Ch. 10 – Gender, Politics, Government and the Military Robert Wonser.

Ch. 10 – Gender, Politics, Government and the Military

Robert Wonser

Gender and Politics

• Ratification of the Constitution did not enfranchise women in the states (came in 1920!).

• When we speak about politics we are speaking about power—the power to distribute scarce resources, to institutionalize particular values, and to legitimately use force or violence.

• Differences in men’s and women’s political attitudes and participation = gender gap

The Gender Gap: Political Attitudes and Activities

• 1980 Election: Significant changes occurred:• more women than men cast ballots• Women voted significantly differently than men• This election was no fluke and began the gender

gap• Gender gap – the differences in voting patterns

and political attitudes of women and men

More about the Gender Gap

• More complex than it first appears• Heart of gender gap issues according to research:

– Economics, social welfare, foreign policy– To a lesser extent: environmental protection and public safety.

• Women feel more economically vulnerable than men; therefore they tend to care more about healthcare, childcare, education, poverty and homelessness. Whereas men tend to care more about federal deficit, taxes, energy, defense and foreign policy.

• 2000: unmarried women favored Al Gore, and married women, George W. Bush ahead among married mothers and fathers, and married men without children.

The issue of War and crime

• Research also shows that women favor peaceful solutions over military spending they express greater distrust over other nations than men do and worry about how international relations might pose risks for the future security of the country. Especially prominent with women with children

• Public safety? Death penalty support for men: 73%, women: 73%

• Gun control laws: women in favor: 67%, men: 46%

Convergence?

• Often attitudes converge, protecting the environment for example.

• Majority of women and men support a women’s right to abortion at least under some circumstances, more women than men report that the position of a political candidate on the issue would affect their vote. Holds true for pro-choice and anti-abortion views.

• 92% of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgendered respondents to a recent survey are registered to vote. 52% vote in all elections

• Voting differences between men and women due to innate differences?

Gender and Political Activities

• Three levels of political activism:– Lowest level, spectator activities includes wearing

campaign buttons or putting a bumper sticker on your car.

– Transitional activities such as writing to public officials, making campaign contributions, and attending rallies or meetings.

– Highest level, gladiator activities include working on a political campaign, taking an active role in a political party, or running for public office.

• In general, both women and men are fairly uninvolved in politics.

• Still, much of women’s transitional political activism has been overlooked or devalued by researchers. Why?

Conventions

• Conventions are dominated by men.

• Important because:

• Major decision making occurs

• Discussion of problems, party identity, etc.

• At the 2000 RNC, only 17% of the delegates were non-White.

• At the 2000 DNC, 35% of the delegates were people of color.

Gender and Public Office

• 193 nations (192 members of the U.N.). As of 2000, just 7 had female heads of government.

• All levels of government women are underrepresented.

• 1997 study of women’s representation in national government: U.S. ranks 39 out of 173 national legislatures reviewed.

Historical Factors Contributing to Sex Disparity in Public Office

• 1) boys and girls different socialization processes– Research however indicates no sex differences in the political

views of school-age children.• 2) women have had greater difficulty meeting the demands

of public life given their domestic responsibilities.• 3) men outnumber women in elected office because most

women lack the necessary qualifications and credentials (increasingly less frequent)– In fact, female office holders are more likely to have attended

college, and non-White female officeholders are more likely than female officeholders overall to have attended college.

– Less tenable argument than in the past.• 4) prejudice and discrimination against women on two

levels: among the electorate and within political office.– Sexism has declined in recent years

Male vs. Female Candidates • Most voters still perceive female candidates to be better than male

candidates at handling social issues (e.g. education, child care, healthcare, homelessness, welfare policy, reproductive freedom).

• Voters believe male candidates better at: defense, foreign policy, economic issues and large budgets.

• Media coverage differs:• For females – viability of campaigns• For males – campaign issues are the focus• More coverage for women on ‘female issues’ and vice versa• Male type coverage (regardless of the candidate) is viewed more

favorably.• As a result, media tend to disadvantage women • Prejudice is strongest in the southern states, where a small minority

of party elite hold a monopoly on decision making, this bias reduces the number of women nominated for state legislative seats by one-third.

Incumbents and PACs

• Incumbents are people who hold political office and seek another term.

