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Figure1:TerritorialdivisionoftheKingdomofYugoslavia19181921.Source:Lampe,YugoslaviaasHistory,p.113....................................................................................................................................40Figure2:Illyrianmonument,J.Plenik,Ljubljana.Source:D.Ali,2004.............................................49Figure3:Contemporaryviewof theexteriorof thecoveredmarketplaceofBrusaBezistan.Source:DijanaAli,2004................................................................................................................................61Figure4:aršijawithitssurroundingsattheendof19thcentury,Neidhardt’smapdevelopedonthebase of late 19th century Austro Hungarian map. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt, Architecture ofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.59..................................................................................65Figure5:ContemporaryviewofVijenica.Source:DijanaAli,2004..................................................72Figure6:ContemporaryviewofBašaršijasquarewithsebilj.Source:DijanaAli,2004....................73Figure7:‘SchematicrepresentationofthenewsuburbsofthemiddleBosnianminingbasin’.Mapofsatellitetownsincludedintheproposal:(1)oldandnewSarajevo;(2)Ilidža;(3)Breza;(4)Riica;(5)Riica; (6)VarešMajdan; (7)Zenica.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt, ‘Sarajevoand ItsSatellites’,p.272.....................................................................................................................................................97Figure 8: ‘East–west artery’, an urban vision for Sarajevo presented in its relation to significantlocations (from top to bottom of the drawing) that include: city gate at Bijela Tabija; bazaar ofBašaršija; King Tvrtko urban square; Stjepan Tomaševi urban square, intersection in front of AliPasha’sMosque,MarijinDvor andNewRailway Station. Source: Grabrijan&Neidhardt, ‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.239....................................................................................................................99Figure 9: Drawings illustrating the organic unity of terrain and architecture. Source: Grabrijan &Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.225.................................................................................101Figure10:Muslimhouse,drawing.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.215..........................................................................................................................................................102Figure 11: Josip Vancaš: houses designed in ‘Bosnian style’. Source: I. Krzovi, Arhitektura Bosne iHercegovine,1878–1918,pp.232&235..........................................................................................104Figure 12: The Orient as inspiration. Face cover and veil, (zar and vala). Source: Grabrijan &Neidhardt,‘SarajevoanditsSatellites’,pp.212&213.....................................................................107Figure 13: Medina mosque. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt, ‘Sarajevo and Its Satellites’, p. 210.[ImagerepublishedinArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity].............................109Figure14:Sketchofanarabesque.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.212..........................................................................................................................................................111Figure 15: Design proposal for urban regulation of Bašaršija. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.212...................................................................................................118Figure16:Mapofsatellitetownsincludedintheproposal.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoanditsSatellites’,p.274..................................................................................................................121Figure17:UrbandevelopmentofLjubija,withanewlydesignedchurchlocatedinthecentreoftown.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.280.................................................125Figure18:Neidhardt’sdevelopmentofthe‘elemental’architecturalvocabularyofBosnia.Singlemanhousing project for Zenica. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt, Architecture of Bosnia and the WayTowardsModernity,alsopublishedin‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.317.......................................127Figure 19: Single man housing project for Zenica. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt, Architecture ofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,alsopublishedin‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.292.......128Figure 20: Singlemen’s housing project for Zenica. Source: Grabrijan&Neidhardt, Architecture ofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,alsopublishedin‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.292.......129Figure 21: Singlemen’s housing project for Zenica. Source: Grabrijan&Neidhardt, Architecture ofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,alsopublishedin‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.287.......130
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Figure 22: Territorial divisions of the former Yugoslavia, 19451991. Source: Lampe, Yugoslavia asHistory,p.231.................................................................................................................................136Figure23: StagedesignedbyNeidhardt for Tito’s visit to Sarajevo. Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.321.....................................................141Figure24: ‘Peoplebuild, statehelps’posterdesignedbyNeidhardt.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.320.....................................................141Figure25:Structureofthebookasrepresentedasatree.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.4.............................................................................152Figure 26: Drawing of a panorama of Sarajevo, showing an harmonious connection between theterrain and the city. Source: Grabrijan&Neidhardt, Architecture of Bosnia and theWay TowardsModernity,p.5................................................................................................................................153Figure27:Sketchshowing theMecca–Sarajevo link.