedouble mutant males lived on average 19.9 days, thedouble mutant females 24.0 days.
Georgiana 1949
Orthoptera Female Males have lesser viability. Carothers 1923Flies
NAIDM strain ofCommon House Fly(Musca domesticaL.)
Female Of over 8,200 flies, the male average life expectancywas 18.74 days, while female’s was 28.74 days.
Rockstein & Lieberman 1959
NAIDM strain ofCommon House Fly(Musca domesticaL.)
Female Female average longevity is considerably greater thanthat of males under various dietary conditions.
Rockstein 1957
Common House Fly(Musca domestica)
Female Male average life expectancy was 28 days, whilefemale’s was 30 days.
Rockstein 1974
Why Men Die Younger: Causes of Mortality Differences by Sex76
APPENDIX F—ContinuedMORTALITY OF ANIMALS BY SEX
Animal Results Source
Sex withApparent Lower
Mortality Detail
Drosophilamelanogaster
Male
Female
Of 11,772 flies, the long-winged males lived onaverage 41.0 days, the long-winged females 38.8 days,and the short-winged males lived on average 14.2days, the short-winged females 15.8 days.
Pearl & Parker 1921
Drosophilamelanogaster
Female Average length of life of 2,620 males was 31 days,while average length of life of 3,216 females was 33days.
Pearl 1922
Drosophilamelanogaster
Female
Female
The average duration of life was 28.9 days in normalmales, and 33.1 days in both normal females (2 Xchromosomes) and triploid females (3 Xchromosomes).
Gowen 1931
Drosophilamelanogaster(vestigial strain)
Female In 980 files of a vestigial strain, the greater malemortality rates than female mortality rates were muchmore pronounced than in normal flies.
Pearl & Parker 1924
Mediterranean fruitfly (Ceratitiscapitata)
Male Of 1.2 million flies, males had a greater expectationof life at birth, but did not consistently have lowermortality at all ages.
Carey et al. 1995
Dragonflies Female For those dragonflies for which there are data, malesapparently have higher mortality rates than females.
Corbet et al. 1960
Wild type DCalliphora
Female 70 males averaged 46.8 days, while 70 femalesaveraged 52.8 days, in captivity.
Tribe 1967
Wild type SCalliphora
Male 145 males averaged 55.3 days, while 100 femalesaveraged 49.9 days, in captivity.
Tribe 1967
C-mutantCalliphora
Female 194 males averaged 44.5 days, while 32 femalesaveraged 51.3 days, in captivity.
Tribe 1967
W-mutantCalliphoraerythrocephala
Female 68 males averaged 35.5 days, while 63 femalesaveraged 43.4 days, in captivity.
Pyrausta nubilalis Female 13.0 17.0 — — Crawford & Spencer 1921Porthetria dispar Female Males are so short-lived that many die before females
are sufficiently mature to be fertilized.Goldschmidt 1917
Pthorimaeaoperculella
Female Males lived less than females in 271 of 275 pairs ofisolated adults. Of the few females that died beforethe males, most were abnormal.
Graf 1917
Colias Female The imaginal life is shorter in males than in females. Gerould 1926Beetles
Tenebrio molitor Female In a large number of beetles the average length of lifewas 60 days in males, 111 days in females. The sexratio of the pupae was approximately equal.
Hein 1920
Appendix F 77
APPENDIX F—ContinuedMORTALITY OF ANIMALS BY SEX
Animal Results Source
Sex withApparent Lower
Mortality Detail
4 species ofDytiscus
Female Of the 58 longest-lived beetles, recorded, the femalesconsistently outlived the males.
Blunck 1924
Flour BeetleTribolium confusum(Duval)
Female Of 800 beetles, the average lifespan was 178 days inmales and 199 days in females.
— Survival rate for females was higher at �1� C, andlower at 35� C than that for males, and there were nosignificant sex differences in survival at 0, 10, 15, 20,25, 35 or 45� C.
Kawamoto et al. 1989
19 species ofinsects raised incaptivity
— Since sample sizes were so small (33 at most), thisauthor performed statistical tests (permutation tests) byspecies and found that none of the results by speciesby sex were statistically significant at the 0.05 level.
