Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 1 Organization of the Body.

Anatomy and Anatomy and PhysiologyPhysiologyChapter 1 Organization of the BodyChapter 1 Organization of the Body

Scientific MethodScientific Method

There are five parts to the scientific There are five parts to the scientific method:method:

1)1) Problem/researchProblem/research

2)2) HypothesisHypothesis

3)3) ExperimentExperiment

4)4) Collect dataCollect data

5)5) ConclusionConclusion

Problem/ResearchProblem/Research

We want to know if males or females We want to know if males or females have a bigger lung capacity.have a bigger lung capacity.

We need to do research to see what We need to do research to see what other studies have found. What are some other studies have found. What are some places we can go to so we can find places we can go to so we can find previous research?previous research?

HypothesisHypothesis

From all the research we collect we can From all the research we collect we can make an educated guess, aka make an educated guess, aka hypothesis.hypothesis.

What would our hypothesis possibly be?What would our hypothesis possibly be?

ExperimentExperiment

In the experiment we need to test both In the experiment we need to test both males and females in their lung capacity.males and females in their lung capacity.

Our experiment is to use a spriometer to Our experiment is to use a spriometer to test both males and females as they test both males and females as they exhaust their air flow.exhaust their air flow.

What is our independent and dependent What is our independent and dependent variable in this experiment?variable in this experiment?

Collect DataCollect Data

Data that will be collected in this Data that will be collected in this experiment will be quantitative data.experiment will be quantitative data.

We will look at how many liters both We will look at how many liters both males and females output and compare.males and females output and compare.

ConclusionConclusion

The last thing in our scientific method is The last thing in our scientific method is to form a conclusion and either accept to form a conclusion and either accept our hypothesis or reject our hypothesis.our hypothesis or reject our hypothesis.

What is anatomy?What is anatomy?

Anatomy is the structure of an organism Anatomy is the structure of an organism and the relationships of its parts.and the relationships of its parts.

DissectionsDissections

We use dissections to isolate and study We use dissections to isolate and study the structural components or parts of the the structural components or parts of the human body.human body.

Gross anatomy- study of body parts Gross anatomy- study of body parts visible to the naked eye.visible to the naked eye.

Microscopic anatomy- study of body Microscopic anatomy- study of body parts using a microscope parts using a microscope

Parts to microscopic Parts to microscopic anatomyanatomy

Cytology- study of cellsCytology- study of cells Histology- study of tissuesHistology- study of tissues

Other studies of anatomy:Other studies of anatomy: Developmental anatomy- study of human Developmental anatomy- study of human

growth and developmentgrowth and development Pathological anatomy- study of diseased body Pathological anatomy- study of diseased body

structuresstructures Systemic anatomy- study of the body by Systemic anatomy- study of the body by

systemssystems

What is physiology?What is physiology?

Physiology is the study of how the body Physiology is the study of how the body works.works.

Parts of physiology:Parts of physiology:

1)1) Organism involvedOrganism involved

2)2) Organization level studiedOrganization level studied

3)3) Systemic functionSystemic function

Characteristics of LifeCharacteristics of Life

ResponsivenessResponsiveness ConductivityConductivity GrowthGrowth RespirationRespiration DigestionDigestion

AbsorptionAbsorption SecretionSecretion ExcretionExcretion CirculationCirculation ReproductionReproduction

Characteristics of life considered most important in humans:

MetabolismMetabolism

Metabolism—sum total of all physical and Metabolism—sum total of all physical and chemical reactions occurring in the living chemical reactions occurring in the living bodybody

Levels of organizationLevels of organization

AtomAtom MoleculeMolecule OrganelleOrganelle CellCell TissueTissue OrganOrgan Organ systemOrgan system OrganismOrganism

Levels of Organization Levels of Organization (Figure 1-3)(Figure 1-3)

Chemical level—basis for lifeChemical level—basis for life Organization of chemical structures Organization of chemical structures

separates living material from nonliving separates living material from nonliving materialmaterial

Organization of atoms, molecules, and Organization of atoms, molecules, and macromolecules results in living matter—a macromolecules results in living matter—a gel called cytoplasmgel called cytoplasm

Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization

Organelle levelOrganelle level Chemical structures organized to form Chemical structures organized to form

organelles that perform individual functionsorganelles that perform individual functions It is the functions of the organelles that allow It is the functions of the organelles that allow

the cell to livethe cell to live Dozens of organelles have been identified, Dozens of organelles have been identified,

including the following:including the following: MitochondriaMitochondria Golgi apparatusGolgi apparatus Endoplasmic reticulumEndoplasmic reticulum

Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization

Cellular levelCellular level Cells—smallest and most numerous units Cells—smallest and most numerous units

that possess and exhibit characteristics of that possess and exhibit characteristics of lifelife

Cell—nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm Cell—nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm within a limiting membranewithin a limiting membrane

Cells differentiate to perform unique Cells differentiate to perform unique functionsfunctions

Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization

Tissue levelTissue level Tissue—an organization of similar cells Tissue—an organization of similar cells

specialized to perform a certain functionspecialized to perform a certain function Tissue cells surrounded by nonliving matrixTissue cells surrounded by nonliving matrix Four major tissue types:Four major tissue types:

Epithelial tissueEpithelial tissue Connective tissueConnective tissue Muscle tissueMuscle tissue Nervous tissueNervous tissue

Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization

Organ levelOrgan level Organ—organization of several different Organ—organization of several different

kinds of tissues to perform a special functionkinds of tissues to perform a special function Organs represent discrete and functionally Organs represent discrete and functionally

complex operational unitscomplex operational units Each organ has a unique size, shape, Each organ has a unique size, shape,

appearance, and placement in the bodyappearance, and placement in the body

Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization

System levelSystem level Systems—most complex organizational units of the bodySystems—most complex organizational units of the body

System level involves varying numbers and kinds of System level involves varying numbers and kinds of organs arranged to perform complex functions (Table 1-organs arranged to perform complex functions (Table 1-1):1): Support and movementSupport and movement

Communication, control, and integrationCommunication, control, and integration

Transportation and defenseTransportation and defense

Respiration, nutrition, and excretionRespiration, nutrition, and excretion

Reproduction and developmentReproduction and development

Levels of OrganizationLevels of Organization

Organism levelOrganism level The living human organism is greater than The living human organism is greater than

the sum of its partsthe sum of its parts All of the components interact to allow the All of the components interact to allow the

human to survive and flourishhuman to survive and flourish

Anatomical Position Anatomical Position (Figure 1-4)(Figure 1-4)

Reference positionReference position Body erect with arms Body erect with arms

at sides and palms at sides and palms forwardforward

Head and feet Head and feet pointing forwardpointing forward

Bilateral symmetryBilateral symmetry

Bilateral symmetry is a term meaning that Bilateral symmetry is a term meaning that right and left sides of body are mirror right and left sides of body are mirror imagesimages Ipsilateral structures are on the same side of Ipsilateral structures are on the same side of

the body in anatomical positionthe body in anatomical position Contralateral structures are on opposite Contralateral structures are on opposite

sides of the body in anatomical positionsides of the body in anatomical position

Body CavitiesBody Cavities

Ventral body cavityVentral body cavity Thoracic cavityThoracic cavity

Right and left pleural cavitiesRight and left pleural cavities MediastinumMediastinum

Abdominopelvic cavityAbdominopelvic cavity Abdominal cavityAbdominal cavity Pelvic cavityPelvic cavity

Body cavity Body cavity

Dorsal body cavityDorsal body cavity Cranial cavityCranial cavity Spinal cavitySpinal cavity

Body RegionsBody Regions

Axial subdivisionAxial subdivision HeadHead NeckNeck Torso, or trunk, and its subdivisionsTorso, or trunk, and its subdivisions

Appendicular subdivisionAppendicular subdivision Upper extremity and subdivisionsUpper extremity and subdivisions Lower extremity and subdivisionsLower extremity and subdivisions

Abdominal regionsAbdominal regions

Right hypochondriac Right hypochondriac regionregion

Epigastric regionEpigastric region

Left hypochondriac regionLeft hypochondriac region

Right lumbar regionRight lumbar region

Umbilical regionUmbilical region

Left lumbar regionLeft lumbar region

Right iliac (inguinal) regionRight iliac (inguinal) region

Hypogastric regionHypogastric region

Left iliac (inguinal) regionLeft iliac (inguinal) region

Abdominopelvic Abdominopelvic quadrantsquadrants

Right upper quadrantRight upper quadrant Left upper quadrantLeft upper quadrant Right lower quadrantRight lower quadrant Left lower quadrantLeft lower quadrant

Terms Used in Describing Terms Used in Describing Body Structure Body Structure

Directional terms Directional terms SuperiorSuperior InferiorInferior Anterior (ventral)Anterior (ventral) Posterior (dorsal)Posterior (dorsal) MedialMedial

LateralLateral ProximalProximal DistalDistal SuperficialSuperficial DeepDeep

Terms Used in Describing Terms Used in Describing Body StructureBody Structure Terms related to organsTerms related to organs

Lumen (luminal)Lumen (luminal)

CentralCentral

PeripheralPeripheral

Medullary (medulla)Medullary (medulla)

Cortical (cortex)Cortical (cortex)

Apical (apex)Apical (apex)

Basal (base)Basal (base)

Body Planes and Sections Body Planes and Sections

Planes are lines of orientation along which Planes are lines of orientation along which cuts or sections can be made to divide the cuts or sections can be made to divide the body, or a body part, into smaller piecesbody, or a body part, into smaller pieces

There are 3 planes:There are 3 planes:

1)1) Saggital planeSaggital plane

2)2) Frontal (coronal) planeFrontal (coronal) plane

3)3) Transverse (horizontal) planeTransverse (horizontal) plane

Body Planes and Sections Body Planes and Sections

There are three major planes, which lie at right There are three major planes, which lie at right angles to each other:angles to each other: Sagittal plane runs front to back so that sections Sagittal plane runs front to back so that sections

through this plane divide body (or body part) into through this plane divide body (or body part) into right and left sidesright and left sides If section divides body (or part) into symmetrical right and If section divides body (or part) into symmetrical right and

left halves, the plane is called midsagittal or median left halves, the plane is called midsagittal or median sagittalsagittal

