Annals_Tour_Res_1995_186.pdf

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Pergamon

AnnMs ofTourismResearch, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 186-204, 1995

Copyright 1994Elsevier Science Ltd

Printed in the USA. Allrightsreserved

0160-7383/95 $9.50 + .00

0160- 7383 - 94)00067-0

C O L L B O R T I O N T H E O R Y N D

C O M M U N I T Y T O U R I S M P L N N I N G

T a z i m B . J a m a l

D o n a l d G e t z

University of Calgary, Ca nada

A b s t r a c t

This paper applies the theoretical constructs of collaboration to tourism destinations

and offers insight into interorganizational collaboration for one specific tourism domain, the

planning and development of local, community-based touri sm destinations. Drawin g primarily

from the literature on interorganizational relations, the theoretical constructs of collaboration are

discussed first. Challenges and considerations in the p lanni ng and development of local tourist

destinations are then summarized, followed by examples of community -based collaboration re-

search. Propositions are presented for guiding collaborative initiatives and for investigating the

application of collaboration theory to the planni ng and development of tourism destinations, from

a community-involvement perspective. K eywo rds : Collaboration; communit y-based tourism

planning, stakeholders, propositions.

R~sum& L'article applique les constructions th6oriques de la collaboration aux destinations

touristiques et jette de la lumi~re sur la collaboration interorganisationnelle pour un domaine

particulier du tourisme: la planification et le d6veloppement communautaire des destinations

touristiques locales. On discute d'abord les construct ions th~oriques de la collaboration en faisant

appel 5. la litt6rature sur les relations interorganisationnelles. On r~sume les d6fis et les consid6ra-

tions de la planification et du d6veloppement des destinations touristiques locales, et on donne

ensuite des exemples de recherches sur la collaboration communautaire. On pr&ente des sugges-

tions pour guider des initiatives collaboratives et pou r invest iguer l'application de la th~orie de la

collaboration 5. la planification et au d~veloppement des destinat ions tour istiques dans un contexte

communautaire. Mots-cl~s: collaboration, planification touristique communautaire, d6positaires

d'enjeux, propositions.

I N T R O D U C T I O N

The lack of coordination and cohesion within the highly fragmented

tourism industry is a well-known problem to destination planners and

managers. Gunn (1988) stated that continuous tourism planning must

be integrated with all other planning for social and economic develop-

ment, and could be modeled as an interactive system. He pointed out

that the 'go-it-alone' policies of ma ny touri sm sectors of the past are

giving way to stronger cooperation and collaboration . . . . No one

business or govern men t establishment can operate in isolation (Gunn

1988:272). Inskeep (1991) has also pointed out the importa nce of an

effective organizational structure for tourism management and the

T a z i m J a m a l

is a Ph.D. student in Touris m and Hospitality Manag ement at the University of

Calgary (Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4. E-maih [email protected]'). Her main

area of study is tourism policy and planning, with special interest in cross-sectoral collaborative

processes and tourism in developing countries.

D o n a l d G e t z

is Professor of Tour ism and Hospi-

tality Mana gement at the Universi ty of Calgary. He specializes in tourism planning, impact

assessment, and event tourism.

186


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J A M A L A N D G E T Z 187

n e e d fo r c o n t i n u o u s , i n t e g r a t e d p l a n n i n g . A c h i e v i n g c o o r d i n a t i o n

a m o n g t he g o v e r n m e n t a g e n ci es , b e t w e e n t h e p u b li c a n d t h e p ri v a te

s e c t o r , a n d a m o n g p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e s is a c h a l l e n g i n g t a s k , h o w e v e r ,

a n d r e q u ir e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f n e w m e c h a n i s m s a n d p r o ce s se s fo r

i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e d iv e r s e e l e m e n t s o f t h e to u r i s m s y s t e m .

A l t h o u g h t h e t e r m s cooperation a n d collaboration a r e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d i n

t h e t o u r i s m p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i c y l i te r a t u r e ( S t e v e n s 1 9 8 8 ; T e y e 1 98 8 ;

Z i n s 1 9 8 7 ), l it tl e e f f o r t h a s b e e n m a d e t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o

c o n c e p t s o r t o d r a w f r o m i n t e r o r g a n i z a t io n a l s t u d ie s o n c o l la b o r a t i o n

w i t h i n th e f ie ld s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r , t h e o r y , a n d d e v e l o p m e n t .

I n a g e n e r a l s e n se , c o o p e r a t i o n m e a n s w o r k i n g t o g e t h e r t o s o m e

e n d ( F o w l e r a n d F o w l e r 1 9 6 4 :2 6 9 ) , b u t d o e s n o t c o n t a i n t h e c o m p l e x

i n t e r p r e ta t i o n s a n d t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s c o v e r e d b y th e t e r m

collab

oration. W h i l e i n t e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o l l a b o r a t io n i s r e c e i v in g w i d e s p r e a d

a t t e n t i o n i n s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h d i s c i p l i n e s , t h e p o t e n t i a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f

th is e m e r g i n g b o d y o f k n o w l e d g e f or m a n a g i n g t h e c o m p l e x a n d d y -

n a m i c t o u r i s m d o m a i n h a s n o t b e e n c l e a r l y a d d r e s s e d . A n o t a b l e e x -

c e p t i o n i s t h e s t u d y b y S e l i n a n d B e a s o n ( 1 9 9 1 ) , w h i c h a p p l i e d i n t e r o r -

g a n i z a t i o n a l r e l a t io n s t o th e s t u d y o f c o o p e r a t i v e r e l a t io n s b e t w e e n t h e

U S F o r e s t S er v ic e , c h a m b e r s o f c o m m e r c e , a n d t o u r is m a s so c ia t i o ns

a d j a c e n t to a n A r k a n s a s N a t i o n a l F o r e s t . F r o m t h e i r s t u d y , th e a u t h o r s

s u g g e s te d t h a t t o u r i sm m a n a g e r s m u s t a d o p t a m o r e d o m a i n - l e v e l

f o cu s a n d c o n s id e r th e i n t e rd e p e n d e n c i e s a m o n g o r g a n iz a t io n s w h e n

m a k i n g d e c i si o n s ( S e li n a n d B e a s o n 1 9 9 1 : 6 4 9 ). M o r e r e c e n tl y , S e li n

( 1 9 9 3 ) o u t l i n e d t r e n d s i n t o u r i s m t o w a r d s c o l l a b o r a t i v e a c t io n s , a s w e l l

a s i n c e n ti v e s a n d c o n s t r a in t s t o c o l la b o r a t i o n a m o n g t o u r i s m o r g a n i z a -

t io n s . T h e a p p l i c a t io n o f c o l l a b o r a t io n t h e o r y s p e ci fi c al ly t o c o m m u -

n i t y - b a s e d t o u r i s m p l a n n i n g h a s n o t b e e n r e p o r t e d a s y e t , d e s p it e its

p o t e n ti a l u se f u l n e s s t o d e s t i n a t i o n p l a n n i n g a n d m a n a g e m e n t .

T h e p r i m a r y a i m o f t h is a r t ic l e i s t o d i s c u s s s o m e o f t h e k e y t h e o r e t i-

c al c o n s tr u c t s o f c o l l a b o r a t io n a n d t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e ir r e l e v a n c e t o

c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d t o u r i s m p l a n n i n g . I t is a r g u e d t h a t a d o m a i n - l e v e l

f o c u s i n c o m m u n i t y t o u r i s m p l a n n i n g is c r it ic a l d u e t o th e i n t e r d e p e n -

d e n c i e s a m o n g m u l t i p l e s t a k e h o l d e r s i n a c o m m u n i t y t o u r i s m d e s t i n a -

t io n . I t is f u r t h e r a r g u e d t h a t c o l l a b o r a t i o n o f f e r s a d y n a m i c , p r o c e s s -

b a s e d m e c h a n i s m f o r r e s o l v i n g p l a n n i n g i ss u e s a n d c o o r d i n a t i n g

t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t a t th e lo c a l l ev e l. T h o u g h t h e d is c u s s io n f o c u s e s

o n t h e c o m m u n i t y l e v e l, it s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t s i m i l a r a r g u m e n t s c a n

b e f o r w a r d e d f o r th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f c o l l a b o r a t i o n t o r e g i o n a l l e v e l t o u r -

is m p la n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t .

C O L L A B O R A T I O N A N D C O M M U N I T Y D E S T I N A T I O N S

Collaboration Theory

A s d e s c r i b e d in a s e m i n a l w o r k b y G r a y ( 1 9 8 9 ) , c o l l a b o r a t i o n c a n b e

u s e d e f f e c ti v e ly t o re s o l v e c o n f li c t o r a d v a n c e s h a r e d v i s io n s , w h e r e

s t a k e h o ld e r s r e c o g n i z e t h e p o t e n ti a l a d v a n t a g e s o f w o r k i n g t o g e t h e r .

H e r e , c o l l a b o r a t io n i s a p r o c e s s o f j o i n t d e c i s io n m a k i n g a m o n g k e y

s t a k e h o ld e r s o f a p r o b l e m d o m a i n a b o u t t h e f u t u r e o f t h a t d o m a i n

( G r a y 1 9 8 9 :2 2 7 ) . M o r e r e c e n t d e b a t e o n t h e n a t u r e o f c o l l a b o r a t io n


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188 C O M M U N I T Y -B A S E D T O U R I S M P L A N N I N G

h a s g i v e n r i s e t o o t h e r d e f i n i t i o n s a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s ( R o b e r t s a n d

B r a d l e y 1 9 9 1; W o o d a n d G r a y 1 9 9 1) . I n l ig h t o f t h e c o n f li c t in g i n te r -

p r e t a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c o l l a b o r a t i o n , a w o r k i n g d e f i n i ti o n h a s b e e n

d e v e l o p e d in th is a r ti c le f o r c o l l a b o r a t io n i n c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d t o u r i s m

p l a n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t d o m a i n s . B a s e d on a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t he

l i t e r a t u r e a n d a d a p t i n g G r a y ' s (1 9 8 9 ) d e f in i t i o n , t h e a u t h o r s p o s i t t h a t

coUaboration o r com muni ty-based tour ism pla nn ing is a process o f oin t decision-

ma king among autonomous key s takeholders o f an inter-organizat ional comm u-

ni ty tour ism domain to resolve pla nn ing problems o f the dom ain and ~or to manage

issues re lated to the planning and development of the domain. A s u s e d i n t h i s

d e f in i ti o n a n d t h r o u g h o u t t hi s p a p e r , t h e t e r m

c om m un i t y

r e f e r s t o a

b o d y o f p e o p l e li v in g i n t h e s a m e l o c a l it y , a s d e f i n e d b y t h e c o n c i se

