A.P. Government and Politics: Chapter 20 “Foreign and Military Policy”

A.P. Government and A.P. Government and Politics: Chapter 20Politics: Chapter 20

““Foreign and Military Policy”Foreign and Military Policy”

IntroductionIntroduction

Effects of the September 11 attacksEffects of the September 11 attacks

• Public consciousness about international Public consciousness about international terrorismterrorism

• Outbursts of patriotismOutbursts of patriotism

• Confidence in governmentConfidence in government

• Emergence of important fundamental Emergence of important fundamental questionsquestions

How to wage a "war" against terrorism?How to wage a "war" against terrorism?

How to hold other nations accountable?How to hold other nations accountable?

How to act when other nations fight How to act when other nations fight terrorism?terrorism?

Does such a war require military to be Does such a war require military to be redesigned?redesigned?

IntroductionIntroduction

Reemergence of classic questionsReemergence of classic questions

• Do we only support nations that are Do we only support nations that are reasonably free and democratic?reasonably free and democratic?

• Are we the world's policemen?Are we the world's policemen?

Democratic politics and foreign and Democratic politics and foreign and military policymilitary policy

• Tocqueville and weakness of Tocqueville and weakness of democracydemocracy

• Others blame reckless policies of Others blame reckless policies of presidentspresidents

Kinds of foreign policyKinds of foreign policy

Majoritarian politicsMajoritarian politics

• Perceived to confer widespread Perceived to confer widespread benefits, impose widespread costsbenefits, impose widespread costs

• ExamplesExamples

WarWar

Military alliancesMilitary alliances

Nuclear test ban or strategic arms Nuclear test ban or strategic arms limitation treatieslimitation treaties

Response to Berlin blockade by Response to Berlin blockade by SovietsSoviets

Cuban missile crisisCuban missile crisis

Covert CIA operationsCovert CIA operations

Diplomatic recognition of People's Diplomatic recognition of People's Republic of ChinaRepublic of China


Interest group politicsInterest group politics

• Identifiable groups Identifiable groups pitted against one pitted against one another for costs, another for costs, benefitsbenefits

• ExamplesExamples

Cyprus policy: Greeks Cyprus policy: Greeks versus Turksversus Turks

Tariffs: Japanese versus Tariffs: Japanese versus steelsteel


Client politicsClient politics

• Benefits to identifiable group, Benefits to identifiable group, without apparent costs to any without apparent costs to any distinct groupdistinct group

• Example: Israel policy Example: Israel policy (transformation to interest group (transformation to interest group politics?)politics?)

Who has power?Who has power?

• Majoritarian politics: president Majoritarian politics: president dominates; public opinion supports dominates; public opinion supports but does not guidebut does not guide

• Interest group or client politics: Interest group or client politics: larger congressional rolelarger congressional role

Entrepreneurial politics: Congress Entrepreneurial politics: Congress the central political arenathe central political arena

The constitutional and legal contextThe constitutional and legal context

The Constitution creates an The Constitution creates an "invitation to struggle""invitation to struggle"

• President commander in chief President commander in chief but Congress appropriates but Congress appropriates moneymoney

• President appoints ambassadors, President appoints ambassadors, but Senate confirmsbut Senate confirms

• President negotiates treaties, President negotiates treaties, but Senate ratifiesbut Senate ratifies

• But Americans think president in But Americans think president in charge, which history confirmscharge, which history confirms


Presidential box scorePresidential box score

• Presidents relatively strong in foreign affairsPresidents relatively strong in foreign affairs

More successes in Congress on foreign than on domestic affairsMore successes in Congress on foreign than on domestic affairs

Unilateral commitments of troops upheld but stronger than Framers intendedUnilateral commitments of troops upheld but stronger than Framers intended