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.60...............................................................................163Figure28:Drawingofsojenicastructures.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.4....................................................................................................165Figure29:SteakfromRadimlje,Bosnia.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.19..................................................................................................167Figure 30: Neidhardt’s sketch of steak, a medieval tombstone. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.18.......................................................168Figure31:Neidhardt’s sketchof steakornamentsanddecoration. Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.18.......................................................169Figure 32: Illustration titled ‘From old to new pyramid 5 millenniums’. Source: Kapetanovi, ‘ThearchitecturalworkofJurajNeidhardt’;p.464..................................................................................173Figure33:Bosniaasaplaceofnegotiations,‘Urbanandarchitecturalanalysis’.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.322....................................174Figure34:Mosque,churchandthemonumenttoLenin.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.238.........................................................................175Figure35:HouseonthemountainofTrebevi(1947).Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.279.............................................................................177Figure36:Tourismandrecreationzones.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.484................................................................................................181Figure 37: Map highlighting important architectural sites. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.442.....................................................182Figure38:Divisionofprecinctbasedoncrafts.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.64...........................................................................................190Figure39:Divisionofprecinctbasedoncrafts.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.65...........................................................................................192Figure 40: ‘Store beside store, handicraft beside handicraft’. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.66.......................................................193Figure41:Bašaršijaasaproductionline.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.66..................................................................................................194Figure42:Monumentsandsignificantstructuresoftheoldprecinct.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.61.......................................................195Figure43:Beg’sMosque,crosssectionandaxonometric.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.83...........................................................................196Figure44:A.Choisy,HagiaSophia,fromHistoried’Architecture(1899);reprintedinA.Forty,WordsandBuildings,AVocabularyofModernArchitecture,Thames&Hudson,London,2004,p.23........197Figure45:Lighting inBeg’smosque.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.87........................................................................................................198Figure46:‘Mihrab,pulpit,carpet’,abstractingthespace.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.284.........................................................................199Figure47:Neidhardt’sproposalfortemporaryshelters,1945.Source:Kapetanovi,‘ThearchitecturalworkofJurajNeidhardt’,p.269.......................................................................................................201Figure 48: Embryonic development of an old house in Sarajevo. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.166.....................................................203
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Figure49:Furnishingsandutensilsofatraditionalhouse.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,pp.204–05..................................................................204Figure 50: Neidhardt’s drawing of Svrzo’s house; layout and cross section. Source: Grabrijan &Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.183....................................206Figure51:InnercourtyardandaroominSvrzo’shouse(Svrzinakua),openedtothepublicin1953.Source: Muzej Grada Sarajeva, Stambena Kultura Starog Sarajeva, DES, Sarajevo.http://www.muzejsarajeva.ba/content/view/37/52/lang,en/.........................................................207Figure 52: Abdesthana and banjica space in Svrzo’s house. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.138......................................................208Figure 53: ‘Modernity of the traditional house’s interior’, erzelez house. Source: Grabrijan &Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.208....................................209Figure54:Modernityofthetraditionalhome:crossventilationandaninteriorofamutvak(women’skitchen)oftheDjerdjelesfamilyhouse.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.208......................................................................................................210Figure55:Thecity,aršija,mahala,house,24sketches.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,pp.56–57....................................................................213Figure 56: Neidhardt’s ‘Uptodate architectonic dictionary alphabet of the carpettown’. Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.324.................215Figure 57: Neidhardt’s illustration of a traditional interior. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.230......................................................217Figure 58: Bašaršija precinct during the socialist period. Plan indicating the chronologicaldevelopmentoftheprecinct:A)GaziHusrefBeg’smosque;B)Orthodoxchurch;C)Jewishsynagogue;D)Brusabezistan;E)RustempashaBezistan;F)Czar’smosque;G)TownHall.OriginallypresentedinJSAH,vol.51,no.1,March1991,drawingadjustedfromthemapusedinA.Bejti,StaraSarajevskaaršija–juer,danasIsutra............................................................................................................220Figure59:ModelofBašaršija.