O x f o r d d i c ti o n a ry . A c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d t o u r i s m d e s t in a t io n m a y b e

v i e w e d b y a d o p t i n g a n e c o s y s t e m a p p r o a c h , w h e r e v is i t o rs i n te r a c t

w i t h l oc a l l iv i n g ( h o s ts , s e r v ic e s ) a n d n o n - l i v i n g ( l a n d s c a p e , s u n s h i n e )

t o e x p e r i e n c e a t o u r i s m p r o d u c t ( M u r p h y 1 9 85 ). Stakeholders a r e t h e

a c t o r s w i t h a n i n t e r e s t i n a c o m m o n p r o b l e m o r i s s u e a n d i n c l u d e a l l

i n d i v i d u a l s , g r o u p s , o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s d i r e c tl y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e a c -

t io n s o t h e r s t a k e t o s o l v e a p r o b l e m ( G r a y 1 9 8 9 : 5 ). T h o u g h d e c i s i o n s

a r e m a d e jo i n t l y o n a c o n s e n s u s b a s i s, t h e s e s t a k e h o l d e r s a r e

autonomous

s in c e t h e y re t a i n t h e i r i n d e p e n d e n t d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p o w e r s w h il e a b id -

i n g b y s h a r e d r u l e s w i t h i n t h e c o l l a b o r a ti v e a l l ia n c e ( W o o d a n d G r a y

1 9 9 1 ) . T h e

problem domain

r e f e r s t o a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e t h e p r o b l e m s a r e

c o m p l e x a n d r e q u i r e a n i n te r - o r m u l t i- o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r e s p o n s e , s i n c e

t h e y a r e b e y o n d t h e c a p a b i l i t y o f a n y s in g le i n d i v i d u a l o r g r o u p t o

s o lv e s i n g l e - h a n d e d l y ( T r i s t 1 9 8 3 ).

C r i t i c a l t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c o l l a b o r a t io n is t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e

inter-organizational domain.

A s t l e y ( 1 9 8 4 ) p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e f ie ld o f

b u s i n e s s p o l ic y h a s p r im a r i l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d o r g a n i z a t i o n - e n v i r o n m e n t

r e l a t io n s h i p s i n t e r m s o f c o n s t r a i n t s , c h o i c e , a n d c o m p e t i t i o n ; e v e n

w h e n t h e u n i t o f a n a l y s i s s h if ts f r o m t h e f i r m t o t h e p o p u l a t i o n l e v el ,

t h e m a n a g e r i a l f o c u s h a s t e n d e d t o m o v e f r o m d e v i s i n g b u s in e s s a n d

c o r p o r a t e s t r a t e g y t o a n a l y z i n g a n d s e l e c t i n g s t r a t e g i e s t o c o m p e t e

w i t h i n t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f t h e o v e r a l l i n d u s t r y . M i s s i n g w a s t h e r e c o g n i -

t io n o f i n c r e a s in g i n t e r c o n n e c t e d n e s s o f t h e o r g a n i z a t io n a l e n v i r o n -

m e n t s a n d t h e r e b y t h e n e e d f o r c o l l e c t i v e , c o l l a b o r a t i v e r e s p o n s e s t o

c o p e w i t h t h e r e s u l ti n g t u r b u l e n c e ( A s t l e y 1 9 8 4) . T h e n o t i o n o f t h e

t u r b u l e n t e n v i r o n m e n t d a t e s b a c k t o t h e s e m in a l w o r k o f E m e r y a n d

T r i s t ( 1 9 6 5 :2 2 ) o n t h e c a u s a l te x t u r e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t s

( i . e ., t h e a r e a o f i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s t h a t b e l o n g w i t h i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t

i ts el f) . T h o s e a u t h o r s i d e n t i fi e d f o u r d if f e r e n t c a u s a l t e x t u r e s , o f w h i c h

t h e f i r s t t w o a r e p l a c i d e n v i r o n m e n t s a n d t h e t h i r d a disturbed-reactive

environment ( c o m p a r a b l e t o t h e e c o n o m i s t s o l ig o p o li c m a r k e t , c h a r a c t e r-

i ze d b y th e e x i s te n c e o f a n u m b e r o f s i m i la r o r g a n i z a t i o n s ). N e w t o t h e

l i te r a t u r e is t h e f o u r t h t e x t u r e , turbulent f ie ld s w h o s e d y n a m i c p r o p e r -

t ie s a r is e fr o m t h e in t e r a c t io n o f t h e c o m p o n e n t o r g a n i z a t io n s a n d f r o m

t h e fi e ld i ts e lf . I n a t u r b u l e n t f i el d , c o m p e t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s , a ll a c t i n g

i n d e p e n d e n t l y in m a n y d i v e r s e d i r ec t io n s , p r o d u c e u n a n t i c i p a t e d a n d

d i s s o n a n t c o n s e q u e n c e s i n t h e o v e r a l l e n v i r o n m e n t w h i c h t h e y s h a r e ,

w h e r e d i s s o n a n c e s i n c r e a s e a s th e f i eld b e c o m e s m o r e d e n s e l y o c c u-

p i e d, p r o d u c i n g th e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t he g r o u n d is i n m o t i o n ( T r is t

1 9 8 3 : 2 7 3 ) .


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JAM AL AND GETZ 189

H e n c e , u n c e r t a i n t y is h i g h e r i n t h i s f o u r th t y p e o f e n v i r o n m e n t t h a n

i n t h e disturbed reactive f ie ld . T h e t e c h n o c r a t i c b u r e a u c r a c i e s t h a t t y p i f y

t h e t y p e 3 e n v i r o n m e n t s h o w d i m i n i s h i n g a d a p t a b i l i ty i n t h e f ac e o f

i n c r ea s i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o m p l e x i ty , c h a n g e , a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e ,

s e e m i n g t o i n c r e a s e t u r b u l e n c e l e v e l s b y s t r a t e g i e s t h a t h a v e b e c o m e

i n a p p r o p r i a t e ( T r i s t 1 9 77 a ). E s s e n t ia l ly , w h e n f a c e d w i t h c o m p l e x

p r o b l e m s t h a t a r e b e y o n d t h e c a p a b il it ie s o f a n y o n e o r g a n i z a t i o n t o

s ol ve s i n g l e h a n d e d l y , t h e s t r a te g i c m a n a g e m e n t p r o c e ss n e e d s t o i n co r -

p o r a t e t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f inter organizational domains. T h i s i s t h e f u n c -

t i o n a l s o c i a l s y s t e m s t h a t o c c u p y a p o s i t i o n i n s o c i a l s p a c e b e t w e e n

t h e s o c i e t y a s a w h o l e a n d t h e s i n g l e o r g a n i z a t i o n ( T r i s t 1 9 8 3: 2 70 ).

R e s o l v i n g s o ci et al le v e l i ss u es u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e ,

c o m p l e x i t y , a n d u n c e r t a i n t y t h e n i n v ol v e s d e v e l o p i n g c o l l ab o r a t iv e

s t r a te g i e s t h a t o p t i m i z e t h e p a y o f f s t o s t a k e h o l d e r s i n t h e d o m a i n a n d

r e d u c e t h e t u r b u l e n c e i n t h e fi e ld ( T r i s t 1 9 7 7 b) . A s s u g g e s t e d b y T r i s t ,

a n e g o t i a t e d o r d e r w i l l n e e d t o b e f o u n d e d o n c o l l a b o r a t i o n , w h i c h i s

t h e v a l u e b a s e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e a d a p t i v e c u l t i v a ti o n o f i n t e r d e p e n -

d e n c e ( 1 9 8 3 : 2 7 3 ) .

The Collaboration Process

G r a y o u t l i n e s f i ve k e y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n p r o c e ss :

t h e s t a k e h o l d e rs a r e i n d e p e n d e n t ; s o l u ti o n s e m e r g e b y d e a l i n g c o n -

s t r u c t i v e l y w i t h d i f f e re n c e s ; j o i n t o w n e r s h i p o f d e c i s i o n s is i n v o l v e d ;

t h e s t a k e h o l d e r s a s s u m e c o l l e c ti v e r e s p o n s i b i l i ty f o r t h e o n g o i n g d i r e c -

t io n o f t h e d o m a i n ; a n d c o l l a b o r a t io n i s a n e m e r g e n t p r o c e ss , w h e r e

c o l la b o r a ti v e i n it ia t iv e s c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s e m e r g e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

a r r a n g e m e n t s t h r o u g h w h i c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s c o ll e ct iv e ly c o p e w i t h th e

g r o w i n g c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t s ( 19 8 9: 2 3 6) . G r a y , b a s e d o n

M c C a n n 1 98 3, p r o p o s e s a t h r e e - s t a g e m o d e l t h r o u g h w h i c h c o l la b o r a -

t i o n d e v e l o p s . T h e f ir s t s t a g e c o n si s ts o f p r o b l e m - s e t t i n g ( i d e n t i f y i n g

k e y s t a k e h o l d e r s a n d i s su e s ), a n d is fo l lo w e d b y t h e s e c o n d s t a g e o f

d i r e c t io n - s e t t in g ( i d e n t i f y i n g a n d s h a r i n g f u t u r e c o l la b o r a t iv e i n t e r p r e -

t a ti o n s; a p p r e c i a t i n g a s e n se o f c o m m o n p u r p o s e ) . T h e t h i r d s t ag e is

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n (i n s t it u t i o n a li z i n g th e s h a r e d m e a n i n g s t h a t e m e r g e a s

t h e d o m a i n d e v e lo p s ), w h i c h m a y o r m a y n o t b e re q u i r e d , d e p e n d i n g

o n t h e n a t u r e a n d o b j e c ti v e o f t h e c o l la b o r a t io n . D r a w i n g f r o m t h e

b o d y o f l i t e r a t u r e o n i n t e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n , c o n d i t i o n s a n d

s t ep s f o r f a c i li t a t in g e a c h s t a g e o f a c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d t o u r i s m c o l la b o -

r a t io n a r e a d v a n c e d i n F i g u r e 1.