• Have advantages over challengers, why?• Both female and minority candidates are more likely to win

if they are running by a seat vacated because of resignation or retirement.

• In 1997:average amount spent on U.S. senatorial campaign: 2.8 million, congressional campaign: 6.3 million

• Where does the money come from?• PACs, or Political Action Committees are special

interest groups that dedicate themselves to fundraising and distributing contributions to the political campaigns of candidates who support their cause.

Donors 2008 Presidential Campaign

• Barack Obama• University of California $1,591,395• Goldman Sachs $994,795• Harvard University $854,747• Microsoft Corp $833,617• Google Inc $803,436• John McCain• Merrill Lynch $373,595• Citigroup Inc $322,051• Morgan Stanley $273,452• Goldman Sachs $230,095• JPMorgan Chase & Co $228,107• Ralph Nader• Farouk Systems $9,200• YMCA $6,900• University of South Carolina $6,850• Falconwood Corp $6,600• University of Massachusetts $5,150

2008 Presidential Campaign Info

For President Obama’s Campaign

Women and Men in State and local Governments•Men continue to

hold 78% of all state legislative seats, the # of women legislators has increased from 4% in 1969 to 29.6%.

•Again, low numbers but still represent a significant gain.

•Nationwide, of the nation’s 500,000 elected officials, 197 are openly gay.

Women and Men in the Federal Government

Shocking part, not the small numbers of women, but the lack of improvement over the 50+ years!

CA has elected more women to congress than any other state.

Yay us.

Presidential things of note

• One reason for women’s exclusion from some positions and committees is lack of seniority.

• But, presidents do have power to appoint people (290 positions!). Especially important for women and minorities for three reasons:

• 1) they provide young professionals with valuable career experience

• 2) they set an example for private employers to follow in hiring personnel.

• 3) they offer opportunities for input into policy making from individuals with diverse backgrounds and interests.

Supreme Court Justices

• Probably the most important presidential appointment

Supreme Court

• The presence of a White woman or a person of color in a government post does not necessarily mean that women’s or minorities’ interests will be consistently and fairly represented or that gender and racial and ethnic equality will always be promoted. What environment are they resocialized in to?

• What about the uproar initially over justice Sonya Sotomayor?

• A brighter horizon with President Obama? President Bush closed the White House Office for Women’s Initiative and Outreach (est by Clinton in 1995).

Women and Men in the Military

• Warmaking has been and remains to a large extent still, a male activity in the United States.

• Until the late 1060s, women served as a reserve army for the military, recruited as cheap labor when manpower was low, soon dismissed after men were available to replace them.

• Women who did enlist had to meet higher enlistment standards than men but received fewer privileges and career opportunities and were subject to stricter regulations.

• 1973: the military draft was replaced by the all-volunteer force, causing military planners to resort to recruiting women to keep enlistments up.

Active Duty

• By 1999: women made up 14.4% of active duty personnel

• African-Americans are overrepresented in the military: in 1997, 12.6% of the general pop but 18.4% of active duty military personnel.

• do people (women and minorities especially) join the military freely? Or because they are the most economically vulnerable segments of the population with limited opportunities open to them?

• Over 75% of women in the military have personally experienced sexual harassment

• One study reports: 50% unwanted physical contact, 25% having been assaulted, 19% had been raped.

“Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell”: Homosexuals in the U.S. Military

• “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” basically permits lesbians and gay men to serve in the military as long as they are not open about their sexual orientation and do not engage in homosexual acts.

• The number of anti-homosexual harassment incidents in the military increased from 871 in 2000 to 1,075 in 2001.

• President Bush supported it, President Obama has toyed with repealing it; as of yet though to no avail.

Feminism

• Should an increased number of women in the military be seen as a feminist victory?

• Women are pressured to fit in, to become “one of the boys”, which legitimates rather than changes the masculinization of the military.

• Debate continues on… • There are women who wish to participate on an equal

footing with men in the military, just as there are men who would welcome the combat exemption that historically was afforded to women.

• Feminism does not mean total adherence to total relativism, that is, feminists do not need to see every life choice as positive or beneficial simply because some individuals favor it.

The Politics of Gender

• There is a gender gap between men and women on certain issues—economics, social welfare, and foreign policy.

• The government has a role in perpetuating and often justifying inequality.