APPENDICES The following general information is given in the succeeding pages: Appendix Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4 Appendix 5 Appendix 6 Appendix 7 Appendix 8 Appendix 9 Appendix 10 Appendix 11 Appendix 12 Appendix 13 Appendi x 14 Conversion of units Physical properties of some solid materials Physical properties of some building and insulating materials Physical properties of some liquids Physical properties of some liquid met als Physical properties of saturated water Physical properties of saturated steam Physical properties of some gases Physical properties of dry air at atmospheric pressure Freezing points of aqueous solutions Properties of typical refrigerants Storage capacities Properties of some promising latent-heat thermal energy storage materials Solubility behaviour of candidate salts for salt-gradient solar pond. 609
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APPENDICES
The following general information is given in the succeeding pages:
Appendix
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
Appendix 4
Appendix 5
Appendix 6
Appendix 7
Appendix 8
Appendix 9
Appendix 10
Appendix 11
Appendix 12
Appendix 13
Appendi x 14
Conversion of units
Physical properties of some solid materials
Physical properties of some building and insulating materials
Physical properties of some liquids
Physical properties of some liquid met als
Physical properties of saturated water
Physical properties of saturated steam
Physical properties of some gases
Physical properties of dry air at atmospheric pressure
Freezing points of aqueous solutions
Properties of typical refrigerants
Storage capacities
Properties of some promising latent-heat thermal energy storage materials
Solubility behaviour of candidate salts for salt-gradient solar pond.
609
APPENDIX 1
CONVERSION OF UNITS*
S1 units are now generally employed in all calculations. The following relations ~tween one system of units to another will be used in calculations.
(i) Length m
1 yard = 3 ft = 36 inches = 0.9144m 1 m = 39.3701 inch = 3.280839 ft = 1.093613 yd
= 1650763.73 wavelength 1ft = 0.3048m; 1 in = 25.4 mm 1 angstrom = 1.000 x 10-8 em 1 mile = 1.609344 km 1 fathom = 1.828 8m 1 chain = 20.116 8m 1 fur long = 201.168m 1 micron = 10-6m= 10.Ji-cm =104 Ao 1 mil = 2.54 x 10-3 cm 1 links = 0.201 2m
(ij) Area m2
1yd2 = 0.836 m2 ; 1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2
, . 2 2 2 . ln = 6.452 cm = 0.000 645 16m
1 cm 2 = 10-4m2= 10.764 x 10~4ft2 = 0.1550 inch2 = 1024 barns
1 acre = 4046.86 m2 = 0.404686 ha = 43560 ft2.
1 mile 2 = 2.58999 km 2 = 640 acres 1 ha (hectare) = 104 m2 = 2.47 acres
610
APPENDIX 1
( iii) Vol um e m 3
ft 3 0.028 32m 3 28.3168 1 = =
1 in 3 16.39 3 1 .639 10- 2 1 = em = x
1 yd 3 0.764 555m 3 7.646 102 1 = = x
1UK gallon = 4.54609 1
1 US gallon = 3.7851 = 0.1337 ft 3
UK pint = 0.568 2611 = 0.00568m 3
bushel (bu) = 0.036 369 m3 = 8.000 UK gallons 3 1 barrel = 42.000 US gallons = 0.1590 m •
3 6 3 12 1 m = 100~0 x 10 em = 2.642 x 10 US gallons= 1.000 x 10 1
1 acre foot = 1233 m3
1 1 = 10-3 m3
1 quart = 1.136 x 10-3 m3
fluid ounce = 28.41 em 3
(jv) Mass Kg
1 kg = 2.20462 lb = 0.068 522 slug
1 ton (short) = 2000 lb (pounds) = 907.184 Kg.
1 ton (long) = 1016.05 Kg
1 dr am = 1 0772 g
lb = 16 oz (ounces) = 0.4536 Kg
1 tola = 10.66g
1 oz = 28.3495 g
1 slug = 14.59 Kg
1 stone = 6.350293 Kg
1 hundred weight (ewt) = 50.802345 Kg
1 maund = 40 seers = 37.32 Kg
quintal = 100 Kg
1 grain = 0.0648 g
1 carat = 0.2 g
611
612 APPENDIX 1
(V) Density and specific volumes kg/m 3 , m3 /kg
J lb/ft 3 = 16.0185 kg/m 3 = 5.787 x 10-4 lb/in 3
oz/ft 3 = 1 kg/m 3
slug ft 3 = 515.4 kg/m 3
g/cm 3 = 10 3 kg/m 3 = 62.43 Ib/ft 3
1 lb/ft 3 = 0.016 g/cm 3 = 16 kg/m 3
ft 3 (air) 0.08009 Ib = 36.5 gm at N.T.P.
