― 17 ― 総合文化研究第26巻第 1・2・3 号合併号(2021. 3) 【Research Materials】 American Expatriates in Tokyo and Their Celebration of Holiday 東京におけるアメリカ人移民の祝日の祝い方 YAMAMOTO Takayuki (山本 貴之) [ Abstract] Much literature aims to capture the complex realities of migrant experiences in the age of globalization. Similarly, issues surrounding migrants from the Global North have gained increasing academic attention from scholars of international migration. However, migrants’ cultural practices in their hosting countries have scarcely been explored, despite the fact that they mirror crucial aspects of globalization. In the given context, this paper introduces my preliminary research on how American expatriates celebrate different holidays in Tokyo, exploring the points of discussion that their holidaymakings bring up. Among a variety of holidays referenced by informants, this paper singles out their practices on Thanksgiving Day and Halloween, since they produce significant points of discussion surrounding the location of, people attending, food of, and views on the holidays after expatriation. Contradicting a traditional assumption that migrants form ethnic/national communities in hosting societies, the informants for this project told stories of their holidaymakings which exemplify the much more complex realities of their cultural practices in Tokyo. The first half of this paper is devoted to outlining existing knowledge on the research topic and introduces a research question and method. The latter half introduces findings of the research and discusses how expatriation affects migrants’ holiday practices. [ Table of Contents] 1. Introduction 2. Literature Review 3. Description of Research 4. Data and Method 5. Findings
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American Expatriates in Tokyo and Their Celebration of Holiday
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―17― 総合文化研究第26巻第 1・2・3 号合併号(2021. 3)
【Research Materials】
American Expatriates in Tokyo and Their Celebration of Holiday
東京におけるアメリカ人移民の祝日の祝い方
YAMAMOTOTakayuki(山本 貴之)
[ Abstract]Much literatureaimstocapture thecomplexrealitiesofmigrantexperiences in theageofglobalization.Similarly,issuessurroundingmigrantsfromtheGlobalNorthhavegainedincreasingacademicattentionfromscholarsofinternationalmigration.However,migrants’ culturalpractices in theirhostingcountrieshavescarcelybeenexplored,despitethefactthattheymirrorcrucialaspectsofglobalization.Inthegivencontext,thispaperintroducesmypreliminaryresearchonhowAmericanexpatriatescelebratedifferentholidays inTokyo,exploringthepointsofdiscussionthattheirholidaymakingsbringup.Amongavarietyofholidaysreferencedbyinformants,thispapersinglesouttheirpracticesonThanksgivingDayandHalloween, since theyproducesignificantpointsofdiscussionsurroundingthe locationof,peopleattending, foodof,andviewson the holidays after expatriation. Contradicting a traditional assumption thatmigrantsformethnic/nationalcommunitiesinhostingsocieties,theinformantsforthisprojecttoldstoriesof theirholidaymakingswhichexemplifythemuchmorecomplexrealitiesoftheirculturalpractices inTokyo.Thefirsthalfofthispaper isdevotedtooutliningexistingknowledgeontheresearchtopicandintroducesaresearchquestionandmethod.The latterhalf introduces findingsof theresearchanddiscusseshowexpatriationaffectsmigrants’holidaypractices.
[ Table of Contents]1. Introduction2. LiteratureReview3. DescriptionofResearch4. DataandMethod5. Findings
shortage issues inhostingcountriesgenerateamomentumof internationalpopulationmovements.Fromthisperspective, internationalmigration isoftenpicturedas themovement fromtheSouthtotheNorth,or fromtheEast totheWest.However, thecontemporaryworldcharacterizedbytheglobalizationofgoods,people,andinformationhasdiversified the realityof internationalmigration.Someacademicattentionhasthusbeengiven to less traditionalmigratorypatterns,which include“high-skilled,marriage,student,orevenwhathasbeenrecentlycalled‘white’migrations”(Debnar,2016,p.2).Thesediscussionsofcontemporarymigrationcanbeframedwithanotionof‘transnationalism’.Asopposed to internationalperspectives,whichpresumethatmigrantsusuallystayinhostingcountries,transnationalperspectivesassumethatback-and-forthmovementsbetweenmultiplecountrieswouldaidsomeindividualsincreatingmultiplenetworks. Inthatrespect,asYeoh (2018)argues,globalcitiesaresignificantlocations forobserving themultiplicityofdiversitieswhich transnationalmigrationentails.Forinstance,highly-mobilepeople,inhopesoffurthermovingupwardsintheircareers,canalsoberegardedasmigrants,inwhichcasemigrationisadeliberateaction(Anno&Wank2007)2).