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.98................................................................................................................224Figure60:ViewoftheBašaršijaproposal.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.139................................................................................................226Figure61:TheNewaršijaproposal:viewofnewartistsstudiosabovetheOldOrthodoxchurch(topandbottomleft);proposedchangeofGaziHusrefBeg’sbezistanintoabar(topright);aninteriorofthenewTownMuseumtobehousedintheformerSheriat(MuslimLaw)School.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.114....................................229Figure62:InteriorviewoftheproposedadaptationofBrusabezistan.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,pp.56–57................................................229Figure63:ProposalfortheNewMuseumofRevolutionwithintheoldGaziHusrefBeg’sbezistanthatwouldincludeartcelebrating‘Liberationwar’.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.126.........................................................................................230Figure64:TheproposedgatetotheBašaršijaprecinct.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.109..........................................................................231Figure65:ProposedBogumilgravestonesintheprecinct.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.113..........................................................................232Figure66:Interiorsofproposedrestaurant‘Aeroplane’.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.294..........................................................................235Figure 67: Longitudinal section through the new Bašaršija. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,pp.120–21..............................................236Figure68: Planof theNewaršijaproposal:A)GaziHusrefBeg’smosque;B)Orthodox church; C)Jewish synagogue;D) Catholic church of St Anthony; E) newgraveyard; F) Czar’smosque;G) newpublic/culturalbuildings;H)newresidentialareaforculturalworkers.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.117......................................................238Figure 69: Proposal for theAcademyofArts and Sciences of the People’s Republic of BiH. Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.113.................239Figure 70: Collection of architectural ‘elements’ includes steak; traditional house and mosques’domes.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaand theWayTowardsModernity,p.416...................................................................................................................................................240
Figure 71: Images of New aršija, photomontage. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt, Architecture ofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,pp.120&121.................................................................241Figure 72: Masterplan view of the new Marindvor proposal. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.414.....................................................243Figure73:ThemapofMarindvorprecinctandSarajevo,drawnbyNeidhardt. ‘Dwellingcomplex inYugoslavArmyStreet(196647).First[example]inthehistoryofSarajevo[where]theprincipleofaspaciousmeanderstreet isapplied’.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaand theWayTowardsModernity,p.408......................................................................................................243Figure74:Source:‘Graphicanalysisoftheelementsoftheurbansolution’describedthroughuseofkeywords (from top) ‘zone’; ‘zigzag space’; ‘visual markers of heights’; ‘space’; ‘views’, ‘traffic’;‘historic precinct’; ‘continuity’; ‘pedestrian zones’ and patterns’; ‘squares’ and ‘city as a carpet’.Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.415................245Figure75:Fromtop:urbansolutionforMarindvorprecinct.Bird’seyeviewof‘Manifestationsquare’and theparliamentHousebuilding. Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaand theWayTowardsModernity,pp.410&413.........................................................................................246Figure 76: ’Elements’ of the new National Assembly buildings: tower, atrium, shells, balcony andveranda.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.417..................................................................................................................................................247Figure 77: Design for the National Assembly of Bosnia and Hercegovina. Source: Grabrijan &Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.417....................................247Figure78:PeopleviewingtheParliamentHousebuilding.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.410.........................................................................249Figure79:Sarajevo,apostcard,publishedby‘Svjetlost’..................................................................252Figure80: TheParliamentofBosniaandHercegovinaburnsafter beinghit by tank fire during thesiegein1992.Source:MikhailEvstafiev(photographer),Wikipedia................................................264Figure81:RubbleinVijenica,formerTownHallandNationalandUniversityLibrarybuilding.Source:D.Ali..............................................................................................................................................267
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ListofPublications
Ali, D., ‘Saraybosna Belediye Binas: Bellein Yer ve Ortamlar’,in C.Bilsel,A.Ciravolu,N.Dostolu,A.E.Bulca,D.nceday,H.Kahveciolu,E.Madran,S.Özalolu,T.S.Tamat,G.Tümer,H.T.Yldz(eds.),MimarlklarnPazaryeri,XXII.DünyaMimarlkKongresi'ndenSeçmeBildiriler;TMMOBMimarlarOdas (ChamberofArchitectsofTurkey),Ankara,January2009,pp.6377.Ali,D.,‘Theroleofrationalandscientificargumentsinthepromotionofideologythrough architecture’, F. G. Leman, A. J. Ostwald, A Williams (eds.) Innovation,InspirationandInstruction:NewKnowledgeinArchitecturalSciences,Proceedingsofthe 42nd Annual Conference on the Australian and New Zealand ArchitecturalScience Association (ANZASca), Newcastle, Australia, 2628 November 2008, pp.161168.