1 l(air) = 1.2982 9 at N.T.P.
1 gallon lb = 0.010 cm 3 /kg
(vi) Pressure Pa
1 Ib/ft 2 = 4.88 kg/m 2 = 47.88 Pa
1 Ib/in 2 = 702.7 kg/m 2 = 51.71 mm Hg = 6.894 757 x 10 3 Pa (Pascal)
= 6.894 757 x 10 3 N/m2
1 atm = 1.013 x 10 5 N/m2 = 760 mm Hg=101.325 kPa
1 in H2 0 = 2.491 x 10 2 N/m2 = 248.8 Pa=0.036 Ib/in 2
bar = 0.987 atm = 1 .000 x 10 6 dynes/cm
1 .020kg f/cm 2 14.50 lb f / in 2
= =
= 10 5 N 2 (Newton/m ) = 100 K Pa
j torr (mm Hg.OD[)= 133 Pa 2
Pascal (Pa) =1 N/m = 1.894 76 kg
1 inch of Hg = 3.377 K Pa = 0.489 Ib/in 2
(vii) Velocity m/s
1 ft/s = 0.3048 m/s
2
1 mi le/h = 0.447 m/s = 1.4667 H/s = 0.8690
1 knot = 0.5144 m/s = 1.6878 ft/s
'1 km/h 0.2778 m/s
1 ft/mi n = 0.005 08 m/s
knots
APPENDIX 1 613
(viij) Force N
(j x)
5 1 N (Newton) = 1 x 10 dynes = 0.22481 lb wt= 0.224 81 Ibf
Ammonia -33.3 Carbon dioxide -79.2 Ethyl chlori de 13 .1 Freezol (isobutane) -12.2 Freon II (Cn 3F) 23.8
Freon 12 (C C12F Z ) -29.8
Freon 13 (C C1 F 3 ) --81 .4
Freon 21 (CHC1 ZF) 8.9
Freon 2Z(CH ClF 2) -40.8
Freon 113 (C 1ZF . C CIF 2) 47.6
Freon 114 (C C1 F 2) 2 3.6
Freon 115 (CC1F ZCF 3 ) -38.7
Freon 50Z -45.6
Methyl ch10ri de -Z3.7
Sulfur dioxide 10.0
631
Heat of vapourj-zation
at boiling point at atmospheric ~ressure (MJ /Kg)
1 .290 0.2698 0.4117 0.4036 0.182
0.165
0.149
0.2424
0.2338
0.147
0.137
0.126
0.178
0.2740
0.4008
APPENDU 1.2
STORAGE CAPACITI[S*
Energy densities Temperature
(Wh/kg) (Wh/dm 3 ) (DC)
Conventional fuels
on Coal Wood
Heat storage(Thermal storage)
Hot water Hot rocks,(concr'ete, granite)
Iron ore Al um j n j um Ir on
Heat storage(Phase change)
Ice,(heat of fusion) Water, (evaporation) Paraffin, (heat of fusion) Salt hydrates,(heat of fusion) Lithjum hydride LiH, (heat of fusion) Ljthium fluoride LiF, (heat of fusjon) Fluorides, mixtures
advantages of, 461 characteristics of 472 ' field studies on,473 operational strategies of, 462 theoretical studies on, 466 thermal energy capacity of, 467
A5HRAE 94-77, 594,596 Attach~d sunspace type
-2QJVe design, 525 Au xJ .1iary energy, 5 Butteries, 72
advanced, 73 lead acid, 74 life of, 75 nickel-zinc 74 primary type, 72
Building materials, 495 phase change materials as, 528 properties of, 620 thermal properties of 505
Calcium chloride hexa-hydrate, 209, 212
Capacitors, 55 Cera~ic pellets, 570 ChemJcal energy storage,
60,70,292 in ammonia, 331 ~n ammoniated salts,362 ln carbonates, 356 compariscn of, 292 in heat of solution,39B hydrogenation/dehydroge_ nation reaction, 361 ~n inorganic oxides,337 ln metal hydride,368 in methane reactions,372
reactions(list),307-31o selection criterian of 297 in 50 3 , 318 ' in sulfates, 358 systems, 313 thermal dissociation reactions, 314 thermodynamic considerations of, 297
Chemical heat pump, 375 ammoniates based, 384 heat of solution based, 398 hydrides in, 394 materials of, 379 salt hydrates in, 390 thermal efficien~y of, 380
Clathrate hydrates, 182, 186 Coefficient of performance
(COP), 16 Compatibility of peM, 244 Compressed gas energy storage
42 ' adiabatic compression, 44 expansion process, 46 isothermal compression, 43 large scale storage, 52 small scale storage, 50