These‘privileged’migrants,despiteavarietyofmotives inmigration, aresometimes labeledas‘expatriates’ (Croucher,2012),oftenconnotingthestereotypicalimage ofwhitebusinessmen from theWest.Thatbeing said, the field of criticalexpatriatestudieshascontributedmuchmoreprecisedescriptionsofactualexpatriateexperiences to the existingknowledge.AsFarrer (2018) overviews, research onexpatriates—which initially focusedonaspectsof theirpsychologicaladaptations toworking environments inAsianhosting countries—currently covers other issues,rangingfromgendersandwhitenessas‘springs’ofbothprivilegeandmarginalizationto the existence of economically unstable expatriates seeking stable positionsunavailablewithin in theirhomecountries.Withan increase innumbersof lifestyleandself-initiatedmigrants,themultiplerealitiesofexpatriateshavebeenintroducedinacademia,castingdoubtonthepriorone-dimensionalunderstandingofexpatriates.Also,insteadof recognizing the termasaclassificationof individuals,Kunz (2016) ratherunderstands‘expatriates’todenotesocialpractices. Inasimilarvein,Farrer furtherarguesthat“one is not‘anexpatriate’byvirtueofbeingacertaintypeofpersonbutrather learns tobe anexpatriatethroughsocialization intoanexpatriatecommunitywithitscollectivepracticesandoutlooks”(Farrer,2018,p.197).
Whileissuescenteringontheseexpatriateshaveattractedmuchattentionfromscholars,theamountofacademic literatureonthemisfarfromsufficient.Specifically,there isa lackofsociological inquiry into thegroup-makingofexpatriates, includingtheircelebrationofholidaysandfestivals.AlthoughDurkheim’scanonicalwork(1995)hasproven the importanceof ritualisticcollectivegatherings inestablishingsocial
identities,heseemstopresumethattheexistenceofsocietiesistakenforgranted.Thatis,while theritualizationofholidaysand festivalscanbeseenasaremembranceofpreexistingcommunitiesandconsolidationofcollective identities, itshouldalsoentailthegenerationofanewsenseof‘us’.This ringsespecially true in today’shighlyglobalizedworld,whereinanunprecedentedlevelofcultural,social,andpoliticalmixingisevident,aphenomenonthathasbeensociologicallyconceptualizedas‘super-diversity’(Vertovec,2007).Infact,migrationstudieshaveconventionallytreatedmigrantsasanethnically-orientedgroupofpeople,assumingthattheyformethniccommunitiesinhostcountries,andsuchviewshavebeencriticizedbysomescholars.AsWimmer (2009)notes,“thecomparativeliteratureonethnicityalertsustothepossibilitythatmembersofanethnicgroupmightnotshareaspecificculture(eveniftheymarktheboundarywith certain cultural diacritica),mightnotprivilegeeachother in their everydaynetworkingpracticeandthusnotforma‘community’”(Wimmer,2009,p.252).
3 . Description of Research
The brief overview of the related literature above leads to a necessityof researchonexpatriates’ gatherings, since they reflect avarietyof social factscharacterizingcontemporaryissuesofmigration.Inthatrespect,thisprojectexploredhowAmerican expatriates inTokyo celebrateholidays.A rationale for samplingAmericanexpatriatesinTokyoliesinthefactthat,intermsofinternationalmigrantsfromtheGlobalNorth,3)theyformthebiggestpopulationinJapan.Sincethemajorityof themreside inTokyo, (AmericanResidents in Japan2019) they are thereforeapproachable informants.Theobjective of this research isnot to test theories ofacculturation/deculturationofmigrants,applyingpositivistapproaches;rather, it is toexplorethemultiplerealitiesoftheirholidayexperiencesinTokyoandtoexpandtherepertoireoftheoriesofexpatriation.