Ali, D., ‘Political secularisation and architectural abstraction: the dialectics of thenewsocialistarchitecture’,PanoramatoParadise,XXIVthConferenceoftheSocietyof Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand, Adelaide, Australia, 2124September2007,pp.113.
Ali, D., ‘Following the traces: the role of historical studies in the architecturaldesignstudio’,inConnectED2007InternationalConferenceonDesignEducation,9–12July2007,UniversityofNewSouthWales,Sydney,Australia,papercode61.
Ali, D., ‘Dare to be Similar: The transformable house’, Architect Victoria, OfficialJournal of the Royal Australian Institute of Architects Victorian Chapter Print,Autumn2007,pp.45.
Ali, D., ‘Marindvor precinct and the design of the socialist Modernism’, in T.McMinn, J. Stephens, S. Basson (eds.),ContestedTerrains,TheProceedingsof theTwentythird Annual Conference of the Society of Architectural Historians ofAustraliaandNewZealand,NotreDameUniversity,Fremantle,WesternAustralia,29thSeptember2October2006,pp.914.
Ali,D., ‘DaretobeSimilar:TheTransformablehouse’, inS.Whibley&D.Ramirez(eds.), Rehousing, UAL International conference proceedings, Urban ArchitectureLaboratory,RMIT,MelbourneAustralia,58October2006,pp.4655.
Ali, D., ‘Ascribing significance to sites of memory, the Sarajevo’s town hall’, in P.Somma(ed.),AtWarWiththeCity,UrbanInternationalPress,Gateshead,2004,pp.65–86.
Ali,D.,‘Grabrijan,RieglandtheproblemofStyle’,Progress,TheProceedingsoftheTwentieth Annual Conference of the Society of Architectural Historians, AustraliaandNewZealand,Sydney,25October,2003,pp.15.Ali, D. & Bertram, C., ‘Sarajevo: a moving target’, Centropa, Journal of CentralEuropeanArchitectureandRelatedArts,vol.2,no.3,September2002,pp.164176.
Ali,D., ‘SiteofMemoryandHistory:SarajevoTownHall (Vijecnica)’, inS.Akkach(ed.), DePlacing Differences, Architecture, Culture and Imaginative Geography,CAMEA, 3rd Symposium, Centre for Asian and Middle Eastern Architecture, TheUniversityofAdelaide,Australia,2002,pp.191201.
Ali, D., ‘Transposed meanings: The Town Hall in Sarajevo’, Open HouseInternational,War&Cities,vol.27,no.4,2002,pp.2031.
Ali, D., 'From Ottoman house to Bosnian style: Neidhardt’s design for workers’housing in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1939 to 1942)’, InSite, An electronic journalpublished by Graduate Students at the Faculty of the Built Environment, no. 1,March1999.
Ali,D.,‘Changingperspectivesofarchitecturalvernacular:GrabrijanandSarajevo’,inR.Blythe,R.Spence(eds.)Thresholds.PapersoftheSixteenthAnnualConferenceof the SocietyofArchitecturalHistorians,AustraliaandNewZealand, Launceston,September1999,pp.17.
Ali,D.,‘Sarajevoandthemakingofmonuments(19451992)’,inM.Ghandour,M.Labban, M. Lozanovska (eds.), Sites of Recovery, The Fourth 'Other Connections'Conference,Beirut,Lebanon,October,1999,pp.1118.
Ali,D.,‘Inthesearchofstabilisingarchitecturalprinciples:fromtheBosnianhousetoBosnianstyle’, in J.Willis,P.Goad,A.Hutson (eds.)FIRM(ness) commodityDelight?: questioning the canons, The Proceedings of the Annual Conference of theSociety of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand, Melbourne,Australia,September1998,pp.914.