Labitte 1916
Arachnids (Spiders) Maximum Adult Longevity
Mygalomorphae Female Male
Theraposa spp. Female 25 yr 2 mo Austad 1991Ummidia spp. Female 13� yr 6 mo Austad 1991Uagrusmexicanus
Female 7� yr 3 mo Austad 1991
AraneomorphaeFrontinellapyramitela
Female 3 mo 1 mo Austad 1991
Pisaura mirabilis Female 4 mo 1 mo Austad 1991Nephila clavipes Female 4 mo 2 mo Austad 1991Black Widow(Latrodectusmactans)
Female 28.3 mo 4.2 mo Austad 1991
Filistatahibernalis
Female 10� yr 2 mo Austad 1991
Black Widow(Latrodectusmactans)
Female As adults, males are shorter-lived than females. Montgomery 1908
Black Widow(Latrodectusmactans)
Female The average length of life was 100 days in males and271 days in females, of 82 males and 45 females.
Deevey & Deevey 1945
Black Widow(Latrodectusmactans)
Female Females lived longer than males. Blair 1934; Herms et al. 1935
Dermacentorvariabilis
Female Of 462 engorged nymphs, 46% were males. Bischopp & Smith 1938
ReptilesSide-blotchedlizards (Utastanburiana)
Female Males apparently have higher mortality rates thanfemales.
Tinkle 1967
Rainbow lizards Female Males apparently have higher mortality rates thanfemales.
Harris 1964
2 lizard species Female Males apparently have higher mortality rates thanfemales.
Hirth 1963
Rusty lizards Female Males apparently have higher mortality rates thanfemales.
Blair 1960
Why Men Die Younger: Causes of Mortality Differences by Sex78
APPENDIX F—ContinuedMORTALITY OF ANIMALS BY SEX
Animal Results Source
Sex withApparent Lower
Mortality Detail
Musk turtles(Sternotherusodoratus)
Female A collection of 255 adult turtles in Michigan had 70%females.
Female Of 1,442 mature turtles grown in captivity, 85% werefemales. The proportion of females in broods hatchedin different years varied from 63% to 100%. In 139immature animals, however, the percentage of femaleswas only 38%.
Hildebrand 1932, 1933
Snapping Turtles(Chelydraserpentina)
Male Intermediate incubation temperatures produced mostly,with higher embryo and hatching survival, than themostly females from extreme temperatures.
Bobyn & Brooks 1994
Alligators Female Of 166 alligators bought from dealers after collectionand examined when 19 months or less of age, 67%were females.
Forbes 1940
Snakes (Crotalusand Sistrurus)
Male Of 453 snakes observed at or near the time of birth,47% were males. Of 625 wild animals collected asadults, 51% were males.
Klauber 1936
Pig Frogs (Ranagrylio)
Female In north central Florida, adult females had greatersurvival than adult males.
Wood et al. 1998
BirdsEuropean Startlings(Sturnus vulgaris)
Male Mortality during the first year of life was 39% inmales and 70% in females. They tend to bemonogamous.
Coulson 1960; Gowaty 1996
Shags(Phalacrocoraxaristotelis)
Male Annual survival of females (80%) is about 5% lessthan that of the males.
Potts 1969
Yellow-eyedPenguin(Medadyptesantipodes)
Male Annual survival of females is about 5% less than thatof the males. They are generally monogamous andboth parents tend the young.
Richdale 1957; Williams 1996
Great Tits (Parusmajor)
Male Females have a greater adult mortality rate than males.They tend to be monogamous.
Perrins 1965; Dhondt et al.1996
Pied Flycatcher(Ficedulahypoleuca)
Female Based on 953 males and 1,298 females, after the firstyear males had greater mortality. About 5% ofbreeding males were polygynous.
Sternberg 1989
House Martin(Delichon urbica)
Male After their first summer, males have annual survival of46%, while females have 33%. Male breeders have alifespan of 1–6 years, while female breeders’ lifespanis 1–5 years. Both sexes build the nest and raise theyoung.
Bryant 1988, 1989
Kingfishers (Alcedoatthis)
— Of 74 males and 51 females, there were no significantdifferences in longevity between males and females.They are essentially monogamous.
Bunzel & Druke 1989
Meadow Pipit(Anthus pratensisL.)
Male Males probably have lower mortality rates thanfemales. They are essentially monogamous.