T h e s t u d y o f i n t e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r e l a ti o n s h i p s h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y fo l-

l o w e d t w o s t r e a m s : o n e , t h e e x c h a n g e p e r s p e c t i v e ( L e v i n e a n d W h i t e

1 96 1), w h e r e r e la t io n s f o r m w h e n m e m b e r s o f t w o o r m o r e o r g a n iz a -

t i o n s p e r c e i v e m u t u a l b e n e f i t s o r g a i n s f r o m i n t e r a c t i n g a n d , t w o ,

t h e r e s o u r c e d e p e n d e n c y a p p r o a c h ( P f e ff e r a n d S a l a n c i k 1 9 78 ), w h e r e

o r g a n i z a t i o n s f o r m r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n o r d e r t o g a i n o r i m p r o v e c o n t r o l

o v e r s ca r c e r e s o u r c e s i n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . A s p r o p o s e d b y S c h m i d t a n d

K o c h a n ( 19 7 7) , h o w e v e r , o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e n o t l ik e ly t o e n g a g e i n

o n l y s y m m e t r ic a l e x c h a n g e r e la t io n s h ip s o r o n l y p o w e r - d e p e n d e n c y

r e la t io n s h i p s, b u t w o u l d l ik e ly h a v e a m i x t u r e o f e a c h t y p e . F u r t h e r -

m o r e , it h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t , i n a d d i t i o n t o c o m p e t i t i v e o r m a r k e t

f o r c e s , c o l l a b o r a t i o n c a n b e s t i m u l a t e d o r i n h i b i t e d b y i n s t i t u t i o n a l


5/19

190 C O M M U N I T Y - B A S E D T O U R I S M P L A N N I N G

Propositions

applicable:

PI, P2, P3, P4, P5

Stage H:

Direction Setting

Propositions

applicable:

P1, P2, P3, P6

Stage :

Implementation

Propositions

applicable:

P1,P2, P6

~- percepnons oI leg mmacy among

stakeholders

~ legitimate/skilled convener

positive beliefs about outcomes

shared access power

~ mandate (external or internal)

~ adequate resources to convene and

enable collaboration process.

~ Coincidence of values

dispersion of power among

stakeholders.

)~ High degree o f ongoing

imcrdependence

external mandates

)a redistribution of power

~ influencing the contextual

environment.

detme prol01ems/~ssues o resolve

~ identify and legitimize stakeholders

~ build commitment to collaborate by

raising awareness of

interdependence

balancing power differences

addressing stakeholder concerns

ensuring adequate resources

available to allow collaboration to

proceed with key stakeholders

present.

Collect and share information

~ appreciate shared values, enhance

perceived interdependence

ensure power distributed among

several stakeholders

~ establish rules and agenda for

direction setting

organize subgroups i f required

list alternatives

discuss various options

select appropriate solutions

~, arrive at shared vision or

plan/strategy through consensus.

~ Discuss means of implementing and

monitoring solutions, shared vision,

plan or strategy

~ select suitable structure for

institutionalizing process

assign goals and tasks

monitor ongoing progress and

ensure compliance to collaboration

decisions.

F i g ur e 1 . A C o l l a b o ra t io n P r o c e ss fo r C o m m u n i t y - B a s e d T o u r i s m P l a n n i n g

F a c i l i t a ti n g c o n d i t i o n s a n d a c t i o n s / s t e p s b a s e d o n G r a y 1 9 8 5 , 1 9 8 9 ) .

f o r ce s , s u c h as l e ga l a c t i o n a n d s o c ia l n o r m s , w h i c h d r i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n s

t o a d a p t i n o r d e r t o f a c i li ta t e l e g i t i m i z a t i o n b y i n s t i tu t i o n a l a c t o r s S h -

a r f m a n , G r a y , a n d Y a n 1 9 91 ). T h e s e i ss u es o f l e g i ti m a c y a n d p o w e r

b e c o m e c r it ic a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n th e s e l e c ti o n o f s t a k e h o l d e r s f o r a n

i n t e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o l l a b o r a t i o n , f o r t h e y i n f l u e n c e e v e r y s ta g e o f t h e

c o l l a b o r a t i o n p r o c e s s F i g u r e 1) .

A s s u g g e s t e d b y G r a y a n d H a y 1 9 8 6 ) , a l e g i ti m a t e s t a k e h o l d e r

p o s se s s es s o m e d e g r e e o f p o w e r o v e r t h e d o m a i n . T h e i r s t u d y o f t h e

N a t i o n a l C o a l P o l ic y P r o j e c t N C P P ) , a c o l l a b o r a ti v e c h a n g e e f fo r t

b e t w e e n e n v i r o n m e n t a l g r o u p s a n d f i r m s i n v o l v e d i n t h e m i n i n g a n d

c o n s u m p t i o n o f c o al , is i n s tr u c t iv e i n d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t p o w e r i m b a l -

a n c e s a n d l e g i t i m a c y i s s u e s r e l a t e d t o t h e s t a k e h o l d e r s c a n i n h i b i t b o t h


6/19


t h e in i t ia t i o n a n d t h e s u c c e s s o f a c o l l a b o r a t i o n . T h e e x c l u s i o n o f k e y

s t a k e h o ld e r s f r o m t h e s ta r t o f t h e N C P P c o l l a b o r a t io n ( i n o r d e r to

f a c i l i t a t e c o n s e n s u s b u i l d i n g ) r e s u l t e d i n i n h i b i t i n g t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n

o f t h e c o ll a b o r a ti o n 's r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s , s in c e it r e s tr i c te d p e r c e p t i o n s

o f t h e p r o je c t 's l e g i t i m a c y a s a p o l ic y f o r m i n g i n s t r u m e n t . T h i s i s s u e o f

l e g i t i m a c y o f p a r t i c i p a t i n g s t a k e h o l d e r s is a c r it ic a l o n e i n t o u r i s m

p l a n n i n g , w h e r e c o l l a b o r a t i v e p o s s ib i li ti e s a r e c o m p l i c a t e d b y t h e e x is -

t e n c e o f d i v e r s e o r g a n i z a t io n s a n d o t h e r p u b l ic s w h o o f t e n h o l d w i d e l y

d i f f e re n t v i e w p o i n t s a n d s t r o n g v e s t e d i n t e r e s ts . D i f f i c u lt ie s i n a c h i e v -

i n g a c o l l a b o r a t i v e s o l u t i o n a r e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n

v a l u e o r ie n t a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s ta k e h o l d e r s ( B r o w n 1 9 91 ; G r a y 1 9 89 ).

H e n c e G r a y ( 19 8 5) r e c o m m e n d e d t he u s e o f a m e d i a t o r t o a ss is t in

s o lv i n g d i s p u t e s o v e r l e g i t im a c y , a n d t h e u s e o f a c o n v e n e r t o g u i d e

p r o c e e d i n g s .

Ch a n g i n g O rg a n i za ti o n a l F o rm s

T u r b u l e n c e i n t h e g l o ba l e n v i r o n m e n t o f t h e 9 0 s is d r i v i n g t h e n e e d

t o d e v e l o p c o l l a b o r a t i v e c o p i n g m e c h a n i s m s d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e h i e r a r -

c h ic a ll y s t r u c t u r e d f o r m s o f t h e t r a d i ti o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . A u s t r o m a n d

L a d p r o p o s e d problem -so lv ing ne tworks a s a n u m b r e l l a t e r m to e n c o m p a s s

t h e i n n o v a t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f o r m s e v o l v i n g t o s o lv e c o m p l e x s o c ia l

i ss u e s; t h e se a r e i s s u e s - o r i e n t e d c o l l a b o r a t i v e e n ti t ie s w h i c h f o c u s o n

c o m p l e x s o c ia l i ss u e s n o t a d e q u a t e l y a d d r e s s e d b y t ra d i t i o n a l i n s ti tu -

t io n s ( 1 9 8 6 : 3 1 1 ) . T r i s t s u g g e s t e d t h a t th e r e a r e tw o b r o a d c la s s es o f

d o m a i n s , w h i c h a r e c o m p l e m e n t a r y : o n e s t h at d i sp l ay s o m e k in d o f

c e n t e r i n g i n te r m s o f

re ferent organiza t ions

a n d t h o s e t h a t s ta y u n c e n t e r e d

a n d r e t a i n a n e t w o r k c h a r a c t e r . H e f u r t h e r a r g u e d t h a t w h i le su c h

n e t w o r k s c an b e i m p o r t a n t i n p r o v i d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b e s i n to

p o s s ib l e f u t u r e s, p u r p o s e f u l a c t i o n a n d t u r b u l e n c e r e d u c t i o n i n t h e

d o m a i n m a y b e b e tt e r u n d e r t a k e n b y a re ferent organizat ion. T h i s i s

a s e l f -r e g u l a t in g , c o l l a b o r a t i v e b o d y t h a t c o u l d f o r m c o n s c i o u s l y o r

u n c o n s c i o u s l y t o c o l l a b o r a t e o n d o m a i n r e l a t e d i s s u e s a n d m a y h a v e

s e v e r a l f u n c t i o n s : r e g u l a t i o n , a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t r e n d s a n d i s s u e s, p r o v i d -

i n g l e a d e r s h i p a n d d i r e c t io n , a n d i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s u p p o r t ( T r i s t 1 9 7 7 a ,

1 9 8 3 ) .

B r o w n ( 1 9 9 1 :5 ) d i s c u s s e d f o u r k i n d s o f

br idg ing organi za t ions

w h i c h

s p a n t h e s o ci al g a p s a m o n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d c o n s t i tu e n c i e s t o e n a b l e

c o o r d i n a t e d a c ti o n s. T h e y r a n g e f r o m l o o s e ly s t r u c t u r e d n e t w o r k s t o

f o r m a l l y s t r u c t u r e d p a r t n e r s h i p s o r c o a li ti o n s. W e s t l e y a n d V r e d e n -

b u r g ( 1 9 9 1 ) d i s c u s s e d c o l l a b o r a t i v e f o r m s a s a f u n c t i o n o f t w o c r it ic a l

d i m e n s io n s : d e g r e e o f d o m a i n o r g a n i z a ti o n a n d d e g r e e o f m o t i v a t i o n

to c o l l a b or a te . P r o b l e m d o m a i n s a r e u n d e r o r g a n i z e d w h e n t h e b o u n d -

a r ie s o f t h e d o m a i n a r e u n c l e a r , s h if t in g , o r in d i s p u t e , w i t h t h e d e g r e e

o f d o m a i n - r e la t e d a w a r e n e s s f r e q u e n t l y l o w o r n o n ex i s te n t ( B r o w n

1 9 80 in G r a y a n d H a y 1 9 86 ). B a s e d o n a c as e s tu d y o f i n t e ro r g a n i z a -

t io n a l c o ll a b o r a t io n b e t w e e n e n v i r o n m e n t a l g r o u p s a n d a r e ta i l g r o c e r y

c h a i n (L o b l a w s , I n c .) , W e s t l e y a n d V r e d e n b u r g ( 1 9 9 1 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t

t h e su s ta i n ab l e d e v e l o p m e n t d o m a i n is u n d e r o r g a n i z e d a n d

strategic

br idg ing ( a d i s t in c t i v e f o r m o f t h i r d - p a r t y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n )


7/19

192 COM MU NITY-BASED TO UR ISM PLANNING

m a y b e s u it a b le i n t h e e a r l y s t a ge s o f d o m a i n o r g a n i z a t i o n , u n t i l f u r-

t h e r d o m a i n o r g a n i z a t i o n o c c u r s.