• 1801: Jefferson sends navy to Barbary1801: Jefferson sends navy to Barbary

• 1845: Polk sends troops to Mexico1845: Polk sends troops to Mexico

• 1861: Lincoln blockades Southern ports1861: Lincoln blockades Southern ports

• 1940: FDR sends destroyers to Britain1940: FDR sends destroyers to Britain

• 1950: Truman sends troops to Korea1950: Truman sends troops to Korea

• 1960s: Kennedy and Johnson send forces to Vietnam1960s: Kennedy and Johnson send forces to Vietnam

• 1983: Reagan sends troops to Grenada1983: Reagan sends troops to Grenada

• 1989: Bush orders invasion of Panama1989: Bush orders invasion of Panama

• 1990: Bush sends forces into Kuwait1990: Bush sends forces into Kuwait

• 1999: Clinton orders bombing of Serbian forces1999: Clinton orders bombing of Serbian forces

• 2000: Bush sends troops to Afghanistan2000: Bush sends troops to Afghanistan


Presidents comparatively weak in Presidents comparatively weak in foreign affairs; other heads of state foreign affairs; other heads of state find U.S. presidents unable to actfind U.S. presidents unable to act

Wilson and Franklin Roosevelt unable to Wilson and Franklin Roosevelt unable to ally with Great Britain before World War I ally with Great Britain before World War I and World War IIand World War II

Wilson unable to lead U.S. into the Wilson unable to lead U.S. into the League of NationsLeague of Nations

Reagan criticized on commitments to El Reagan criticized on commitments to El Salvador and LebanonSalvador and Lebanon

Bush debated Congress on declaration of Bush debated Congress on declaration of Gulf WarGulf War


Evaluating the power of the presidentEvaluating the power of the president

• Depends on one's Depends on one's agreement/disagreement with policiesagreement/disagreement with policies

• Supreme Court gives federal government Supreme Court gives federal government wide powers; reluctant to intervene in wide powers; reluctant to intervene in Congress-president disputesCongress-president disputes

Nixon's enlarging of Vietnam warNixon's enlarging of Vietnam war

Lincoln's illegal measures during Civil WarLincoln's illegal measures during Civil War

Carter's handling of Iranian assetsCarter's handling of Iranian assets

Franklin Roosevelt's "relocation" of 100,000 Franklin Roosevelt's "relocation" of 100,000 Japanese-AmericansJapanese-Americans


Checks on presidential power: political rather than constitutionalChecks on presidential power: political rather than constitutional

• Congress: control of purse stringsCongress: control of purse strings

• Limitations on the president's ability to give military or economic aid to Limitations on the president's ability to give military or economic aid to other countriesother countries

• Arms sales to TurkeyArms sales to Turkey

• Blockage of intervention in AngolaBlockage of intervention in Angola

• Legislative veto (previously) on large sale of armsLegislative veto (previously) on large sale of arms

The constitutional and legal contextThe constitutional and legal context War Powers Act of 1973War Powers Act of 1973

• ProvisionsProvisions

Only sixty-day commitment of troops without declaration of warOnly sixty-day commitment of troops without declaration of war

All commitments reported within forty-eight hoursAll commitments reported within forty-eight hours

Legislative veto (previously) to bring troops homeLegislative veto (previously) to bring troops home

• ObservanceObservance

no president has acknowledged constitutionalityno president has acknowledged constitutionality

Ford, Carter, Reagan, Bush, and Clinton sent troops without explicit congressional authorizationFord, Carter, Reagan, Bush, and Clinton sent troops without explicit congressional authorization

• Supreme Court action (Supreme Court action (Chadha Chadha case)case)

Struck down the legislative vetoStruck down the legislative veto

Other provisos to be testedOther provisos to be tested

• Effect of act doubtful even if upheldEffect of act doubtful even if upheld

Brief conflicts not likely to be affected; Congress has not challenged a successful operationBrief conflicts not likely to be affected; Congress has not challenged a successful operation