Hotker 1989
Song Sparrow(Melospiza melodia)
— The median number of breeding seasons for bothsexes is two. They are typically monogamous. Onlythe female builds the nest and incubates the eggs.
Hochachka et al. 1989
Appendix F 79
APPENDIX F—ContinuedMORTALITY OF ANIMALS BY SEX
Animal Results Source
Sex withApparent Lower
Mortality Detail
Red-wingedBlackbird (Agelaiusphoeniceus)
— Mortality for males and females is probably similar.They are strongly polygamous.
Orians & Beletsky 1989
Florida Scrub Jay(Aphelocoma c.caerulescens)
Male In the wild, 20% of males and 35% of females diebetween their first and second birthdays. Older helpershave 16% annual mortality for males, and 26% forfemales. Breeders of both sex have 21% annualmortality. They are monogamous.
Fitzpatrick & Woolfenden1989
Splendid Fairy-wren(Mallurussplendens)
Male Breeding males have annual survival of 72%, breedingfemales 65%. Mean lifespan for male breeders is 5.0years, 4.2 years for female breeders. Mean lifespan formale nestlings is 1.9 years, for female nestlings 1.7years. Pairs remain together for life.
Rowley & Russell 1989
Sparrowhawks(Accipiter nisus)
Female In south Scotland, survival in the first year was 31%for males and 49% for females; thereafter survival was67–69% per year for males and 64–71% per year forfemales. There was no difference between the sexes inBritain. They are primarily monogamous.
Newton 1986, 1989
Barnacle Geese(Branta leucopsis)
Male Female mortality is consistently higher than malemortality. In one sample, the median lifespan was 10years for males and eight years for females. They arelifelong monogamous.
Owen 1982; Owen & Black1989
Mute Swan (Cygnusolor)
Female There were no survival differences between the sexesin two samples, while in a third sample the femalessurvived better than did the males. They are strictlymonogamous.
Bacon & Andersen-Harild1989
Red-billed Gulls(Larusnovaehollandiaescopulinus)
Female Male annual survival averaged 84.4%, while femaleaverage annual survival was 89.4%. The sex ratiowidened with age. They are monogamous.
Mills 1989
Color-RingedHerring Gulls(Larus Argentatus)
Female In northeast England, female survival was higher thanthat of males in most years, but the difference was notsignificant.
Coulson & Butterfield 1986
Quail, Partridge Male Autumn hunters’ bags favored males: 58–66% male ineight cases; young shot were 47–54% males in sevencases
Hickey 1955
California quail(Lophortyxcalifornica)
Male Of 17,632 birds, mortality is greater in females thanin males.
Emlen 1940
Japanese Quail(Coturnix CoturnixJaponica)
Male Males live longer than females in captivity. Daniels 1968
Ring-neckedpheasant
Female Bags were 26% males. Pheasant fathers are neglectfulof their young.
Einarsen 1945; Skutch 1976
Ring-neckedpheasant
Male Sex ratio favored males by almost 2:1 after threeyears of prohibited hunting on Protection Island,Washington. Pheasant fathers are neglectful of theiryoung.
Einarsen 1945; Skutch 1976
Pheasant hybrids Female Of 514 males and 252 females hatched, 70% of themales and 51% of the females died within six months.Pheasant fathers are neglectful of their young.
Thomas & Huxley 1927;Skutch 1976
Why Men Die Younger: Causes of Mortality Differences by Sex80
APPENDIX F—ContinuedMORTALITY OF ANIMALS BY SEX
Animal Results Source
Sex withApparent Lower
Mortality Detail
Grey Ducks (Anassuperciliosa)
— In New Zealand, there was no evidence of sex-specificsurvival differences.
Caithness et al. 1991
Mallards (Anasplatyrhynchos)
Male In New Zealand and North America, survival rates ofmales were higher than those in females.
Caithness et al. 1991
Leghorn and hybridchickens
Female The male / female ratio in 5,683 deaths, whichoccurred within the first eight weeks after hatching,was 52.7%, while the ratio at hatching was 48.8%.
Landauer & Landauer 1931
Several breeds ofdomestic fowls
— No sex difference in numbers that hatch or that dieshortly thereafter.
Byerly & Jull 1935
Poultry Female In experimental breeding poultry, males were verymuch shorter-lived than females.