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Glossaryofterms
AbdesthanathespatialalcovethattraditionallyfacilitatedtheMuslimpracticeofablutionAvlijacourtyardBasamcistairsBegBosnianspellingofthetitlebeyorchieftainBezistancoveredbazaarforvaluablegoodsaršijabusinessdistricteifmoodortemperamentalbehaviourDivanhanaawide,semienclosedentryspaceintheBosniantraditionalhouseEsnaftheprofessionalandeconomicorganisationoftheguildsEyâletgovernorategeneralHajatanteroomHalvatroomHamampublicbathHanhotelHanikahhostelwithaschoolforyoungdervishesImaretkitchenforthepoorKaravansarajinnfortravellersandmerchantsKasabasmalltownKuahouseKunstwollenanartisticexpressionembodyingthespiritofthecollectiveKutubhanalibraryMahalaneighbourhood,residentialquarterMedresareligiousschoolMektebelementaryIslamicschoolMerakafeelingofirrationalandleisurelyjoyandpleasureMihrabqiblawallMillets system of selfgoverning religious communities under the OttomangovernmentMimberpulpitMuafnamaadocumentprovidingthecitywithexemptionsfromtaxesMusafirhanainnforpoorpeopleMušepcilatticeworkPašalukOttomanadministrativeunitŠadrvanwaterfountainSahatkulatheclocktowerSandžakcommonlytranslatedas‘province’ŠehertownSejjididescendantsoftheProphet
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Steak (plural steci) the gravestones generally accepted as common in preOttomanandearlyOttomantimesinBosniaTašlihansmallinnTeferipicniclikegatheringscommonlyheldbytheMuslimsTekija,zawiya–alodgeofadervishorderTurbemausoleum,tombofthefounderandhisfamilyVakfijaendowmentdeedVakufIslamicpiousendowment
1 A. Riedlmayer, ‘Killing memory: the targeting of libraries and archives in Bosnia Herzegovina’,testimonypresentedatahearingoftheCommissiononSecurityandCooperationinEurope,4April1995, p. 51. Andras Riedlmayer was an expert witness to the International Criminal Tribunal forYugoslavia,Miloševitrial,TheHague,2003.2ThespellingofNeidhardt’s surnamevariesand iscommonlyspelledNajdhart. JelicaKapetanovicredits this to Neidhardt’s own insistence to assimilate and accept the phonetic spelling of Serbo
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Their concept of Bosnian Oriental expression – based on the integration of the
Croatianlanguage,thustransformingtheGermansoundingNeidhardtintoNajdhart(orNajdhardt).J. Kapetanovi, ‘Stvaralaštvo arhitekte Juraja Najdhardta’, (The architectural work of JurajNeidhardt), PhD thesis, University of Sarajevo, 1988, p. 11. This thesis uses the original spelling‘Neidhardt’,asusedinthecreditsofthebookD.Grabrijan&J.Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity(ArhitekturaBosneiPutuSuvremeno),LjudskaPravica,Ljubljana,1957.3In2001,intheaftermathofthe1992–96Bosnianwar,theAcademyofScienceandArtsofBosniaandHercegovinaorganisedaneventtocelebratethecentenaryofNeidhardt’sbirth.Thesignificanceofthiseventandthehighprofilesoftheorganisersandparticipantswereatestamenttoa lastingimpactofNeidhardt’sideasandworkinBosnia.ZlatkoUgljen,anarchitectandarecipientofanAgaKhanAward,inhistributestatedhisadmirationforNeidhardt’s‘sixthsense’.Inthekeynotelecture,whichopenedtheexhibition,ProfessorIbrahimKrzovidescribedtheoccasionas,‘anopportunitytoexpress reverence for the name of one of the best artists in the cultural circles of Bosnia andHerzegovina’.‘TheAcademyofScienceandArtsofBosniaandHercegovinamarkingthecentenaryofthe birth of the academic Juraj Neidhardt’, catalogue jointly produced by the Academy of ScienceandArtsofBosniaandHercegovina,andtheArchitecturalFacultyofSarajevoUniversity,Sarajevo,2001.4NumerousarchitectspraisedGrabrijanandNeidhardt’spromotionoftheIslamicheritageofBosnia,asisdiscussedinmoredetailinconclusionofthisthesis.