I n t h e a u t h o r s ' o b s e r v a t i o n , c o l l a b o r a t i v e f o r m s i n t o u r i s m d e s t i n a -

t io n p l a n n i n g a n d m a n a g e m e n t a r e a r e la t iv e ly n e w a n d e m e r g i n g f i el d

o f s t u d y . O r g a n i z a t i o n a l f o r m s m o s t s u i t e d to d e s t i n a t i o n p l a n n i n g a n d

d e v e l o p m e n t h a v e t o b e i d e n t i fi e d a n d s t u d i e d in m u c h f u r t h e r d et a il

t h a n h a s o c c u r r e d t o d at e .

ollaboration Studies in Tourism

T r i s t ( 1 9 7 9 ) h a s a r g u e d t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t l e v e r a g e f o r c h a n g e l i e s i n

t h e g r o u p s a n d t e m p o r a r y s y s t e m s a r i s i n g f r o m n e t w o r k s , b e c a u s e

i n d i v id u a l s a r e c h a n g i n g f a s t e r t h a n o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d t h e v a l u e s li k el y

t o b e n e f i c i a ll y s h a p e t h e f u t u r e a r e e m e r g i n g i n i n d i v i d u a l s . T o i ll us -

t r a t e t h is p o i n t , T r i s t d e s c r i b e d c a s e s tu d i e s o f f o u r i n n o v a t i v e , v o l u n -

t a r y o rg a n i z a ti o n s i n s e p a r at e c o m m u n i t y - g e o g r a p h i c d o m a i n s t h a t

d e v e l o p e d f r o m t h e g r a s s - r o o t s le v e l to a d d r e s s s p e c if ic d o m a i n i ss u e s.

O n e o f t h e s e w a s t h e C r a i g m i l l a r F e s t iv a l S o c i e ty ( C F S ) , w h i c h a ro s e

s p o n t a n e o u s l y i n t h e e a r l y 60 s, w i t h i n a l o w - i n c o m e a r e a o f E d i n -

b u r g h , t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m . I n a d d i t i o n to s u s ta i n i n g v a r i o u s a rt s

e ff o rt s, th e C F S h a s g r o w n i n to a n a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g c o m m u n i t y d ev e l -

o p m e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n , t y p i f y i n g a s e l f -r e g u l a ti n g

referent organization

t h r o u g h w h i c h s u s ta i n e d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e d o m a i n c a n o c c u r ( T r is t

1979, 1983) .

S e v e r a l e x a m p l e s o f p u b l i c - p r i v a t e c o o p e r a t i v e e f f o r ts a n d p a r t i c i p a -

t io n b y c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s i n lo ca l t o u r i s m p l a n n i n g a n d d e s t i n a ti o n

m a n a g e m e n t a r e p r e s e n t i n t h e t o u r i s m l i t e r a t u r e ( G i l l a n d W i l l i a m s

1 99 4; M c G i n n i s 1 99 2; O a k s 1 99 2 ; R i t c h i e 1 9 9 3) . T h e s e s t u d i e s r e f le c t

t h e n e c e s s i t y o f i n v o l v i n g k e y s t a k e h o l d e r s a n d r e f i n i n g p r o c e s s e s f or

j o i n t d e c i s i o n -m a k i n g o n d e s t in a t i o n p l a n n i n g a n d m a n a g e m e n t is su es

w i t h in a c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d d o m a i n . A c a s e s t u d y b y G e t z a n d J a m a l

( 19 9 4) i n t h e r a p i d l y g r o w i n g m o u n t a i n d e s t i n a t i o n o f C a n m o r e , A l -

b e r t a ( C a n a d a ) n o t e d c l e a rl y t h a t c o l l a b o r a ti v e c h a n g e e f f or ts w e r e

b e i n g a t t e m p t e d a t v a r i o u s s u b l e v e l s w i t h i n t h e o v e r a l l t o u r i s m p l a n -

n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t d o m a i n , f or e x a m p l e , a m o n g l oc al e n v i r o n m e n -

t a l g r o u p s , b e t w e e n m u n i c i p a l i t i e s , a n d t h r o u g h a g r a s s r o o t s , n o n -

p r o fi t re s i d e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n . A n i n n o v a t i v e e x e r c is e in t h e p o p u l a r

d e s t in a t io n o f G r e a t e r V i c t o r ia , B r i t is h C o l u m b i a ( C a n a d a ) d e s c r i b e d

b y M u r p h y ( 1 9 8 8 ) a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t e r e s t i n g c o l l a b o r a t i v e p r o p e r -

t i e s . I n t h e e a r l y t o m i d - 8 0 s , a b o u t 5 3 a g e n c i e s a n d g r o u p s w e r e i n -

v o l v ed w i t h th e t o u r i s m i n d u s t r y o f G r e a t e r V i c t o r i a . I n o r d e r to s o lv e

t h e lo g is ti ca l a n d m a r k e t i n g d i f fi c ul ti es b e i n g f a c e d b y t h is f r a g m e n t e d

d o m a i n , a 2 - d ay w o r k s h o p w a s c o n v e n e d , w h i c h w a s a t t e n d e d b y

a b o u t 1 50 p e o p l e , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e v a r i o u s a g e n c i e s a n d g r o u p s .

A t t h e t o p o f t h e p r i o ri t iz e d i ss u es t h a t e m e r g e d d u r i n g t h e w o r k s h o p

w a s t h e n e e d t o d e v e l o p a s e c r e t a r i a t s t r u c t u r e a l l o w i n g b r o a d - b a s e d

c o m m u n i t y i n p u t i nt o t o u r is m m a r k e t i n g f o r G r e a t e r V i c t o r ia a n d

a n u m b r e l l a o r g a n i z a t i o n t o d e v e l o p a l o n g - t e r m , c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d

m a r k e t i n g s t r at e g y . A b l u e p r i n t c o m m i t t e e w a s t h e n s tr u c k t o d e -

v e lo p th e t as k s a n d s t r u c t u r e o f t h e n e w m a r k e t i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n , w h i c h

e s s e n t i a l l y r e p l a c e d t h e e x i s t i n g c o n v e n t i o n a n d v i s i t o r s b u r e a u .


8/19

JAMAL AND GETZ 193

The need for domain level consensus is further substantiated by

Selin and Beason's study on interorganizational relations between the

US Forest Service, chambers o f commerce, and t ourism associations

adjacent to an Arkansas National Forest. Results supported the hy-

pothesis that domain consensus is positively related to the degree of

cooperative relations occurring between tourism organizations, and

showed that lack of awareness and differing ideologies act as barriers

to effective communication between natural resource management

agencies and tourism advocacy organizations. From a tourism plan-

ning perspective, the study suggested that co mmunity-level interorga-

nizational relationships should be examined empirically since it is the

logical level at which tourism pl ann ing should occur (Selin and Beason

1991). Inte rorganiz atio nal collaboration theory offers strong possibili-

ties for managing tourism and recreation related issues at the destina-

tion level, since destination com mun ity d omains generally encompass

multiple, interdependent stakeholders who could hold divergent views

on tourism development.

The N ature of C omm unity Tourism D estinations

A destination community's assets and resources, such as its infra-

structure and recreational facilities, can be shared by its inhabitants,

visitors, public, and private sector interests. Tourism development

then takes on the characteristics of a public and social good whose

benefit may be shared by the numerous stakeholders in the local desti-

nation. A

public good

by its very nature, is a candidate for government

activity, since the benefit s from a public or social good, unlike those

from a purely private good, are seen to involve external consumption

effects on more tha n one individual (Samue lson and Scott 1975:144).

Hence, destination residents may be less willing to support additional

tourism development through local revenue tax funds (Long, Perdue

and Allen 1990) and could favor governmen t control over developme nt

(Allen, Hafer, Long and Perdue 1993). The local authorities have the

delicate task of juggling priva te sector interests with local resident

needs and wants, in order to mai ntai n the economic health of the

community and ensure that development is sustainable. Government

involvement in the deve lopment of tourism infrastructure often needs

to be supplemented by external private capital for superstructure de-

velopment (facilities and amenities) at the destination. The influx of

external developers, financiers, entrepreneurs, and others to provide

these additional services and goods increases the number of actors and

the complexity of the touri sm do main, since the stakeholder values and

perspectives on tourism development may vary widely. External forces

that impact on the community domain as well as flow of resources and

tourists into and out of the permeable d oma in boundaries also influ-

ence the destination's stakeholders. The destination domain is thus

characterized by an open-system of interde pendent, multiple stake-

holders, where the actions of one stakeholder impact on the rest of

the actors in the community. Furthermore, no single organization or

individual can exert direct control over the destination's development

process.


9/19


Diverse ommunity Views

R e s e a r c h o n r e s i d e n t a t t i t u d e s i n d i c a t e s th a t r e s i d e n t s' o p i n i o n s o n

t o u r is m d e v e l o p m e n t w i th i n a c o m m u n i t y c a n v a r y g r ea tl y . F o r e x a m -

p l e , s e v e r a l s t u d i e s h a v e s h o w n t h a t p e o p l e w h o b e n e f i t f r o m t o u r i s m

p e r c e i v e g r e a t e r e c o n o m i c b u t l e ss e r s o ci al o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t

f r o m t o u r is m t h a n t h os e w h o d o n o t ( L a n k f o r d a n d H o w a r d 1 99 4;

M i l m a n a n d P i z a m 1 9 88 ; P i z a m 1 9 78 ; P r e n t i c e 1 9 9 3 ). S o m e s tu d i e s

o n r ur a l c o m m u n i t i e s h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d p r e d o m i n a n t l y p o s it iv e p e r-

c e p t io n s o f t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t ' s i m p a c t o n t h e lo c al e c o n o m y ( A l le n

e t a l 1 9 9 3 ) . H o w e v e r , r e s e a r c h b y L o n g e t a l ( 1 9 9 0 ) o n 2 8 r u r a l C o l o -

r a d o c o m m u n i t i e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t r e s i d e nt s ' fa v o r o f t o u r i s m d e v e l o p -

m e n t i n c r e a s e d i n i t i a l l y , b u t b e c a m e l e s s f a v o r a b l e a f t e r a t h r e s h o l d

l ev e l o f d e v e l o p m e n t w a s r e a c h e d . A s w e ll , lo n g i t u d i n a l s t u d y b y G e t z