Pease 1947
Pigeons Male Of 570 birds, the mortality rates of the sexes weresimilar until adulthood; then, during first two years oflife, they were higher for females than for males.
Cole & Kirkpatrick 1915
Pigeons Male Males live longer than females. Levi 1957Bengalese Finch(Lonchura striata:Fam. Estrildidae)
Male 15 males averaged 57.3 months of life, while 24females averaged 47.5 months of life in captivity.
Eisner 1967
House finches(Carpodacusmexicanus)
Female In an epidemic killing millions of birds,proportionately more males were killed.
Nolan et al. 1998
FishCynolebias adloffi Female 21 males averaged 10.1 months of life while 23
females averaged 11.5 months of life, in captivity.Walford & Liu 1965
Cymatogaster Female At birth, the sex ratio was about equal, but mostadults are females.
Eigenmann 1896
Dogfish (Spinaxniger)
Female Of 308 embryos, the ratio of males to females wasapproximately equal; in adults there were twice asmany females as males.
Punnett 1904a
Plaice (Pleuronectesplatessa L.)
Female Of 179,118 animals caught in the North Sea, thepercentage of males was 55% in the youngest agegroup and gradually decreased in collections of olderseries of fish, until it was only 8% in the oldestgroup.
Hefford 1909, 1916
Plaice (Pleuronectesplatessa L.)
Female In the Barents Sea, an unfished area, 47% of the catchof young fish were males, while only 2% of the oldfish were males.
Atkinson 1908
Plaice (Pleuronectesplatessa L.)
Female Males constituted about 45% of all fish caught inNorth Sea, but only 20% or less of those were at leastseven years old.
Wallace 1914
Plaice (Pleuronectesplatessa L.)
Female The trend of data in fish obtained from the North Seaand elsewhere is similar to that stated above.
Wallace 1907; Petersen et al.1907
Witch (Pleuronectescynoglossus L.)
Female Of 2,748 young fish mostly 25–32 cm. long, 66%were males, whereas of 422 fish over 34 cm. long,27% were males.
Fulton 1904
Canadian Plaice(Hippoglossoidesplatessoides Fabr.)
Female In three-year-old fish from the Gulf of St. Lawrence,the number of males exceeded that of females, but theproportion decreased in older fish until in the 14–24-year groups practically only females were found.
Huntsman 1918
Salmon (Salmosalar L.)
Female Males were 42% of 1,294 one-year-old fish, but wereonly 30% of 347 two-year-old fish.
Menzies 1916, 1921
Appendix F 81
APPENDIX F—ContinuedMORTALITY OF ANIMALS BY SEX
Animal Results Source
Sex withApparent Lower
Mortality Detail
Salmon (Salmosalar L.)
Female During early life there were more males than females,while in older age groups there were more femalesthan males.
Masterman 1913
Plecoglossiaaltivelis
Female This annual fresh-water fish in Japan and Formosaoccasionally survives for two years; all such survivorswere reported to be females.
Nomura 1921
Smelt (Osmeruseperalanus L.)
Female There were more males among the young and morefemales among the old.
Masterman 1913
Common Top-minnow (Gambusiaaffinis B. & G.)
Female Females survive transit better than males. Geiser 1921
Top-minnow(Gambusiaholbrooki Grd.)
Female At 4 weeks of age, the sexes were approximatelyequal, while in old fish females greatly outnumberedmales.
Geiser 1921, 1924
Amphigonopterusaurora
Female Males were 53% of 630 embryos, but only 34% of403 adults.
Hubbs 1921
Lebistes reticulatus(Peters)
Female Among 67 fish, the ratio of males to females at birthwas 1 to 2.3. If a greater proportion of males is addedto the aquarium, the ratio comes to an equilibrium atone male to two females. The sex ratio in agedpopulations was not reported.
Breder & Coates 1932
Poor cod(Gadiformesminutus)
Female Males in the English Channel had greater mortalitythan did females.
Menon 1950
Hake (Merlucciusmerluccius)
Female Males in the Marmora Sea had greater mortality thandid females.
Akyuz 1959
Butter sole(Isopsetta isolepis)
Female Males on the west coast of Canada had greatermortality than did females.
Hart 1948
Platypoecilus,Xiphophorus andtheir hybrids
Female In the laboratory, 23 males lived on average 19.5months, while 49 females lived on average 20.8months.