5 D. Grabrijan & J. Neidhardt, ‘Sarajevo and Its Satellites’ ’ (Sarajevo i njegovi trabanti), TehnikiVjesnik,br.7–9,Zagreb,1942;Grabrijan&J.Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity(ArhitekturaBosneiPutuSuvremeno),LjudskaPravica,Ljubljana,1957.
case, the Ottoman Empire was perceived as an obstacle to national (organic)
development of culture. In the Marxist interpretation, the Ottoman Empire was
6Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.11.7 It is importanttonotethatthetwoforcesdidnothavethesamepowerorrepresentationinthepoliticalarenaofformerYugoslavia.SocialistYugoslaviawasaonepartypoliticalsystem,headedbytheCommunistPartyofYugoslavia.Whilethereweremanydifferentnationalists’claims,whichalsochanged over the course of socialist government, the most significant in regards to the OttomanheritageofBosniaarethoseoftheSerbianandCroatiannationalists.TheybasedtheirclaimsontheChristianoriginsofBosnia,questioningtheterritorialintegrityoftheBosnianstate.8M.Todorova,‘TheOttomanlegacyintheBalkans’,inC.Brown(ed.),ImperialLegacy,TheOttomanImprintontheBalkansandtheMiddleEast,ColumbiaUniversityPress,NewYork,1996,pp.45–77.
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seen as essentially feudal and backward, and therefore its legacy was one that
hinderedprogressandmodernisation.9
The absence of a welldefined national identity for Bosnia provided a space for
competing narratives to emerge,10 the most significant of which are discussed in
this thesis. They are the socialist interpretation of Bosnia as a symbol of a united
Yugoslavia; the secular Bosnian Muslim, Serb and Croat articulation of a common
identity for the inhabitants of the Bosnian state; and the historical and ongoing
nationalist debates (both Serbian and Croatian) that denied collective Bosnian
identity and the existence of the very notion of ‘Bosnianness’.11 The dialectic
between the absence of any formal recognition of the Bosnian nation and the
search fora collective expression of ‘Bosnianness’ became a mode of structuring
modern architecture presented in their writings and design work identified
architecture as a force capable of negotiating the complex relationship between
9Todorova,‘TheOttomanlegacyintheBalkans’,pp.45–77.10 In articulating certain dominant national narratives I do not deny the existence of multiplenationalistclaimsprevalentinpost–WorldWarTwoBosnia.11Theterm‘Bosnianness’ isadoptedfromdiscussionsofthequalitiesassociatedwiththeculturalconstruct of being Bosnian, discussed in A. Buturovi, ‘Producing and annihilating the ethos ofBosnianIslam’,CulturalSurvivalQuarterly,summer1995,pp.29–33.
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modernist, nationalist and socialist/communist agendas of post–World War Two
Yugoslavia. And while the analysis of their work identifies numerous embedded
contradictions, the significance of Grabrijan and Neidhardt’s contribution, it is
identity divided alongethnic lines,offeringa view of culture built upon pluralistic
13Wachtel,MakingaNation,BreakingaNation,p.54.14Wachtel,MakingaNation,BreakingaNation,p.73.15 A. Buturovi (trans. Francis R. Jones), Stone Speaker,Medieval Tombs. Landscape, and BosnianIdentity in the Poetry of Mak Dizdar, Palgrave, New York, 2002; Buturovi, ‘Producing andannihilatingtheethosofBosnianIslam’,pp.29–33;andButurovi,‘Nationalquestandtheanguishofsalvation:BosnianMuslimidentityinMešaSelimoviDervishandDeath’,Edebiyat,7,spring1996,YorkUniversity,Toronto,np.
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societyanditsideals, it isstillfocusedonliterarytexts. Inthisthesis Iproposeto
add to the discussion by presenting Grabrijan and Neidhardt’s work as a
the main European centre. He directly transferred and modified the ideas of Le
Corbusier toourcontext…Neidhardtachieved thesynthesisof logical traditional
16 Amir Zec, a contemporary Bosnian architect, in an interview with Emir Imamovi, ‘Mercator isbadly positioned’, inBosanskohercegovaki DANI, independent news magazine, special edition onurbanism,URBICID,Sarajevo,June2003.17S.Roš&A.Rusan,‘InterviewwithZlatkoUgljen’,Oris,3/12,2001,pp.4–31.