( 1 9 9 4 ) s h o w e d t h a t r e s i d e n t s u p p o r t f o r t o u r i s m w a s l i n k e d t o p e r c e p -

t io n s o f b e n e f i ts o u t w e i g h i n g t h e c o s ts o f t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t ; t hi s

s u p p o r t e d A p ' s ( 1 9 9 2 ) c o n t e n t i o n t h a t s o c i a l e x c h a n g e t h e o r y c a n h e l p

e x p l a i n re s i d e n t a t ti t u d e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , r e s i d e n t p e r c e p t i o n s o f s o c ia l

a n d e c o n o m i c b e ne f it s m a y b e i n fl u e nc e d b y t h e a m o u n t o f t o u r is m

e d u c a t i o n o f t h e r es i d e n ts ( B r a y l e y , V a r a n d S h e l d o n 1 9 90 ) , w h il e l a ck

o f f a m i l ia r i t y w i t h d e v e l o p m e n t p r o p o s a l s m a y h a v e a n o v e r a l l a d v e r s e

e f fe c t o n g e n e r a l r e s i d e n t a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t o u r i s m p r o j e c ts ( K e o g h

1 9 9 0 ) . O t h e r r e s i d e n t s t u d i e s h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h a t c o m m u n i t y i n v o l v e -

m e n t i n p l a n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i s c r it ic a l to th e o v e r a ll s u s ta i n a b i l -

i ty o f t o u r i s m i n t h e d e s ti n a t i o n ( C o o k 1 9 82 ; M u r p h y 1 9 85 ). S i n c e

r e s i d en t p e r c e p ti o n s a n d o p i n io n s o n t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t m a y b e

i n f l u e n c e d s i g n i fi c a n t ly b y c h a n g i n g v a r i a b l e s , s u c h a s t h e s c al e ( a n d

n a t u r e ) o f t o u r is m d e v e l o p m e n t a n d r e la t ed e m p l o y m e n t o p p o r t u n i -

t ie s , it c a n b e i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e s e v a r i o u s s t u d i e s th a t c o m m u n i t y

p a r t i c i p a t i o n h a s t o t a k e a f o r m w h i c h is d y n a m i c a n d a c t i v e , i n o r d e r

to e n a b l e t o u r i s m p l a n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t t o b e a d j u s t e d a s t h e

e c o n o m i c , s o ci al a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l p e r c e p t i o n s c h a n g e w i t h i n th e

c o m m u n i t y .

A s a d v o c a t e d b y s e v e ra l r e s e a r c h e r s ( G u n n 1 9 88 ; H a y w o o d 1 9 88 ;

I n s k e e p 1 9 91 ; M u r p h y 1 9 83 ), r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s f r o m t h e v a r i o u s s ta k e -

h o l d e r g r o u p s s h o u l d b e i n v o l v e d a t a n e a r l y s t a g e i n t h e p l a n n i n g

p r o c e s s . G r a y a l so r e fe r s to t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f i n v o l v i n g a l l t h e r e l e v a n t

a n d l e g i t im a t e k e y a c t o r s a t a n e a r l y s t a g e d u r i n g c o l l a b o r a t i v e d e c i-

s i o n - m a k i n g , s i n ce f a il u r e t o i n c l u d e t h e m i n t h e d e s i g n s ta g e o n l y

i n v it e s t e c h n i c a l o r p o l it ic a l di f fi c u lt ie s d u r i n g i m p l e m e n t a t i o n ( 1 9 8 9 :

6 5 ). A c c o r d i n g t o G r a y ( 1 9 8 5 ) , a le g i t i m a t e s t a k e h o l d e r i s o n e w h o h a s

t h e ri g h t a n d c a p a c i t y to p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e p r o c e s s ; a s ta k e h o l d e r w h o

is i m p a c t e d b y t h e a c t io n s o f o t h e r s t a k e h o l d e r s h a s a ri g h t t o b e c o m e

i n v o l v e d in o r d e r t o m o d e r a t e t h o s e i m p a c t s , b u t m u s t a l so h a v e t h e

r e s o u r c e s a n d s ki ll s ( c a p a c i t y ) i n o r d e r t o p a r t i c i p a t e . L e g i t i m a c y i s a n

i m p o r t a n t i ss u e , f o r t h e c o m m u n i t y s h o u l d b e r e a s o n a b l y re a s s u r e d

t h a t t h e s t a k e h o l d e r s a s s e m b l e d a r e c a p a b l e o f r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e ir i n te r -

e s ts ( B l a n k 1 9 8 9) . A d d i t i o n a l l y , s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e a d v o c a t e d

j o i n t d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g b y k e y s t a k e h o ld e r s a n d c o n s e n s u s i n th is p r o -

c e s s a s i m p o r t a n t n o t i o n s f o r a t t a i n i n g e c o n o m i c a l l y a n d s o c ia l ly a p -

p r o p r i a t e t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t ( C o o k 1 9 8 2 ; H a y w o o d 1 9 8 8 ; R i t c h i e


10/19


1 9 8 8) . P a s s i v e i n s t r u m e n t s , s u c h as m a i l s u r v e y s , a r e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r

g a t h e r i n g r e s i d e n t a t t i t u d e s a n d p e r c e p t i o n s t o w a r d s t o u r i s m d e v e l o p -

m e n t a n d p l a n n i n g , b u t a ct iv e p a r t i c i p a t io n a n d j o i n t d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g

b y k e y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t a k e h o ld e r s m a y b e e s s e n ti a l in t h e s t r a te g i c

p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s t o y i e l d u s e f u l r e s u l ts .

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f d y n a m i c a n d c o l la b o r a ti v e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s se s

is e s p e c i a ll y c r u c i a l in t h o s e d e s t i n a t i o n c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t a r e e x p e r i -

e n c i n g s tr o n g g r o w t h a n d c h a n g e d u e to t o u r i s m . I n s u c h d o m a i n s ,

d i ve r se c o m m u n i t y a t ti tu d e s t o w a r d t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t a n d g r o w t h

r ais e c o n c e r n t ha t c o m m u n i t y - d r i v e n t o u r is m p l a n n i n g m a y b e a n

u n a c h i e v a b l e i de a l. H o w e v e r , a s s u g g e s t e d b y P r e n t i c e ( 1 9 9 3 ), d i v i si o n

o f o p i n io n o n d e v e l o p m e n t b e n e f i ts m a y p r e s e n t a n o p p o r t u n i t y o r a

w e a k n e s s . T h e o p p o r t u n i t y i s t h a t i ss u e d e v e l o p m e n t s t r a te g i e s c a n b e

f o r m u l a t e d i f d i v i s i o n s c a n b e p r e - i d e n t i f i e d , b u t t h e w e a k n e s s i s t h a t

t h e d if f e re n c e s m a y n o t b e r e s o l v a b l e w i t h o u t d i s s e n si o n . T h e c a se

s t u d y o f C a n m o r e ( G e t z a n d J a m a l 1 99 4) c o n c l u d e d th a t , d e s p it e th e

c o n t r o v e r s ia l h i s to r y o f p l a n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e to w n a n d t h e

d i v e rs e s t a k e h o l d e r s p r e s e n t , t h e r e w a s a r e c o g n i t i o n o f i n t e r d e p e n -

d e n c y a n d t h a t c o m i n g t o a c o n s e n s u s o n t h e t y p e a n d s ca le o f t o u r i s m

d e v e l o p m e n t m i g h t n o t b e a s d i ff ic u lt as i t a p p e a r e d . M u r p h y s ( 1 9 83 )

d i s c r im i n a n t a n a l y si s o f t h r e e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g g r o u p s ( b u s i n e s s se c t or ,

a d m i n i s tr a t i o n , a n d r e s i d e n t s) i n m a j o r t o u r i s m c e n t e r s i n t h e U n i t e d

K i n g d o m s h o w e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e s i g n if ic a n t d i ff e r e n c e s i n p e r c e p t i o n s

a n d a t t i tu d e s t o w a r d s l oc a l t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t . N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e

s t u d y s h o w e d t h a t t h e g r o u p s w e r e s u f fi c ie n t ly cl os e in o v e r a ll c o m m u -

n i t y i n t e r e s t s , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t r a d e - o f f s a n d c o m p r o m i s e s i n f u t u r e

t o u r is m p l a n n i n g m a y b e ac h i e va b l e ( M u r p h y 1 98 3).

Facilitating ommunity Tourism ollaboration

A s e t o f s ix p r o p o s i t i o n s is a d v a n c e d b e l o w a s a g u i d e t o m a n a g e r s ,

p l a n n e r s , a n d r e s e a r c h e r s s t u d y i n g c o l l a b o r a t io n i n t h e d o m a i n o f t o u r-

i sm p l a n n i n g a n d d e s t i n at io n m a n a g e m e n t . T h e y r e la te to t he k ey

c o n d i t i o n s f a c i l i t a t i n g t o u r i s m p l a n n i n g c o l l a b o r a t i o n s a t t h e c o m m u -

n i t y l e v el ( F i g u r e 1 ), w i t h e a c h p r o p o s i t i o n c o n s i d e r e d a n e s s e n t ia l

f a c i li t a to r f o r o n e o r m o r e o f t h e t h r e e s t a g e s in t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n

p r o c e s s . T h e s e s ix p r o p o s i t i o n s c a n a l s o b e c o n s t r u e d a s a s t a r t in g p o i n t

f o r f u r t h e r p r o p o s i t i o n d e v e l o p m e n t , b a s e d o n t h e m a n y f a c il it a ti n g

c o n d i t i o n s a n d a c t i o n s d e s c r i b e d i n F i g u r e 1 . T h e p r o p o s i t i o n s a r e

b a s e d o n t h e p r e m i s e t h a t t hi s d o m a i n is a t u r b u l e n t o n e , w h e r e c o n fl ic t

o v e r p l a n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t e x i sts o r w h e r e m e c h a n i s m s f o r s ha r-

i n g i d e a s a n d d e v e l o p i n g d i r e c t i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d . C r o s s - s e c t o r a l c o ll a b -

o r a t i o n f o r d e s t i n a t i o n p l a n n i n g a m o n g k e y s t a k e h o l d e rs s h o u l d h e lp

t o r e d u c e t u r b u l e n c e i n t h e d o m a i n a n d i n c r e a se t h e li k e li h o o d o f

s u s t a in a b l e to u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t . C o l l a b o r a t i o n o f f e rs a d y n a m i c a n d

f le x ib l e p r o c e s s f o r i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e o f t e n d i v e r s e v i e w s o f m u l t i p l e

a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n t s t a k e h o ld e r s , s u c h t h a t c h a n g e s c a n b e m a d e t o t h e

p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s a s s i tu a t i o n s e v o l v e. I n e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y a n d c u l tu r -

a l l y s e n s i t i v e d e s t i n a t i o n s , t h i s i s a v a l u a b l e a i d f o r i n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e

r e s u lt s o f c u m u l a t i v e i m p a c t s t u d i e s a n d o f c h a n g i n g p o l it ic a l a n d s o-

c ia l c o n d i t i o n s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e s e p r o p o s i t i o n s a p p l y to t h o s e c o rn -


11/19


m u n i t y t o u r i s m p l a n n i n g d o m a i n s w h i c h , w h i le c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e

p r e s e n c e o f n u m e r o u s o r g a n i z a t io n s , l a ck a w e l l - d e fi n e d in t er -

o r g a n i z a t io n a l p r o c e s s a n d r e p r e s e n t underorganized systems. A s d e f i n e d

b y B r o w n ( 19 8 0 ), a n u n d e r o r g a n i z e d s y s t e m c o n t a i n s p o te n t i a l n e t-

w o r k s o f o rg a n i z a t i o n s i n s te a d o f e s t a b li s h e d n e t w o r k s o r o t h e r c o ll a b o-

r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s .