Bellamy 1934
MammalsMarsupial mice(Antechinus)
Female Males have total male mortality soon after mating, atabout 11.5 months, while female A. minimus die atabout 1.5 years.
Diamond 1982
Marsupial mice(Antechinus stuartii)
Female Males apparently have higher mortality rates thanfemales.
Wood 1970
Marsupial glider(Schoinobatesvolans (Kerr))
Female Males apparently have higher mortality rates thanfemales.
Tyndale-Biscoe & Smith 1969
Mice—crosses ofdba females and C57
black males
Male The virgin females in the F1 generation lived anaverage of 27 months and males 29 months.
Woolley 1946
Mice–crosses ofdba males and C57
black females
Male The length of life in the F1 generation was 30 monthsin females, 33 months in males.
Woolley 1946
C57BL/6J inbredstrain of laboratorymice
Male Females apparently have higher mortality rates thanmales.
Committee on Animal Modelsfor Research on Aging 1981
DBA2/J inbredstrain of laboratorymice
Female Males apparently have higher mortality rates thanfemales.
Committee on Animal Modelsfor Research on Aging 1981
Why Men Die Younger: Causes of Mortality Differences by Sex82
APPENDIX F—ContinuedMORTALITY OF ANIMALS BY SEX
Animal Results Source
Sex withApparent Lower
Mortality Detail
B6D2 F1 inbredstrain of laboratorymice
Male Females apparently have higher mortality rates thanmales.
Committee on Animal Modelsfor Research on Aging 1981
BALB/cAnBdf
inbred strain oflaboratory mice
Female Males apparently have higher mortality rates thanfemales.
Committee on Animal Modelsfor Research on Aging 1981
C3Hf /Bd inbredstrain of laboratorymice
Female Males apparently have higher mortality rates thanfemales.
Committee on Animal Modelsfor Research on Aging 1981
C3C F1 inbredstrain of laboratorymice
Male Females apparently have higher mortality rates thanmales.
Committee on Animal Modelsfor Research on Aging 1981
CBA strain of mice — Younger males have lower mortality, older males havegreater mortality.
Zurcher et al. 1982
RFM strain of mice — No significant differences in male and femalelongevity.
Zurcher et al. 1982
C57BL strain ofmice
Male Females apparently have higher mortality rates thanmales.
Zurcher et al. 1982
NZB strain of mice Male Females apparently have higher mortality rates thanmales.
Zurcher et al. 1982
Mice (Musmusculus)
Female Life expectancy from birth was 19 months for malesand 22 months for females.
Masoro 1990
Mice (Peromyscusleucopus)
Male Life expectancy from birth was 48 months for malesand 46 months for females.
Masoro 1990
White Mouse Female Average length of life of 23 males was 712 days, 773days for 24 females.
Robertson et al. 1934
Rats Female Higher male prenatal mortality. King 1921Rats Female In 11 strains of rats, the males were shorter-lived than
the females. The difference was 0.06–2.44 months ofmale lifespans of 0.59–21.59 months.
Curtis et al. 1933
Rats Female Average length of life of 76 males was 622 days, 687days for 76 females.
McCay et al. 1943
Rats Female Average length of life of 14 males was 612 days, 688days for 19 females.
Carlson & Hoelzel 1946
Albino Rats (Rattusnorvegicus)
Female Expectation of life at 31 days of age, under laboratoryconditions, was 669.4 days for males and 693.1 daysfor females.
Wiesner & Sheard 1934-35
Domesticated strainof wild brown rat
Male There was little difference in survival from weaning toage 20 months between the sexes, but slightly betterfor males.
King 1939
Sprague-Dawleyinbred strain oflaboratory rats
Female Females have a longer life expectancy than males. Simms 1967, Wexler 1970, &Hoffman 1979
Long-Evans inbredstrain of laboratoryrats
— No significant differences in male and femalelongevity.
Hoffman 1979
F344 inbred strainof laboratory rats
Male The median length of life of males is 27.5, 26.5 forfemales.
Sass et al. 1975
WAG-Rij strain ofrats
Female Females have significantly longer life expectancy andmaximum life span than do males.
Masoro 1990
BN/Bi strain of rats Female Females have slightly greater survival rates at mostages than do males.