4 . Data and Method
Based on the idea of constructionism,which perceives social realities assubjective,situational,andculturallyvariableconstructs,thestudyemployedqualitativeinterviewingasitscoremethodandparticipantobservationasasupplementalmethodofdatacollection, aiming toproduce theories.Hence, theprojectwasalsobasedongroundedtheory (Strauss,1987).Followingastyleofgrounded-theory-basedresearchintroducedbyWeiss (1995), three informantswererecruited (agerange:44-70, twofemalesandonemale);oneof themrecruitedthroughconveniencesampling,andtheother two through theoretical sampling.All of themarecollegegraduates (twoof
HalloweenLocationOne female informant—who ishighly-mobileandhas lived inseveralmajorcities inAsia,Africa,andOceania—madementionoftheexistenceofforeignareas.HerannualHalloweencelebrationusedtotakeplaceinAzabuJuban,whichisknownasanareaofdenseforeignpopulation.Recently,shehasbeenholdingacommunity-orientedtrick-or-treatinginherneighborhoodinYokohama. PeopleInterestinglyenough,despitetheabundanceof foreigners intheseareas,shestressedthat thereare“notsomanyAmericans.Actually,mostof thepeople thatcomeareJapanese.Ourneighbors are Japanese, local, local Japanese.They also celebrateHalloween.Andtheyalsohavethedecorationsatthehouseandthetablewithcandybecause theyknow this area.All the foreignpeople comehere to trickor treat”(Interview3). FoodAlthoughdoughnutsarenottypicallyanimportantfoodduringHalloween,theyareofgreatsignificanceforoneinformant,reminiscentofhermother’shomemadedoughnuts
Thanksgiving DayLocationOne of the remarkable indications regarding locations of holidays is that,whilesometimestheycelebrateThanksgivingathome, twoof the informantshighlightedaparticularrestaurantcalledthePinkCowasasignificantlocationfortheholiday.Therestaurant iscurrently located inAkasaka.Theyalso indicatedthat therearea fewotherrestaurantsinTokyowhichfeatureThanksgivingdinner.PeopleTwoof the informantsexplainedhow thecelebrationofThanksgiving is a friend-orientedevent.For them, althoughoriginally celebratedwithAmericans residinginTokyo, theThanksgivingcelebration increasingly includeddiverseparticipants,regardlessofnationalities.OneinformantwhousuallyhoststheThanksgivinggatheringexplainedthatshe“started invitingotherpeople,andthen inthepast, Idon’tknow,maybe10yearsago, it endedupbeingmorepeoplewhoarenotAmericans thanAmericans,simplybecause,youknow, theAmericansIknewherewerehaving,youknow,theirowncelebrationorpeoplethatIdidn’t,youknow,seealot”(Interview2). FoodFood is an important aspect of theThanksgiving celebration.Two informantsemphasized that thePinkCowfeaturesa traditionalThanksgivingdinner,althoughoneof themstill recognizesaminordifference inhow it isservedandtastes,noting“thePinkCowdoesthatstuff[traditionalThanksgivingdinner]althoughI’msurethatthePinkCowisnotdoingawholeturkey.Whatcomesoutwhenthey’reserving isliketurkeymeat, that’sbeenpre-prepared,pre-sliced,andstuff likethat.Thetaste issignificantlydifferent fromthewholeturkey. It tastes like frozenfood” (Interview1).Also,another informantmentionedKyle’sGoodFinds,acakeshop inNakano,whichalso featuresatake-outstyleThanksgivingdinner.Like intheHalloweencelebration,
international foodmarkets also play a pivotal role in expatriates’ celebration ofThanksgiving,especiallyathome,sincetheyprovideawidevarietyofchoicesoffood.ViewsInterestingly enough, all the informants expressed negative perspectives onThanksgivingDay,especiallywhentheytalkedabouthowtheholidayusuallyprovidesaspace forargumentsand family tension in theU.S.One informantexpressedhowherchildhoodmemoriesoftheholidayareunhappybecauseofdomestictroublesandfamilyquarrels,which iswhyshestoppedcelebrating it inJapan.Another informantalsoremarkedthat theholidayhasbecomeunimportantoveryearsof livingoutsidetheU.S.Althoughhehasbeencelebrating theholiday for severalyearsnow, it islargelybecauseofthefactthathisbosomfriendorganizesthegathering,implyingtheunimportanceoftheholidayitself.Onthecontrary,whilesharingnegativesentimentstowardsThanksgivingDaywith theother two,one informantemphasizedhowtheholidayhasbecome increasingly important.Sheexplained that themeaningof theholidayshiftedovertheyears,fromgivingthanks,torichharvest,togeneralgratitudeforpeoplewhohavetakencareofher.