P r o p o s i t i o n 1 : Collaboration fo r comm unity-based tourism planning w il l

require recognition o f a high degree o f interdependence in plan nin g an d ma naging

the dom ain. Perceptions o f interdependence m ay be enhan ced by emph asizing the

fol lo w ing aspects of interdependence in com munity tourism domains: sharing l im-

ited com mu nity am enities and resources (environm ental, infra- a nd superstructure,

recreational acilities, hosp itality etc.), poten tial n ega tive imp acts of tourism dev el-

opm ent on the sociocultural an d natural environm ent which, in tur n, cou ld affect

the econom ic viability o f the tourism industry in the com mu nity; fragm entation o f

the tourism industry an d inability of one sector to effectively operate alone since a

critical m ass of attractions, facilities, am enities is required.

A d e s t i n a t io n c o m m u n i t y h a s t o e n s u r e t h e p r e s e n c e o f a r e q u is i te

m a s s o f a t tr a c t io n s , s u i ta b l e a c c o m m o d a t i o n , a n d a d e q u a t e t r a n s p o r t a -

t i o n t o b e a b l e t o s a t is f y t o u r i s t s . F a c i l i t ie s s u c h a s h e a l t h s e r v i c e s ,

e n t e r t a i n m e n t , a n d r e s t a u r a n t s a r e r e q u i r e d , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e h o s p i-

t a li ty a n d c o u r t e s y o f t h e l oc a l r e s id e n t s . T o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t

e x c e e d s t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e e c o n o m i c , n a t u r a l , a n d s o c io c u l tu -

r al e n v i r o n m e n t w i ll i m p a c t n e g a t i v e l y o n t h e o v e r a ll t o u r i sm i n d u s t r y

o f t h e c o m m u n i t y , d u e t o t h e c l os e i n t e rr e l a ti o n s o f t h e e l e m e n t s w i th i n

t h e c o m m u n i t y ' s t o u r i s m s y s t e m . H e n c e , t h e s t a k eh o l d e r s w i t h i n th e

t o u r i s m p l a n n i n g d o m a i n s h o u l d b e a w a r e o f t h e h i g h d e g r e e o f i n te r -

d e p e n d e n c e w i t h ea c h o th e r a n d w i th t he n a t u ra l e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s

c o u l d i n c r e a s e t h e i r m o t i v a t i o n t o e n g a g e i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n , f o r t h e

r e c o g n i t i o n b y s t a k e h o l d e r s t h a t t h e i r d e s i r e d o u t c o m e s a r e i n e x t r i c a -

b l y l i n k e d t o a c t i o n s o f o t h e r s t a k e h o l d e r s is t h e f u n d a m e n t a l b a s i s fo r

c o l l a b o r a t i n g ( G r a y 1 9 8 9 : 5 8 ) .

P r o p o s i t i o n 2 : Collabora tion w ill require recognition o f individual and~or

mu tual benefits to be derived rom the process. Th e mu tual benefits include mo re

effective and efficient tourism development (thereby improving the destination's

com petitive advantage), greater degree of en vironmen tal a nd sociocultural sustain-

ability, an d avoidance o f conflict. I nd ivid ua l benefits w ill be observed in: m ore

effective representation o r som e groups, m ore resources o r som e groups to influence

the planning dom ain; reduced uncertainty in a private fir m 's environm ent, thereby

improving the f irm 's decision m aking and potential fo r success, m or e e f fec tive

public sector ma nagem ent o f scarce resources, an d greater individual resident satis-

fact ion.

W a d d o c k ( 1 9 8 9 ) p r o p o s e d t h a t th r e e c o n d i t io n s m u s t b e p r e s e n t

f o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n c o l l a b o r a t i v e e f f o r ts : r e c o g n i t i o n o f

i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e , p e r c e p t i o n s t h a t s i g n if i c a n t b e n e f i t w i ll r e s u l t f r o m

t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n , a n d r e c o g n i t i o n o f i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e is s u e (s ) . L o g s -

d o n ( 1 9 9 1 ), h o w e v e r , a r g u e d t h a t a n o r g a n i z a t i o n n e e d s to b e g i n t o

c o n s i d e r o n l y t w o e s s e n t i a l f a c t o r s b e f o r e j o i n i n g a c o l l a b o r a t i v e e f f o r t

f o r so c ia l p r o b l e m s o l v in g : t h e i n t e r e s t o r s t a k e o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n i n

t h e o u t c o m e , a n d i ts p e r c e i v e d i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e w i t h o t h e r g r o u p s in

d e a l i n g w i t h t h e so c ia l p r o b l e m . I n a t o u r i s m p l a n n i n g c o l l a b o r a t i o n ,

p e r c e p t i o n o f b e n e f i ts t o b e d e r i v e d f r o m a c o l l a b o r a t io n m a y b e a


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JAMAL AND GETZ 197

more import ant pr econdition than recognition of the importance of the

issue. An organization may recognize the importance of an issue, but

might perceive that self-interest is best served by utilizing a more

familiar or known strategy than collaborating. Or it may decide that

the issue is impo rta nt, but not as impor tan t to the organizat ion s opera-

tions as other issues which require priority attention. Environmental

groups may join a collaboration due to the importance of the plannin g

issues to long-term environmental sustainability and heritage preserva-

tion (potential mutu al benefits). Some private firms may be more moti-

vated by immediate self-interest, although environmental and social

pressure are creating a greater awareness in firms to develop a social

conscience. However, the parties might be able to recognize that ad-

versarial arrangements, including tribunals and courts, could serve

to alienate special interests in the destination community, potentially

leading to costly and less tha n optimal settlements.

Special interest groups (e.g., environmental and resident organiza-

tions), which are often comprised primarily of volunteer member s,

may find it particularly beneficial to join a collaboration, because effort

has to be made to ensure that the key stakeholders have adequate

resources to participate in the process. As suggested by Gray (1985),

some stakeholders may require incentives to induce participation,

which offset their perceptions that collaborating may reduce their ac-

cess to scarce resources. For various community and environmental

groups, increased power to influence decision-making and additional

resources to enable participation are potential benefits to encourage

participation.

Proposition 3: Col laboration fo r communi ty -based touri sm p lann ing w i l l

require a perception tha t decisions arrived at w il l be implemen ted (i . e . , the process

has legi t imacy and power to e i ther make or s trongly inf luence the planning deci -

s ions) . In the tour ism pla nn ing domain, the col laborat ion's legit imacy a nd po w er

w il l s tem fro m : inclus ion o f key s takeholders; ex ternal mandate , or perception o f a

clear internal mandate (gen eral objectives, purpose), an d presence of adequate

resources to carry ou t the process an d implemen t outcom es.

Limited time and other resources, as well as skepticism by groups

that have been involved in conflict over tourism development, may

tend to make potential participants wary about joining, unless they

perceive t hat the collaboration s decisions will be implemented. This

issue of the power and author ity to be vested in the collaboration is a

difficult one that may need to be addressed at an early stage in the

collaborative planning process. It may constitute a strong precondition

for collaboration in the commu nit y tourism domai n, where fragme nted

and independent planning decisions by the numerous tourism-related

organizations are conducive to power struggles over resources. There-

fore, some stakeholders, such as large resort operators , ma y feel threat-

ened by a potential loss of control over decision-making and resources,

while others, such as small environmental and residents groups, may

feel that the collaboration will not empower them to be able to influ-

ence decision-making over the touri sm domain s future. In light of the

fragmentation in the tourism domain, an external mandate by a re-

gional or state au tho rit y may sometimes be necessary to initiate collab-

oration at the community level. Conversely, a clear delineation of


13/19


t h e p o t e n t ia l c o l l a b o r a ti o n 's p u r p o s e b y a le g i t im a t e c o n v e n e r m a y b e

a d e q u a t e t o m o t iv a t e p a rt ic i p a ti o n . H o w e v e r , a s p r o p o s e d b y G r a y

( 1 9 8 5 ) , m a n d a t e a l o n e is n o t s u f f ic i e n t t o g e n e r a t e c o n d i t i o n s c o n d u -

c i v e t o c o l l a b o r a t i o n ; o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s , s u c h a s r e c o g n i t i o n o f i n t e r d e -

p e n d e n c e a r e e s se n t ia l . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e r e s h o u l d b e a p e r c e p t i o n t h a t

a d e q u a t e r e s o u r c e s in th e f o r m o f e x p e r t is e , t i m e , a n d m o n e y a r e

p r e s e n t i n o r d e r t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i l l n o t b e i n t e r r u p t e d

d u e t o la c k o f re s o u r c e s .