Even extended hostilities continue: Vietnam and LebanonEven extended hostilities continue: Vietnam and Lebanon


Intelligence oversightIntelligence oversight

• Only two committees today, not the Only two committees today, not the previous eightprevious eight

• No authority to disapprove covert No authority to disapprove covert actionaction

• But "covert" actions less secret after But "covert" actions less secret after congressional debatecongressional debate

• Congress sometimes blocks covert Congress sometimes blocks covert action: Boland Amendmentaction: Boland Amendment

• Congressional concern about CIA Congressional concern about CIA after attacks of September 11after attacks of September 11

The machinery of foreign policyThe machinery of foreign policy

Consequences of major power Consequences of major power statusstatus

• President more involved in President more involved in foreign affairsforeign affairs

• More agencies shape foreign More agencies shape foreign policypolicy

Numerous agencies not really Numerous agencies not really coordinated by anyonecoordinated by anyone

Secretary of State unable to Secretary of State unable to coordinatecoordinate

• Job too big for one personJob too big for one person

• Most agencies owe no political Most agencies owe no political or bureaucratic loyaltyor bureaucratic loyalty

The machinery of foreign policyThe machinery of foreign policy

National Security Council created to coordinateNational Security Council created to coordinate

• Chaired by president and includes vice president, Chaired by president and includes vice president, secretaries of State and Defense, director of CIA, secretaries of State and Defense, director of CIA, chair of joint chiefschair of joint chiefs

• National security adviser heads staffNational security adviser heads staff

• Goal of staff is balanced viewGoal of staff is balanced view

• Grown in influence since Kennedy but downgraded Grown in influence since Kennedy but downgraded by Reaganby Reagan

• NSC rivals secretary of stateNSC rivals secretary of state

Consequences of multicentered decision-Consequences of multicentered decision-making machinerymaking machinery

• "It's never over" because of rivalries within and "It's never over" because of rivalries within and between branchesbetween branches

• Agency positions influenced by agency interestsAgency positions influenced by agency interests

Foreign policy and public opinionForeign policy and public opinion

Outlines of foreign policy shaped by public Outlines of foreign policy shaped by public and elite opinionand elite opinion

• Before World War II, public opposed U.S. Before World War II, public opposed U.S. involvementinvolvement

• World War II shifted popular opinion becauseWorld War II shifted popular opinion because

Universally popular warUniversally popular war

War successfulWar successful

United States emerged as world's dominant powerUnited States emerged as world's dominant power

Support for active involvement persisted until Support for active involvement persisted until VietnamVietnam

• Yet support for internationalism highly generalYet support for internationalism highly general

• Public opinion now mushy and volatilePublic opinion now mushy and volatile


Backing the presidentBacking the president

• Public's tendency to support Public's tendency to support president in crisespresident in crises

Foreign crises increases presidential Foreign crises increases presidential level of public approvallevel of public approval

Strong support to rally 'round the flag Strong support to rally 'round the flag for some but not all foreign military for some but not all foreign military crisescrises

• Presidential support does not Presidential support does not decrease with casualtiesdecrease with casualties

• Americans support escalation rather Americans support escalation rather than withdrawal in a conflictthan withdrawal in a conflict


Mass versus elite opinionMass versus elite opinion

• Mass opinionMass opinion

Generally poorly informedGenerally poorly informed

Generally supportive of Generally supportive of presidentpresident

Conservative, less Conservative, less internationalistinternationalist

• Elite opinionElite opinion

Better informedBetter informed

Opinions change more rapidly Opinions change more rapidly (Vietnam)(Vietnam)

Protest on moral or Protest on moral or philosophical groundsphilosophical grounds

More liberal and internationalistMore liberal and internationalist

Cleavages among foreign policy elitesCleavages among foreign policy elites

Foreign policy elite dividedForeign policy elite divided

How a worldview shapes foreign policyHow a worldview shapes foreign policy

• Definition of Definition of worldview: worldview: comprehensive mental picture of world issues comprehensive mental picture of world issues facing the United States and ways of respondingfacing the United States and ways of responding