6 . Discussion
Althoughroughlydivided into fourcategories, the findingsaboveare in factquitecomplexly intertwinedwitheachotherandhelpusrecognize importantpointsofdiscussion.First, thesignificanceofaparticularrestaurantasa locationofholidaycelebrationcertainlyreflectshowsomeholidaysaredisembedded fromlocalcontextsand reembedded in different locations (Giddens, 1990).As forThanksgivingcelebration, theshiftof the locationfromhometorestaurantsstems fromseveral facts, suchas thedifficultyofbuyingturkeymeat inJapanandthefactthatJapaneseovensdonot“fittheturkey”(Interview3). Yet another factorworthy of attention is the linebetween‘homefor family’and‘restaurants for friends’.That is,asone informantstressed,“SomeAmericans likeJim,his family ishere,youknow,sowhenhecelebratesThanksgivingwithhis family,hewouldn’tbeacandidatefor thePinkCow (Interview2)”.Thecelebrationat therestaurantexemplifieshowexpatriates livingapart fromfamilyhold theholidaygathering inTokyo, invitingnotonlyAmericans,but Japaneseparticipantsaswell.Thischallenges thepopular assumption thatmigrants often
Picture 1 taken by Takayuki Yamamoto on July 14, 2020.TheTurkeyBento from theKyle’sGoodFindsinNakano.
establishethnically-orientedcommunities. Italsoresonateswithanother informant’scelebration ofHalloween,which takesplace inher local foreignneighborhood inYokohamabut involves a considerable number of Japanese participants.Theseinstancessuggest thatexpatriatesholdingthesegatheringshavean impactofsomeextentuponhowlocalpeoplelivetheirlives,establishingauniquecommunity.
Ostensibly, this servesasanexampleof fictivekinship,asopposed to‘realkinship’based onblood ties.However, such a conclusionmight invite criticism,sinceanthropological research intokinshiphascastdoubton theassumption thatgenealogicalcorrelationisapivotalfactorindefiningafamily(Schneider,1984).Inthatsense,theinformant’ssubjectiverecognitionofchangesinthemeaningoffamilyshouldbeunderstoodasanexampleofhowthemeaningofeachholidayisdeconstructedand
reinterpreted through theprocessofexpatriationandeverydaylifeinone’shostingsociety.
Food for the holidays, as the take-out styleThanksgiving dinner suggests, ismanifested as alocalized dish to some extent (Picture 1). Similarly,one informant notes,“I think, once I celebrated[Thanksgiving]withaJapanesefamily.Theyinvitedmeandyouknow...atChristmas...chicken legs” (Interview1).WhathemeanthereisthatthattheJapanesefamilyserved chicken legs for ThanksgivingDay,whichareusually servedatChristmas in Japan, evidencinglocalizedholiday celebrations.At the same time, thereferences to transnational corporations and storesofAmerican companies such asCostco andAmazonimplythat theeconomicglobalizationandtechnologicaldevelopment of food products transportation havefacilitated expatriates’ reproduction of‘authentic’holidayexperienceswithaparticular food. It isworthnoting thatwhile somerestaurantsandsupermarkets
Picture 2 taken by Takayuki Yamamoto on July 11, 2020.TheQualityFoodMarketSakagaminear Kiyose Station. Althoughthe large variety of food at theSakagami resembles genera linternationalfoodmarkets,itisalsoahigh-endgrocerystore.