Burek & Hollander 1980
Appendix F 83
APPENDIX F—ContinuedMORTALITY OF ANIMALS BY SEX
Animal Results Source
Sex withApparent Lower
Mortality Detail
Rats (Rattus rattusdiardii)
Female Average length of life of males in Malaya was 3.0months and 3.5 months for females.
Harrison 1956
Short-tailed shrews(Blarinabrevicauda)
Male Males lived, on average, 4.6 months, while femaleslived on average 4.4 months, in captivity.
Blus 1971
Orkney Vole(Microtusorcadensis)
Female Mortality rates were determined to be greater formales than for females.
Leslie et al. 1955
Syrian hamsters(Mesocricetusauratus, Sch:SYR)
Male In captivity, the median survival time of 771 maleswas 550 days, while the median survival time of 454females was 390 days.
Redman et al. 1979
Chinese hamsters Male Mean survival time for males was 38.8 months and35.3 months for females.
Committee on Animal Modelsfor Research on Aging 1981
Guinea pigs (Caviaporcellus)
Male Males live longer than females in laboratories. Committee on Animal Modelsfor Research on Aging 1981
Mongolian Gerbil(Merionesunguiculatus)
Female In captivity, mean survival of 35 males was 110weeks and of 33 females was 139 weeks.
Troup et al. 1969
Mongolian Gerbil(Merionesunguiculatus)
Female Males had a mean life span of 1,062 days, whilefemales had a mean life span of 1,146 days. Infantmortality was not considered.
Arrington et al. 1973
Mastomys (Praomys(Mastomys)natalensis)
Female Mean (50% survival) ages for males was 21 monthsand 23 months for females.
Committee on Animal Modelsfor Research on Aging 1981
Wild Rabbit(Oryctolaguscuniculus cuniculusL.)
Female Males apparently have higher mortality rates thanfemales.
Stephens 1952
Martens (Martesamericana)
Female In an intensively trapped area in Maine, survival fromMay 1 to December 15 was higher for adult femalesthan adult males.
Hodgman et al. 1994
Platypuses Female Males live for approximately 5 years, females live toover 8 years.
Moyal 2001
Pigs Female The ratio of males to females among 538 fetuses was131%, while the ratio of males to females at birthvaried between 95% and 103%.
Parkes 1925
Pigs Female Of over 2,000, the mortality between birth andweaning was 39% for males and 34% for females.
Crew 1925
Cattle Female The ratio of males to females among 1,000 embryoswas 123%, while the ratio of males to females at birthvaried between 100% and 113%.
Jewell 1921
Horses Female The ratio of males to females born dead was 107%,while the ratio of males to females born alive was97%.
Goehlert 1888
Horses — Data of English thoroughbred racehorses listed in theGeneral Stud Book showed that stallions and mareshad similar life expectancy.
Comfort 1959
Irish Wolfhounds Female The mean ages at death of animals surviving to oneyear were 4.95 years for 39 males and 6.59 years for44 females.
Comfort 1956
Why Men Die Younger: Causes of Mortality Differences by Sex84
APPENDIX F—ContinuedMORTALITY OF ANIMALS BY SEX
Animal Results Source
Sex withApparent Lower
Mortality Detail
Dall Sheep (Ovisdalli)
Male From carcasses in Mount McKinley National Parkwhere most were killed by wolves, mortality rateswere determined to be greater for females than formales.
Caughley 1966
Bighorn Sheep(Ovis canadensis)
Female Male survival was lower than female survival, and thesex difference increased with age.
Loison et al. 1999
Roe Deer(Capreoluscapreolus)
Female Male survival was lower than female survival, and thesex difference increased with age.
Female Among young deer, males have greater mortality thanfemales.
Taber & Dasmann 1954
Mule & Black-Tailed Deer(Odocoileushemionus spp.)
Female Males appear to have greater mortality during prenataland early postnatal periods and among yearlings.
Robinette et al. 1957
Isard (Rupicaprapyrenaica)
Female Male survival was lower than female survival, and thesex difference increased with age.
Loison et al. 1999
Polar Bears (Ursusmaritimus)
— In western Hudson Bay, Canada, there were nodifferences in survival of cubs or yearlings betweenmales and females.
Derocher & Stirling 1996
Harbor Seals Female After reaching adulthood, males can live 2 decades,females can live 3 decades.