• Example: Mr. X article on containment of USSRExample: Mr. X article on containment of USSR

• Not unanimously accepted but consistent with public's mood, events, Not unanimously accepted but consistent with public's mood, events, and experienceand experience

Four worldviewsFour worldviews

• Isolation paradigmIsolation paradigm

• Opposes involvement in European warsOpposes involvement in European wars

• Adopted after World War I because war accomplished littleAdopted after World War I because war accomplished little


Appeasement (containment) paradigmAppeasement (containment) paradigm

• Reaction to appeasement of Hitler in MunichReaction to appeasement of Hitler in Munich

• Pearl Harbor ended isolationism in United StatesPearl Harbor ended isolationism in United States

• Postwar policy to resist Soviet expansionismPostwar policy to resist Soviet expansionism

Disengagement ("Vietnam") paradigmDisengagement ("Vietnam") paradigm

• Reaction to military defeat and political disaster of VietnamReaction to military defeat and political disaster of Vietnam

• Crisis interpreted in three waysCrisis interpreted in three ways

Correct worldview but failed to try hard enoughCorrect worldview but failed to try hard enough

Correct worldview but applied in wrong placeCorrect worldview but applied in wrong place

Worldview itself wrongWorldview itself wrong

• Critics believed worldview wrong and new one based on new isolationism neededCritics believed worldview wrong and new one based on new isolationism needed

• Elites with disengagement view in Carter administration but were replaced Elites with disengagement view in Carter administration but were replaced during Reagan and Bush administrationsduring Reagan and Bush administrations


Human rightsHuman rights

• Clinton had a disinterest in foreign policy and his advisors believed in Clinton had a disinterest in foreign policy and his advisors believed in disengagement.disengagement.

• Clinton's strongest congressional supporters argued against the Gulf Clinton's strongest congressional supporters argued against the Gulf War but advocated military intervention in Kosovo.War but advocated military intervention in Kosovo.

• Change in view explained by concern for human rights and belief that Change in view explained by concern for human rights and belief that situation in Kosovo amounted to genocidesituation in Kosovo amounted to genocide

• Conservatives who supported containment in Gulf War urged Conservatives who supported containment in Gulf War urged disengagement in Kosovodisengagement in Kosovo

The politics of coalition buildingThe politics of coalition building

• Should the United States act "alone?"Should the United States act "alone?"

• If so, in what circumstances?If so, in what circumstances?

United States Military United States Military PolicyPolicy

The Use of Military ForceThe Use of Military Force

Military power more important after Military power more important after collapse of Soviet Union and end of collapse of Soviet Union and end of Cold WarCold War

• Military force used to attack Iraq, Military force used to attack Iraq, defend Kosovo, maintain order in defend Kosovo, maintain order in Bosnia, and occupy Haiti and SomaliaBosnia, and occupy Haiti and Somalia

• Several nations have long-range Several nations have long-range rockets and weapons of destructionrockets and weapons of destruction

• Many nations feel threatened by Many nations feel threatened by neighborsneighbors

• Russia still has nuclear weaponsRussia still has nuclear weapons

The Use of Military ForceThe Use of Military Force

Majoritarian view of militaryMajoritarian view of military

• Almost all Americans benefit, almost all Almost all Americans benefit, almost all paypay

• President is the commander-in-chiefPresident is the commander-in-chief

• Congress plays largely a supportive roleCongress plays largely a supportive role

Client view of militaryClient view of military

• Real beneficiaries of military spending--Real beneficiaries of military spending--general, admirals, big corporations, general, admirals, big corporations, members of Congress whose districts get members of Congress whose districts get fat defense contracts--but everyone paysfat defense contracts--but everyone pays

• Military-industrial complex shapes what is Military-industrial complex shapes what is spentspent