are located inMinatoWard—traditionallytheheartof international living inTokyo—someotherplacesincludingtheKyle’sGoodFindsandasupermarketcalledSakagami(Picture 2) arenot necessarily located in such foreign areas.This indicates thatexpatriatesarenotalwaysconcentratedin‘environmentalbubbles’(Farrer,2018).
Finally,theviewsofeachholidayrevealhowtheinformantsrecognizecertainobligationsattachedto them.Forexample, in thecaseof theex-Mormon informant,ThanksgivingDayisinterpretedasasubstantiallygendered,religiousholiday,towardswhichsheexpressedherrevulsion.Contrarily,HalloweenrepresentsThanksgiving’smuchhappier counterpart, to her representing cultural neutrality.This instancehighlightshowholidaysare framedbybothnationalandculturalaspects.Anotherpointofdiscussionwhicharises fromthese interviews is tensionamongexpatriates.One informant labeledexpatriatesasspoiledpeopleandusually“stayedaway fromtheAzabuJubanareabecausewedidn’twanttobewiththe foreigners” (Interview3).ThisisalsorelatedtoherappreciationofherannualHalloweencelebration,duringwhichsheobservesagoodmixofparticipants.Resonatingwiththeotherinformant’scelebrationofThanksgivingDayatthePinkCow,acentralmeaningofholidaymakingforherisnotthemaintenanceofherreligiousandnationalidentity,butinteractionwithlocals.
7 . Conclusion
It is interesting to seehowexpatriationpulls someholidays out fromparticulartimeframes likenationalcalendars,weakening‘day-off’aspectsof theseholidaysandinturnstrengtheningtheir functionascommunitygatherings. Inthesamevein, thisexploratoryresearch illustratesthe impactofexpatriatesupon locals,creatinguniquecommunitiesandcontradictingthepopularassumptionthatmigrants formethnically-orientedcommunities inhostingcountries.Thatbeing said, the limitednumberofsampleswithrelativelyhighsocialstatus is far fromsufficient,andquestionsofclassaspectsremainunanswered.MigrantsfromWesterncountriestodaydonotalwaysfitintothecategoryofprivilegedmigrants.Rather,someofthemaremiddlingmigrants(Lehmann,2014)whoseeconomicandsocialstatusesdonotrepresentthoseofglobalelites.Basedon thispreliminaryproject, further researchshould focusonmiddlingmigrantsfromtheU.S.andtheirholidaypracticesinTokyotomoredeeplyunderstandmigrationintheglobalage.
General Information About InformantsInformant1- Gender:male- Age:65- From:SaintPaul,Minnesota- Occupation:universityprofessor- Educationalbackground:holdingaPhDdegree- Recruitment:convenientsampling
AmericanResidents in Japan. (2019, December 3). Retrieved December 7, 2019, from
https://stats-japan.com/t/kiji/11634.Anno, T. , &Wank, D. (2007 ) . Sei j igaku shakaigaku j inruigaku ni okerutoransunashonarizumunoshikaku.In Gurobarushakainodainamizumu:Rirontotenbo (pp.28–58).JochiDaigakuShuppan.
countries and sending remittances to their home canbe seen as individualsbelonging tomultiple locationsandmakingeconomicandculturalcontributionstobothcountries’ societies.Akeyaspectof the transnationalapproach is thatit recognizes continuing economic, social, andpolitical relationshipsbetweenmigrantsandtheirhomecountries.See(Fouron&Schiller,2001)formoreaboutitsdefinition.
3 )Thispaperapplies the ideaof theGlobalNorth insteadof theWest, since it isdebatablewhetherAmericanexpatriatescanbedescribedasbeingfromtheWest.Asimilartypological dilemmaalsopresents itself inothercountriessuchastheUnitedKingdom.