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elements and the new achievements, paying a special attention to the relation
between the individual buildings, their immediate surroundings and the broader
city contexts or the landscape. The presence of Neidhardt’s ideas in architectural
18 T. Premerl, Hrvatska Moderna Arhitektura Izmedju Dva Rata (Modern Architecture of CroatiaBetweentheTwoWorldWars),NakladniZavodMaticeHrvatske,Zagreb,1989,p.16.19P.Krei,‘ArchitectureinformerYugoslavia,fromtheavantgardetothepostmodernimpossiblehistories’,inD.Djuri&M.Šuvakovi(eds),ImpossibleHistories,HistoricalAvantgardes,Neoavantgardes,andPostavantgardesinYugoslavia,1918–1991,MITPress,Cambridge,Ma.,2003,pp.332–73.20 Krei, ‘Architecture in former Yugoslavia, from the avantgarde to the postmodern impossiblehistories’,p.346.
embed the specific views of the Bosnian nation – its past and present – in the
languageofmodernarchitecture.23
21 Zlatko Ugljen, in The Academy of Science and Arts of Bosnia and Hercegovina Marking theCentenary of theBirth ofAcademic JurajNeidhardt, Academy of Science and Arts of BiH, and theArchitecturalFacultyoftheUniversityofSarajevo,Sarajevo,2001,p.34.22 D. Howarth & J. Torfing (eds), Discourse Theory in European Politics, Identity, Policy andGovernance,Palgrave,Macmillan,NewYork,2005,p.318.23 For a discussion of discourse theory and method see Howarth & Torfing, Discourse Theory inEuropeanPolitics,Identity,PolicyandGovernance,pp.316347.
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The work of British cultural historian Stuart Hall provides the theoretical
underpinning for interpreting Grabrijan and Neidhardt’s architectural efforts in
relation todebateson identity.24Hallpresents identityasaprocess that is ‘never
24 In his essay ‘Who needs 'identity'?’, Stuart Hall argues that the ‘natural’ definition of identitypresupposesastablecoreoftheselfthatremainsstaticacrosstime,andhasanorigin,historyandancestrysharedbypeoplebelongingtoaparticulargroup.Yet,contemporaryscholarsarguethattheconceptofa‘stablecoreoftheself’,orhomogenicnotionofidentity,actuallymasksthepluralityofpositionsbehindeach ‘identity’.According to Hall, there isa complex relationbetween these twoconcepts.Hall,inS.Hall&P.DuGay(eds),QuestionsofCulturalIdentity,Sage,London,1996,pp.1–35.25Hall,‘Whoneeds“identity”?’,p.4.26Hall,‘Whoneeds“identity”?’,p.4.27Hall,‘Whoneeds“identity”?’,pp.3–4.28Hall,‘Whoneeds“identity”?’,p.4.29Theterm‘inventedtraditions’isusedinreferencetoE.Hobsbawm&T.Ranger,TheInventionofTradition,CambridgeUniversityPress,Cantoedition,1992.Thistextonnationalismpresents‘traditions’asemergingthroughsystematically;ofteninstitutionally,produceddiscourseandknowledge.
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It activated ‘the resources of history, language and culture’30 in a way that was
suggests that this approach to urban history considers the diverse forces that
impact on the urban environment, namely social, economic, political, technical,
artistic and cultural factors.35 Drawing on Henri Lefebvre, Çelik argues that this
30Hall,‘Whoneeds“identity”?’,p.4.31Hall,‘Whoneeds“identity”?’,p.4.32Hall,‘Whoneeds“identity”?’,p.4.33Hall,‘Whoneeds“identity”?’,p.4.34Particularlyrelevanttothetheoreticalunderpinningofthisthesis is thediscussionpresentedbyProfessor Zeynep Çelik in Urban Forms and Colonial Confrontations, Algiers under French Rule,UniversityofCaliforniaPress,Berkeley,1997.AlsoseeS.Bozdogan&R.Kasaba(eds.),ModernismandNation Building: Turkish Architectural Culture in the Early Republic, University of WashingtonPress, Washington DC, 2001; and M. McLeod, ‘Urbanism and Utopia: Le Corbusier from regionalsyndicalismtoVichy’,PhDthesis,PrincetonUniversity,1985.35ForfurtherdiscussionseeÇelik,UrbanFormsandColonialConfrontations,p.5.