The defense budgetThe defense budget

Total spendingTotal spending

• Small peacetime military until 1950Small peacetime military until 1950

No disarmament after Korea because of No disarmament after Korea because of Soviet threatSoviet threat

Military system designed to repel Soviet Military system designed to repel Soviet invasion of Europe and small-scale invasionsinvasion of Europe and small-scale invasions

Public opinion supports a large militaryPublic opinion supports a large military

Raytheon BGM-109 Tomahawk Cruise Missile • Primary Function: long-range subsonic cruise missile for striking

high value for heavily defended land targets.• Contractor: Raytheon Systems Company, Tucson, Ariz.• Unit Cost: approximately $1,000,000• Power Plant: Williams International F107-WR-402 cruise turbo-fan

engine• Length: 18 feet 3 inches (5.56 meters)• Weight: 2,900 pounds (1,315.44 kg)• Diameter: 20.4 inches (51.81 cm)• Wing Span: 8 feet 9 inches (2.67 meters)• Range: 870 nautical miles (1000 statute miles, 1609 km)• Speed: Subsonic - about 550 mph (880 km/h)• Guidance System: TERCOM, DSMAC, and GPS (Block III only)• Warheads: 1 000 pounds or conventional submunitions dispenser

with combined effect bomblets.• Date Deployed: 1986 - 10C. 1994 - Block 111. 2003 - Tactical

Tomahawk

The defense budgetThe defense budget

Total spendingTotal spending

Demise of USSR produced debateDemise of USSR produced debate

• Liberals: sharp defense cuts; United States should not serve as Liberals: sharp defense cuts; United States should not serve as world's police officerworld's police officer

• Conservatives: some cuts but retain well-funded military because Conservatives: some cuts but retain well-funded military because world still dangerousworld still dangerous

Desert Storm and Kosovo Desert Storm and Kosovo campaigns made clear no escaping campaigns made clear no escaping U.S. need to use military forceU.S. need to use military force

Kosovo campaign indicated that Kosovo campaign indicated that military had been reduced too muchmilitary had been reduced too much

Clinton and Republican Congress Clinton and Republican Congress called for more military spendingcalled for more military spending

What do we buy with our money?What do we buy with our money?

Changing circumstances make justification Changing circumstances make justification of expenditures complexof expenditures complex

• World War II and Cold War: big armies, World War II and Cold War: big armies, artillery, tanks, ships, etc.artillery, tanks, ships, etc.

• War on Terrorism: small groups, special War on Terrorism: small groups, special forces, high-tech communications, precision forces, high-tech communications, precision guided bombs, and rocketsguided bombs, and rockets

• Joint operations now also seem more Joint operations now also seem more necessarynecessary

Secretary of defenseSecretary of defense

• Must transform conventional military for wars Must transform conventional military for wars on terrorismon terrorism

• Must budget in an atmosphere of debate and Must budget in an atmosphere of debate and pressure from members of both the military pressure from members of both the military and Congressand Congress

What do we buy with our money?What do we buy with our money?

Debating big new weaponsDebating big new weapons

• Washington folks are used to it (B-1, B-2 Washington folks are used to it (B-1, B-2 bombers, MX missiles, M1 tank, etc.)bombers, MX missiles, M1 tank, etc.)

• Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI, or "Star Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI, or "Star Wars") debate particularly protractedWars") debate particularly protracted

Major scientific and philosophical quarrelsMajor scientific and philosophical quarrels

Reluctance among the militaryReluctance among the military

• Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) requires more Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) requires more missiles and bombersmissiles and bombers

• SDI may reduce spending on missiles and bombersSDI may reduce spending on missiles and bombers

Concern MAD only works against rational Concern MAD only works against rational leadersleaders

What do we get for our money?What do we get for our money?