Dietrich 2001
Hawaiian MonkSeals (Monachusschauinslandi)
Female At French Frigate Shoals and Laysan Island, survivalof immature females appears to be better than males.
Gilmartin et al. 1993
Bottleneck Dolphins — Survival rates are similar for males and females. Demaster & Drevenak 1988White Whales — Survival rates are similar for males and females. Demaster & Drevenak 1988Sperm Whales Female Females outlive males by 30 years on average. Perls et al. 1999Killer Whales(Orcinus orca)
Female In coastal waters of British Columbia and WashingtonState, resident female mean life expectancy is 50.2years, resident male mean life expectancy is 29.2years.
Olesiuk et al. 1990
PrimatesSimangs (Hylobatessyndactylus)
Male Females have greater mortality than males. Allman et al. 1998
Spider Monkeys(Ateles)
Female Males have greater mortality than females. Allman et al. 1998
Owl Monkeys(Actus)
Male Females have greater mortality than males. Allman et al. 1998
Titi Monkeys(Callicebus)
Male Females have greater mortality than males. Allman et al. 1998
Goeldi’s Monkeys(Callimico)
Female Males have slightly greater mortality than females. Allman et al. 1998
Capuchin Monkeys(Cebus olivaceus)
Female In a natural population, females have a substantialsurvival advantage.
Robinson 1988
Marmosets — Males and females have similar survival. Allman 1999Tamarins — Males and females have similar survival. Allman 1999Rhesus Monkeys(Macaca mulatta)
Female In a large captive population, females had lowermortality than males up to about age nine, but greatermortality thereafter.
Dyke, Gage, Mamelka et al.1986
Appendix F 85
APPENDIX F—ContinuedMORTALITY OF ANIMALS BY SEX
Animal Results Source
Sex withApparent Lower
Mortality Detail
Macaque Monkeys Female Females live, on average, eight years longer thanmales.
Perls et al. 1999
Pigtail Macaques(Macacanemestrina)
— Of 1,174 animals in captivity over eight years,mortality of males from birth to 30 days of age wasgreater than for females. Between 30 and 180 days,female mortality was greater than males mortality, butthis was likely due to external circumstances.
Dazey & Erwin 1976
Crab-eatingMacaques (Macacafascicularis)
Female In zoo colonies, male mortality during the first year oflife is higher than is female mortality.
Angst 1976
Toque Macaques(Macaca sinica)
Female If free-ranging, mortality of female infants andjuveniles is greater than males, due to exclusion fromfood, but by age four to five years, male mortalitysurpasses female. After reaching maturity, females live17 years on average, and males live 10 1/2 years
Dittus 1975a, 1975b; &Dittus 1977
Baboons (Papiopapio)
Female More males are born than females, but by adulthood,more females than males are still alive.
Masure & Bourliere 1971
Olive Baboons(Papio anubis (J. P.Fisher))
Female In free-ranging animals, males have greater mortalitythan females.
Berger 1972
Gelada Baboons(Theropithecusgelada)
Female Females older than 8.5 years have lower mortalitythan males of the same age.
Dunbar 1980
Gibbons (Hylobatestar)
Female Males have greater mortality than females except forextremely high ages.
Allman et al. 1998
Orangutans (Pongopygmaeus)
Female Males have greater mortality than females. Allman et al. 1998
Gorillas (Gorillagorilla)
Female Males have greater mortality than females. Allman et al. 1998
Chimpanzees (Pantroglodytes)
Female From three captive populations of 1,488 chimpanzees,male life expectancy at birth was 20.7573 years andfemale life expectancy at birth was 29.4441 years.
Dyke, Gage, Alford et al.1995
Chimpanzees (Pantroglodytes)
Female In a 22-year study of 228 animals in the MahaleMountains, there was an equivalent number of maleand female births, but three times as many adultfemales as adult males, which was not due todifferential migration.
Nishida 1990
Chimpanzees Female At Gombe, males have greater mortality than females. Goodall 1986
Appendix G 87
APPENDIX GCORRELATION OF THE DIFFERENCE IN MALE/FEMALE LIFE EXPECTANCY WITH THE
DIFFERENCE IN PERCENTAGE OF MALE/FEMALE DEATHS ATTRIBUTABLE TO SMOKING IN