Conse~vation of energy, 1,2 Contalnment of PCM Convective loop passive design,
507 Conversion of units, 610 Crop drying, 354 Crystallization, 29, 162, 198 Dehydration and hydration
reacU ons, 342 Dielectric materials, 56 Direct gain passive design,497 Drawing salt, 548 Drum Well, 516 Electric energy storage 9,11, 5<; ,
In batteries, 60 in capacitors, 55 in electromagnets, 57 in magnets, 59
Electrochemical storage, 72
639
640
Energy storage, 1,82,154, 292 by adsorptjon, 442 applications,7,8,9,12 in aquifers, 461 in building materjals, 495 characteristics of,19,2o as chemical energy, 9,292 jn compressed gas, 42 as electrical energy, 9,11,55 in flysheel 36 general, 1 in ground, 482 at hjgh temperature,10,547 in hydrogen, 10,13 jn kinetic ring, 40 as latent heat, 19,23,154,
at low temperature, 10,19 ,agnetic energy, 9,55,
59 as mechanical energy, 9,11,31 modes, 9 as sensible heat, 19,82 in solar p0nd, 461 in steel ingots, 567 system testing, 591 jn underqround tanks, 475
basics of, 154 in fatty acids, 183 heat of fusion, 156 material selection of, 192 material propertjes of, 21,23,27 in non-orQanic solids, 181 jn organic compounds, 184 in paraffins, 180, 220 in salt hydrates, 173 in solid-liouid transformation, 173; 175, in solid-solid transition, 171,262 system component, 157
Liquid storage tank, 94 analytical studjes, 106 contajners for, 121 experimental studies on, 114 forced strati fi cati on, 120 stratified tank, 101, 112 well mj xr;H tClnk, 9!!
Load levellinQ, 7 Magnetic materials, 60
Me~hanical energy storage,31 In com~r2ssed gas i n fly \'1 h eel s, 3 6 as kinetic energy, 35
INDEX
in kinetic ring, 40 as potential Anergy, 31 asp u III p e d h Y dr 0, 3 1 , 32 , 34, 35
Metal hydrides, 3C,368 Methane based reactions, 372 Methanolated salts, 398 Moltenslag storage ,566 NBSIR 74-634,594,597 Nucleating agents, 199 Nucleation, 160, 198 Number of transfer units
(NTU), 143,152,239 Packed bed storage system, 128 Paraffins 180, 220
Rock bed storage system, 551 air as working fluid in, 555 dual media type,559 at high temperature, 551,555
ReIling cylinder method, 219
Roof ponds, 524 Russel di agram, 14 Salt hydrates, 173,195,
198,203,204 CaC1 20 6H ZO,209,212
KF o 4H 2 0,213
Na2S04010H20,203
Na 2S20 3 05H 20,211
Sensible heat storage, 19,82,24 advantages of 82 Basics of, 82 drawbacks of, 84 in dual media, 94 for isothermal 10ad,85 in liquid media,90,94 material properties, 21 media, 89 in packed bed, 128 in solids, 26,91 in solid media, 93 in water, 24, 90
642
SiUcagel 416 Sodium suiphate decahydrate,
203 thermal cycling of, 215
Sodium thiosulphate pentahydrate, 211
Solar air conditioner, 17 Solar architecture, 540 Solar collector, 153,353,510 Solar cooling, 350,321,495 Solar desalination, 458 Solar drying, 86,87 Solar Energy, 1,6,348
storage 1,18,348,352 Solar heat engine 15 Solar pond, 25, 428,
analysis of, 445 applications, 454 areas of research for, 460 heat extraction from, 453 membrane stratified, 433 parU U oned, 433 profile, 444 salt gradient, 430 saturated, 434 shallow solar. Q?q