PersonnelPersonnel

From draft to all-volunteer force in 1973From draft to all-volunteer force in 1973

Volunteer force improved as result of: Volunteer force improved as result of:

• Increases in military payIncreases in military pay

• Rising civilian unemploymentRising civilian unemployment

Changes in militaryChanges in military

• More women in militaryMore women in military

• Ban of women on combat ships lifted in Ban of women on combat ships lifted in 1993 but Congress to be consulted if 1993 but Congress to be consulted if ground combat involvedground combat involved

• "Don't ask, don't tell" compromise "Don't ask, don't tell" compromise adopted by Clinton on homosexuals in adopted by Clinton on homosexuals in militarymilitary


Big-ticket hardwareBig-ticket hardware

• Main reasons for cost overrunsMain reasons for cost overruns

Unpredictability of cost of new itemsUnpredictability of cost of new items

Contractor incentives to underestimate at firstContractor incentives to underestimate at first

Military chiefs want best weapons money can buyMilitary chiefs want best weapons money can buy

"Sole sourcing" of weapons without competitive bids"Sole sourcing" of weapons without competitive bids

Holding down budget by "stretching out" productionHolding down budget by "stretching out" production

• Latter four factors can be controlled; first cannotLatter four factors can be controlled; first cannot

Small-ticket itemsSmall-ticket items

• Seemingly outrageous prices come from allocation of Seemingly outrageous prices come from allocation of overhead, small run of items producedoverhead, small run of items produced

• Others result from "gold-plating" phenomenonOthers result from "gold-plating" phenomenon


Readiness, favorite area for Readiness, favorite area for short-term budget cuttingshort-term budget cutting

• Other cuts would hurt Other cuts would hurt constituentsconstituents

• Cuts here show up quickly in Cuts here show up quickly in money savedmoney saved

BasesBases

• At one time, a lot of bases At one time, a lot of bases opened and few closedopened and few closed

• Commission on Base Commission on Base Realignment and Closure Realignment and Closure created to take client politics created to take client politics out of base closingsout of base closings

Structure of defense decision-makingStructure of defense decision-making National Security Act of 1947National Security Act of 1947

• Department of DefenseDepartment of Defense

Secretary of Defense (civilian, as are Secretary of Defense (civilian, as are secretaries of the army, navy, and air secretaries of the army, navy, and air force)force)

Joint Chiefs of Staff (military)Joint Chiefs of Staff (military)

• Reasons for separate uniformed Reasons for separate uniformed servicesservices

Fear that unified military will become Fear that unified military will become too powerfultoo powerful

Desire of services to preserve their Desire of services to preserve their autonomyautonomy

Interservice rivalries intended by Interservice rivalries intended by Congress to receive maximum Congress to receive maximum informationinformation

Structure of defense decision-makingStructure of defense decision-making

1986 defense reorganization plan1986 defense reorganization plan

• Joint Chiefs of StaffJoint Chiefs of Staff

Composed of uniformed head of each service with a chair and vice chair appointed Composed of uniformed head of each service with a chair and vice chair appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senateby the president and confirmed by the Senate

Chair since 1986 principal military adviser to presidentChair since 1986 principal military adviser to president

• Joint StaffJoint Staff

Officers from each service assisting JCSOfficers from each service assisting JCS

Since 1986 serves chair; promoted at same rateSince 1986 serves chair; promoted at same rate

• The servicesThe services

Each service headed by a civilian secretary responsible for purchasing and public Each service headed by a civilian secretary responsible for purchasing and public affairsaffairs

Senior military officer oversees discipline and trainingSenior military officer oversees discipline and training

• The chain of commandThe chain of command

Chair of JCS does not have combat commandChair of JCS does not have combat command

Uncertainty whether 1986 changes will workUncertainty whether 1986 changes will work

A.P. Government and Politics: Chapter 20 “Foreign and Military Policy”

Documents

foreign affairs

democratic politics

world war

money president

president commander

presidents unable

military policy tocqueville

legal contextpresidents