P r o p o s i t i o n 4 : CoUaborat ion fo r tour i sm dest ina tion p lan n ing w i l l depend on

encompass ing the fo l lo w in g key stakeholder groups: local government p lu s o ther

pu bli c organizations ha vin g a direct bearing on resource allocation; tourism ind us-

try associations a nd sectors such as Ch am ber of Comm erce, Convent ion an d Vis i tor

Bureau, an d regional tourist autho r i ty , resident organizations (co m m un i ty

grou ps); soc ial age ncies (e .g . , school boa rds , hospita ls ) , an d spec ial in terest

groups .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e b e n e f i t s a l r e a d y o u t l i n e d , c o l l a b o r a t i o n f o r t o u r -

i sm p l a n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t a t th e c o m m u n i t y l e ve l c a n a ls o b e

c o s t -e f f ic i e n t, i f k e y s t a k e h o l d e r s c a n b e s e l e c t e d t o r e p r e s e n t t h e g e n e r -

a ll y n u m e r o u s a n d d i v e r s e v i e w p o i n t s i n t h e d o m a i n . T h e s e w o u l d

i n c l u d e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s f r o m t h e l o c a l c o m m u n i t y a n d o t h e r s f r o m

o u t s i d e th e g e o g r a p h i c l o ca le o f t h e c o m m u n i t y w h o m a y b e l e g i t i m a t e

s t a k e h o ld e r s in th is d o m a i n . R e p r e s e n t a t i v e c o m m u n i t y v i e w s i n a

c o l l a b o r a t io n s h o u l d r e d u c e t h e n e e d f o r c o s tl y a n d t i m e - c o n s u m i n g

r e f e r e n d u m s a n d s u r v e y s b y l oc a l p l a n n e r s . A d d i ti o n a l ly , i n e ff e c ti v e

t o ke n r e s i d e n t p a r t i c ip a t i o n m a y b e a v o i d e d t h r o u g h a c t iv e r e s i d e n t

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t h e c o l l a b o ra t i o n . F i n d i n g s b y L a n k f o r d a n d H o w -

a r d , u s i n g a m u l t i p l e -i t e m t o u r i s m i m p a c t a t t i t u d e s c a le t o m e a s u r e

r e s i d e n t a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e p o p u l a r C o l u m -

b i a R i v e r G o r g e d e s t in a t io n ( W a s h i n g t o n a n d O r e g o n in t he U n i t e d

S t a t e s) s u g g e s t e d t h a t i f r e s i d e n t s , e v e n l o n g - t e r m n a t i v e s , f e e l t h e y

c a n e x e r c is e s o m e c o n t r o l o v e r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s, m u c h o f t h e ir

a p p r e h e n s i o n r e g a r d i n g to u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t m a y b e r e d u c e d ( 19 9 4:

1 3 4) . D e t e r m i n i n g t h e s p e c if ic m i x o f k e y s t a k e h o l d e r s is a c r it ic a l t a s k ,

p a r t i c u la r l y s in c e a d e q u a t e r e s i d e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n h a s to b e e n s u r e d .

T h e n a t u r e o f t o u r i s m a s a p u b l i c a n d s o ci al g o o d l e n d s s t ro n g

s u p p o r t t o t h e n e e d f o r l oc a l g o v e r n m e n t i n v o l v e m e n t i n c o l la b o r a t iv e

d e s t i n a ti o n p l a n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e p r e s en c e o f c o m m u n i t y

s e r v ic e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , s u c h a s sc h o o l b o a r d s , h e a l t h a n d s o c ia l w e l f a r e

a s s o c ia t io n s , a n d b u s i n e s s r e p r e s e n t a ti v e s , i n c l u d in g t h e l oc a l c h a m b e r

o f c o m m e r c e is c le a rl y n e c e s sa r y . T h e s e a r e i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t s o f

t h e i n t e rr e l a te d c o m m u n i t y t o u r i s m s y s t e m . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e n e c e s-

s a r y r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e lo c a l t o u r i s m o r g a n i z a t i o n , i t m a y b e n e c e s-

s a r y t o i n c lu d e k e y a c to r s f r o m t h e r e g i o n a l p l a n n i n g a n d m a r k e t i n g

l ev e ls i n o r d e r t o e n s u r e c o o r d i n a t e d p l a n n i n g a n d t o m i n i m i z e t h e g a p

b e t w e e n t h e m a r k e t i n g a n d p l a n n i n g o f t o u r i s m d e s t in a t io n s .

P r o p o s i t i o n 5 :

A convener i s r equ ired to in i tia te an d fac i l i ta t e com mu ni ty -

based tourism col laboration. Th e convener sho uld have the fo l lo w in g characteris-

t ics: legit imacy, expertise, resources, pl u s authority , an d ma y be derived fr o m a

government age ncy , an in dus try f i r m , or group such as the local Chamber o f

Com merce, or the local tourist organization (e.g . , convention an d vis i tors bureau).

A c c o r d i n g t o G r a y ( 1 9 8 9) , t h e r o l e a n d i d e n t i t y o f t h e c o n v e n e r is


14/19


a c r it ic a l c o m p o n e n t i n t h e p r o b l e m - s e t t i n g p h a s e , w h i c h e s s e n t ia l ly

r e p r e s e n t s t h e p r e - n e g o t i a t io n p h a s e . T h e r o le o f t h e c o n v e n e r is t o

i d e n t i fy a n d b r i n g a ll l e g i t i m a t e s t a k e h o l d e r s t o t h e t a b l e . C o n v e n i n g

p o w e r ( i .e . , t h e a b i li t y t o i n d u c e s t a k e h o l d e r s t o p a r t i c i p a t e ) , m a y

c o m e fr o m h o l d i n g a f o r m a l o ff ic e , f r o m a l o n g - s t a n d i n g r e p u t a t i o n o f

t r u st w i t h s e v e ra l s ta k e h o l d e r s , o r f r o m e x p e r i e n c e o r r e p u t a t i o n a s a n

u n b i a s e d e x p e r t o n t h e p r o b l e m ( G r a y 1 9 8 9 :7 1 ) . I n th e d e s t i n a ti o n

c o m m u n i t y d o m a i n , t he lo c al g o v e r n m e n t e x e rc is e s a u t h o r i ty o v e r

l a n d - u s e w i t h i n m u n i c i p a l b o u n d a r i e s a n d is a ls o r e s p o n s i b le f o r t h e

w e l l - b e i n g a n d s a t is f a c t io n o f i ts c o n s t i tu e n t s . T h e r e f o r e , t h is lo c a l

a u t h o r i t y m i g h t b e a b l e to p e r f o r m t h e r o le o f t h e c o n v e n e r , p a r t ic u -

l a r ly i f a s s i st e d b y a lo c a l o r h i g h e r l e v e l m a n d a t e ( e . g . , f r o m t h e

r e g i o n a l o r p r o v i n c i a l le v e l g o v e r n m e n t ) . L o c a l g o v e r n m e n t a s a c o n -

v e n e r c o u l d b e p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e w h e n t h e i s s u e s r e v o l v e a r o u n d

d i r e c ti n g th e c o m m u n i t y ' s f u t u r e g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t , o r r e so lv -

i n g a l a n d -u s e d e v e l o p m e n t p r o b l e m .

A l t e r n a ti v e l y , t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n m i g h t b e c o n v e n e d b y a p o w e r f u l

b u s i n e s s o r s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t g r o u p . A c o n f l i c t o v e r a m a j o r r e s o r t d e v e l -

o p m e n t p r o p o s a l , f o r e x a m p l e , m a y i n c it e t h e d e v e l o p e r to c o n v e n e t h e

c o l l a b o r a t io n i n o r d e r t o re s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m s w h i c h i m p a c t d i r e c tl y o n

t h e p r o j e c t. C o n v e r s e l y , a m o r e g e n e r a l p r o b l e m , s u c h as l im i t i n g t h e

p a c e o f t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t , m a y c a u s e a lo c a l b u s i n e s s a s s o c ia t io n t o

i n i ti a te a c o l l a b o r a t i o n o n b e h a l f o f i ts m e m b e r s , i n o r d e r t o a r r i v e a t a

l ev e l o f t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h c o u l d s a ti sf y e v e r y o n e .

P r o p o s i t i o n 6 :

A n effective com m unity collaboration process o r strategic tour-

ism plann ing fo r the destination requires: formu lation o f a vision statement on

desired tourism development and growth; join t formulat ion of tourism goals a nd

objectives; sel f-regulat ion of the plan ning and development doma in through the

establishmen t o f a co llaborative referen t) organ ization to assist w ith ongo ing

adjustme nt o f these strategies through m onitoring a nd revisions.

S i n c e p l a n n i n g r e q u i r e s a t im e h o r i z o n , p l a n n i n g b y a p u b l i c a u th o r -

i ty w i t h i n a c o m m u n i t y c a n b e c o m e v e r y d if fi cu l t d u e t o c h a n g e s

c a u s e d b y e le c t io n s . T h i s l e n d s f u r t h e r s u p p o r t t o t h e n e e d t o i n v o l v e

r e s i d e n t s a n d o t h e r k e y s t a k e h o l d e r s i n t o a f le x i b le a n d d y n a m i c p l a n -

n i n g p r o c e s s t h a t c a n s u s t a in t h e c h a n g i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d a d j u s t

t o o t h e r f o r ce s i m p a c t i n g o n t h e t o u r i s m s y s t e m . W o o d l e y ' s ( 1 9 9 3)

s t u d y o f t o u r is m d e v e l o p m e n t i n th e c o m m u n i t y o f B a k e r L a k e s h o w e d

t ha t th e g o v e r n m e n t d o c u m e n t s e m p h a s i z e d c o m m u n i t y i n v o l ve m e n t ,

b u t e x t e n s iv e c o m m u n i t y c o n s u l t a t io n o c c u r r e d o n l y o n a n i n d i v id u a l

p r o j e c t b a s is , w i t h n o o v e r a l l v i s i o n o f t h e c o m m u n i t y ' s f u t u r e a n d

n o c o n s u l ta t io n o n t h e c u m u l a t iv e i m p a c t s o f d e v e l o p i n g n u m e r o u s

i n d i v i d u a l f a c il it ie s . H e n c e , o n e o f t h e c r i ti c a l r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s i s:

w h e r e i n t h e o v e r a l l d e s t i n a t i o n p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s i s s t a k e h o l d e r c o l l a b -

o r a t i o n m o s t e f fe c t i v e ? F o r e x a m p l e , s h o u l d t h e s t a k e h o l d e r s b e in -

v o l v e d i n th e v i s i o n i n g p r o c e s s o n l y , o r a l s o i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t o u r i s m

g o a l s a n d p o l ic i e s? S h o u l d l o c al a u t h o r i t i e s b e l e f t w i t h t h e r e s p o n s i b i l-

i ty o f f o r m u l a t i n g a n d i m p l e m e n t i n g g o a ls a n d p o l ic ie s , o n c e a c o m m u -

n i ty v is i o n h a s b e e n e s t a b li s h e d t h r o u g h a c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d c o l la b o r a -

t i o n ? O r s h o u l d a referent o rganization b e f o r m e d f o r o n g o i n g m o n i t o r in g

a n d a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e c o m m u n i t y ' s t o u r i s m p l a n s ? L o c a l t o u r is t o r g a n -

i z a ti o n s , s u c h a s c o n v e n t i o n a n d v i s i to r s b u r e a u s , g e n e r a l l y h a v e m u l -


15/19


t ip le s ta k e h o l d e rs a n d a m a n d a t e f o c u s e d o n th e m a r k e t i n g a n d p r o m o -

t io n r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e d e s ti n a t io n . F o r t h e p l a n n i n g n e e d s o f t h e

d o m a i n , h o w e v e r , it m a y b e c o m e n e c e s s a ry to f o rm a n e w s t r u c tu r e i f

a n e x i s t i n g o n e c a n n o t b e a d a p t e d t o s u i t t h e c o l l a b o r a t i v e t a s k . D i s -

c u s s i n g p e r i p h e r a l t o u r i s m d e s t i n a t i o n s , K e l l e r s u g g e s t e d th a t s u c c e s s

in m a i n t a i n i n g l oc a l c o n t r o l a n d a su s t a in a b l e , d e v e l o p m e n t p a c e

w o u l d d e p e n d o n a f u n c t i o n i n g a n d p o w e r f u l p e r i p h e r a l t o u r i s m o r-

g a n i z a t i o n w h i c h w o u l d r e q u i r e t h e s u p p o r t o f a ll s e c t o rs o f t h e p e -

r i p h e ra l t o u r i s m i n d u s t r y . . . . ( 1 9 8 7 :2 7 ).