Frontal (coronal) plane runs lengthwise (side to Frontal (coronal) plane runs lengthwise (side to side) and divides body (or part) into anterior and side) and divides body (or part) into anterior and posterior portionsposterior portions

Transverse (horizontal) plane is a “crosswise” planeTransverse (horizontal) plane is a “crosswise” plane—it divides body (or part) into upper and lower parts—it divides body (or part) into upper and lower parts

Body Type and Disease Body Type and Disease Somatotype—category of body build Somatotype—category of body build

or physiqueor physique

Three somatoype:Three somatoype:

1)1) EndomorphEndomorph

2)2) MesomorphMesomorph

3)3) EctomorphEctomorph

Somatotypes:Somatotypes:

Endomorph—heavy, rounded physique with Endomorph—heavy, rounded physique with accumulation of fataccumulation of fat ““Apple-shaped” endomorph has more accumulation Apple-shaped” endomorph has more accumulation

of fat in the waist than hipof fat in the waist than hip Waist-to-hip ratio >0.9 for women and >1.0 for menWaist-to-hip ratio >0.9 for women and >1.0 for men

Higher risk for health problems than “pear shape”Higher risk for health problems than “pear shape”

““Pear-shaped” endomorph has more accumulation Pear-shaped” endomorph has more accumulation of fat in hips than in waistof fat in hips than in waist

Somatotypes Cont.Somatotypes Cont.

Mesomorph—muscular physiqueMesomorph—muscular physique Ectomorph—thin, often fragile physique Ectomorph—thin, often fragile physique

with little fatwith little fat

Homeostasis Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the term used to describe Homeostasis is the term used to describe the relatively constant states maintained the relatively constant states maintained by the body—internal environment by the body—internal environment around body cells remains constantaround body cells remains constant

Homeostasis Homeostasis

Body adjusts important variables from a Body adjusts important variables from a normal “set point” in an acceptable or normal “set point” in an acceptable or normal rangenormal range

Examples of homeostasis:Examples of homeostasis: Temperature regulationTemperature regulation Regulation of blood carbon dioxide levelRegulation of blood carbon dioxide level Regulation of blood glucose levelRegulation of blood glucose level

Homeostatic Control Homeostatic Control Mechanisms Mechanisms

Devices for maintaining or restoring Devices for maintaining or restoring homeostasis by self-regulation through homeostasis by self-regulation through feedback control loopsfeedback control loops

Homeostatic Homeostatic MechanismsMechanisms

Basic components of control mechanismsBasic components of control mechanisms Sensor mechanism—specific sensors detect Sensor mechanism—specific sensors detect

and react to any changes from normaland react to any changes from normal Integrating, or control, center—information is Integrating, or control, center—information is

analyzed and integrated, and then, if needed, a analyzed and integrated, and then, if needed, a specific action is initiatedspecific action is initiated

Effector mechanism—effectors directly Effector mechanism—effectors directly influence controlled physiological variablesinfluence controlled physiological variables

Feedback—process of information about a Feedback—process of information about a variable constantly flowing back from the sensor variable constantly flowing back from the sensor to the integratorto the integrator

Label the Homeostatic Label the Homeostatic MechanismsMechanisms

Homeostatic Control Homeostatic Control Mechanisms Mechanisms

Negative feedback control systemsNegative feedback control systems Are inhibitoryAre inhibitory Stabilize physiological variablesStabilize physiological variables Produce an action that is opposite to the Produce an action that is opposite to the

change that activated the systemchange that activated the system Are responsible for maintaining homeostasisAre responsible for maintaining homeostasis Are much more common than positive Are much more common than positive

feedback control systemsfeedback control systems

Homeostatic Control Homeostatic Control Mechanisms Mechanisms

Positive feedback control systemsPositive feedback control systems

Are stimulatoryAre stimulatory

Amplify or reinforce the change that is occurringAmplify or reinforce the change that is occurring

Tend to produce destabilizing effects and disrupt Tend to produce destabilizing effects and disrupt homeostasishomeostasis

Bring specific body functions to swift completionBring specific body functions to swift completion

Feed-forward occurs when information flows ahead to Feed-forward occurs when information flows ahead to another process or feedback loop to trigger a change in another process or feedback loop to trigger a change in anticipation of an event that will followanticipation of an event that will follow

Homeostatic Control Homeostatic Control Mechanisms Mechanisms Levels of control Levels of control

Intracellular controlIntracellular control Regulation within cellsRegulation within cells Genes or enzymes can regulate cell processesGenes or enzymes can regulate cell processes

Intrinsic control (autoregulation)Intrinsic control (autoregulation) Regulation within tissues or organsRegulation within tissues or organs May involve chemical signalsMay involve chemical signals May involve other “built-in” mechanismsMay involve other “built-in” mechanisms

Extrinsic controlExtrinsic control Regulation from organ to organRegulation from organ to organ May involve nerve signalsMay involve nerve signals May involve endocrine signals (hormones)May involve endocrine signals (hormones)