I t c a n b e a r g u e d , t h e r e f o re , t h a t i n t h e f r a g m e n t e d t o u r i s m d o m a i n ,

p e r c e i v e d i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e a n d k e y s ta k e h o l d e r in v o l v e m e n t a r e n o t

a d e q u a t e f o r a c h i e v i n g s u c c e ss ; m e t h o d s m u s t b e d e v i s e d f o r f i n d in g

c o m m o n g r o u n d s f o r f a c il it a ti n g c o n s e n s u s a n d f o r i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e

c o l l a b o r a t io n ' s r e s u lt s (i f r e q u i r e d ) . A c o m m u n i t y c o l l a b o r a t i o n i n it i-

a t e d to d e v e l o p a f o r m a l c o m m u n i t y v i si o n , f o r e x a m p l e , c o u l d re s u lt

i n a v i s i o n d o c u m e n t t h a t b e c o m e s r a t i f i e d b y t h e l o c a l c o u n c i l . A

c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d t o u r i s m c o l l a b o r a t i o n m i g h t t h u s p r o c e e d a l o n g t h e

s t a g e s a n d s t e p s o u t l i n e d i n F i g u r e 1 .

C O N C L U S I O N S

T h e s tr a te g i c p l a n n i n g o f t o u r i s m d e s t i n a t io n s is a c o m p l e x t a sk d u e

t o t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f m u l t ip l e s t a k e h o l d e r s a n d f r a g m e n t e d c o n -

t r o l o v e r t h e d e s t in a t i o n ' s r e s o u r c e s . T h i s p a p e r o u t l i n e s s o m e o f t h e

c h a r a c te r is t ic s o f c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d t o u r i s m d e s t i n a t io n s a n d s u g g e st s

t h a t c o ll a b o r a ti o n , a s a d y n a m i c p r o c e s s - o r i e n t e d s t r a t e g y , m a y b e

s u it a b le t o m a n a g e t u r b u l e n t p l a n n i n g d o m a i n s a t t h e l oc a l l ev e l. T h i s

p r o c e s s m i g h t a l s o b e s u i t a b l e f o r c o o r d i n a t i n g r e g i o n a l -l e v e l p l a n n i n g

o f t o u r i s m r e s o u r c e s a n d d e s t i n a t i o n s . I n a d d i t i o n t o a i d i n g p u b l i c -

p r i v a t e s e c t o r i n t e r a c t i o n s , c o l l a b o r a t i o n m a y p r o v i d e a n e f f e c ti v e

m e c h a n i s m f o r c o m m u n i t y i n v o l v e m e n t in t o u r is m p l a n n in g , t h r o u g h

s e l e ct io n o f k e y s t a k e h o l d e r s t o r e p r e s e n t t h e v a r i o u s p u b l i c i n te r e s t s.

I n l ig h t o f t h e i n c r e a s in g p a c e o f c h a n g e a n d i n t e n si f y in g c o m p e t i t io n

r e s u l t in g f r o m t h e g l o b a l i z a t io n o f t r a d e , b u s i n e s s a n d t r a v e l , t h e n e e d

t o f i n d n e w w a y s f o r d e s t i n a t i o n c o m m u n i t i e s t o b e c o m p e t i t i v e a n d

y e t r e t a i n a s e n s e o f p l a c e is c r it ic a l . S u s t a i n a b l e t o u r i s m d e v e l o p m e n t

a t a l o c al a n d g l o b a l l e ve l w i ll t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e m u c h g r e a t e r c o o p e r a -

t io n a n d c o l l a b o r a t i o n t h a n p r a c t i c e d t o d a t e . I n e m e r g i n g t o u r i s m

d o m a i n s , it m a y b e n e c e s s a r y t o s p e ci fi ca l ly i m p l e m e n t a c o l la b o r a t iv e

c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d p l a n n i n g p r o c es s a n d f o r m r e f e re n t o r g a n iz a t io n s t o

m a n a g e t he t o u r is m d e v e l o p m e n t a f fa ir s o f t he c o m m u n i t y a n d t he

r e g i o n .

P l a n n e r s a n d m a n a g e r s , h o w e v e r , n e e d t o b e a w a r e o f t h e p o t e n t ia l

i n h ib i to r s a n d p r o b l e m s th a t m a y a r i se d u r i n g c o l l a b o r a ti o n , a n d i m -

p l e m e n t a p p r o p r i a t e a c t io n s to r e s o lv e t h e m . F o r e x a m p l e , r a t h e r t h a n

a c c u m u l a t e a n d g a in c o n t r o l o v e r s c a r ce r e s o u r c e s, f ir m s a r e b e i n g

a s k e d t o s h a r e r e s o u r c e s ( s k i l l s , k n o w l e d g e , e t c . ) i n s o m e v e n t u r e s a n d

c o m p e t e in o t h e r s . T h e s h a r i n g o f r e s o u r c e s c o u l d in d u c e f re e -

l o a d in g , w h e r e b y s o m e st a k e h o l d e rs m a y d e p e n d o n o th e r s i n t h e

c o l l a b o r a ti o n t o p r o d u c e n e c e s s a r y b e n e fi ts . H e n c e , a n o r g a n i z a t i o n

m a y b e d e t e r r e d f r o m b e i n g i n a c o l l a b o r a t i o n d u e t o a p e r c e i v e d r i s k


16/19

JA MA L AND GET Z 201

o f f r e e - l o a d i n g p a r t i c ip a n t s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h a t a r e n o t

f a m i l ia r w i t h c o l l a b o r a t i o n m a y b e r e l u c t a n t t o j o i n , o u t o f f e a r o f

l os in g c o n tr o l o v e r t he p l a n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t d o m a i n . T h e y m i g h t

a l so f ee l t h a t t h e r e s o u r c e s t h e y p o s s e s s c o u l d b e b e t t e r u t i l iz e d b y

a d o p t i n g a m o r e f a m i li a r s t ra t e g y , e v e n t h o u g h t h a t st r a te g y m a y h a v e

p r o d u c e d le ss t h a n o p t i m a l o u t c o m e s i n t h e p a s t. F u r t h e r m o r e , m u n i c -

i p a li ti e s m i g h t a l so p e r c e i v e r i s ks i n c o l l a b o r a t i n g t o g e t h e r f o r t o u r i s m

p l a n n i n g a n d d e s t i n a t i o n m a n a g e m e n t , s in c e t h e y to o a r e o f t e n in -

v o l v e d in c o m p e t i n g w i t h e a c h o t h e r f o r sc a r ce f u n d s , a n d f o r a t t r a c ti n g

p r i v a t e i n v e s t m e n t s . C o n c e r n s a b o u t l os s o f c o n t r o l o v e r d e c is io n -

m a k i n g m a y a ls o p r e v e n t l o c al a u th o r i t ie s f r o m e n t e r i n g i n to a c o ll a b o -

r a t i o n .

C l e a r l y , t h e f a c i li ta t o r s a n d i n h i b i t o r s t o c o l l a b o r a t i o n i n c o m m u -

n i t y - b a s e d t o u r i s m d o m a i n s n e e d t o b e i d e n ti f ie d t h r o u g h e m p i r i c a l

r e s e a r c h i n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h c o ll a b o ra -

t io n c a n b e u s e d a s a p r o c e s s t o r e s o lv e p r o b l e m s a n d a d v a n c e s h a r e d

v i si o ns . T h e s ta g e s a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e c o l l a b o r a t io n p r o c e s s

n e e d t o b e i n v e s ti g a t e d , w i t h a t te n t i o n p a i d t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

a p p r o p r i a te s t ru c t u re s f or o n g o i n g m a n a g e m e n t o f t he p l a n n in g d o -

m a i n . T h e r a m i f ic a t i o n s o f i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s a n d o f t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s

u s e o f c o m p e t i t iv e a n d c o l l a b o r a t iv e s t ra t e g ie s i n t o u r i s m p l a n n i n g a n d

d e s t i n a ti o n m a n a g e m e n t b y o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t a k e h o l d e r s m e r i t g r e a t e r

e x a m i n a t i o n . C o l l a b o r a t i o n i n t o u r is m p l a n n i n g d o m a i n s m i g h t o n ly

b e a c h i e v a b l e a m o n g c e r t a in s t a k e h o l d e rs g r o u p s a n d w i th i n s p ec if ic

d e c i s io n - m a k i n g p a r a m e t e r s , w h e r e t h e t e r m

onsensus

m a y t a k e o n

v a r i e d in t e r p r e t a ti o n s . O n g o i n g r e s e a r c h t h r o u g h i n - d e p t h c a se s tu d -

ie s, b o t h q u a l i ta t i v e a n d q u a n t i t a t iv e , p r o v i d e s s o m e a n s w e r s t o t h e s e

c r u c ia l is su e s. L o n g i t u d i n a l r e s e a r c h is e s p e c ia l ly r e c o m m e n d e d i n o r-

d e r t o b e a b l e to t ra c e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f c o l l a b o r a t iv e p l a n n i n g p r o -

c e ss e s a n d s t ra t e g ie s o v e r t i m e . S i x p r o p o s i t i o n s h a v e b e e n f o r w a r d e d

i n t h i s a r t i c l e t o a s s i s t r e s e a r c h e r s i n d e v e l o p i n g t h e o r y a n d t e s t i n g

h y p o t h e s e s in th i s a r e a . A d d i t i o n a l l y , it is h o p e d t h a t t h e s e p r o p o s i t i o n s

w il l b e u s e fu l as a p l a n n i n g g u i d e f o r d e s t i n a t io n m a n a g e r s a n d c o m -

m u n i t y p l a n n e r s . [ ] [ ]

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1993 Rural Residents Attitudes Toward Recreation and Tourism Development.

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Ap, J.

1992 Residents Perceptions on Tourism Impacts. Annals of Tourism Research 19:

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Astley, W. G.

1984 Toward an Appreciation of Collective Strategy. Academy of Management

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1986 Problem-solving Networks Towards a Synthesis of Innovative Approaches to

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1990 Perceived Influence of Tourism on Social Issues. Annals of Tourism Research

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1991 Bridging Organiza tions and Sustainable Development. Hu ma n Relations 44:

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