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method of analysis allows for the uncovering of a diverse set of relationships,
releases a site of the specific collective memory attached to it, allowing multiple
36Çelik,UrbanFormsandColonialConfrontations,p.5.37Çelik,UrbanFormsandColonialConfrontations,p.5.38Çelik,UrbanFormsandColonialConfrontations,p.4.39 J. M. Schwarting, ‘Postscript’, in B. Colomina (ed.), Architectureproduction [sic.], PrincetonArchitecturalPress,NewYork,1988,pp.246–53.40 I draw from a number of essays presented in P. Nora (ed.),RealmsofMemory: Rethinking theFrenchPast,ColumbiaUniversityPress,NewYork,1996,1998.
of Neidhardt.44 It offers a comprehensive overview of the architect’s life, his
41Nora(ed.),RealmsofMemory:RethinkingtheFrenchPast.42B.Anderson,ImaginedCommunities,ReflectionsontheOriginandSpreadofNationalism,Verso,London,NewYork,1992,13.43B.Anderson,ImaginedCommunities,13.44 J. Kapetanovi, ‘The architectural work of Juraj Neidhardt’; J.KarliKapetanovi, JurajNajdhart,životidjelo(JurajNeidhardt,LifeandWork),VeselinMasleša,Sarajevo,1990.
45 The Architectural Museum in Ljubljana contains archives of Grabrijan’s work, as well as thedocumentationofthiscourtcase.[FužineCastle,ArchitectureMuseumofLjubljana,Slovenia.]46 Particularly relevant is the discussion of attempts made by architects of the Austro–Hungarianperiod to construct a ‘style’ responsive to the specifics of Bosnian condition. The work ofarchitecturalhistorianNedžadKurtoismostrelevant:seehisArhitekturaBosneIHercegovine,razvojBosanskog Stila, (Architecture of Bosnia and Hercegovina and the Development of Bosnian Style),Medjunarodni Centar za Mir, Sarajevo, 1998; and ‘Arhitektura Secesije u Sarajevu’ (Secession
architecture of Sarajevo), PhD thesis, University of Zagreb, 1988. See also, I. Krzovi, ArhitekturaBosneiHercegovine,1878–1918, (ArchitectureofBosniaandHerzegovina,18781918),UmjetnikaGalerijaBiH,Sarajevo,1987.
1AnumberofmonographsareavailableontheworkandlifeofJožePlenik,suchas:D.Prelovšek,Jože Plenik 1872–1957, Architectura Perennis, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1997; P. Krei,Plenik,theCompleteWorks,AcademyEditions,Ernst&Sons,UnitedKingdom,1993;F.Burkhardt,C.Eveno&B.Podreca,JožePlenikArchitect:1872–1957,MITPress,Cambridge,Ma.,1989.2 As a student of the first generation of Ljubljana school and a member of the group ‘Hearth ofAcademic Architects’, Grabrijan’s book became a record of the debates and casual conversationswithintheschool,aswellasGrabrijan’sownviewofPlenikandarangeofhisarticles.Grabrijan,
PlenikinNjegovaŠola.Compilation,editingandillustrationselectionwasdonebyGrabrijan’swife,NadaGrabrijan,sixteenyearsafterherhusband’sdeath.3Prelovšek,JožePlenik1872–1957.4Whenin1921PlenikreturnedtoSloveniatotakeuptheacademicposition,hewasdisillusionedwith his European appointments. But he continued his professional involvements abroad, onprojectssuchwastherenovationofPraguecastle.PlenikwasappointedarchitectoftheHradanycastlerenovationinPraguebytheCzechpresident,Masaryk,overtheperiod1920–35.5The ideaofYugoslaviarestedontheassumptionthattheSouthSlavswereasingleethnicgroupthatshould,likeEuropeannationstates,liveinasinglestatewithasharedlanguageandculture.Inhistorical terms, the origins of Yugoslavia as a unified South Slavic state – the Kingdom of Serbs,CroatsandSlovenians–werelinkedtothedisintegrationoftheAustro–HungarianEmpireattheendofWorldWarOne,in1918.TheruleoftheHabsburgmonarchywasformallyrenouncedandpowerhandedovertotheNationalCouncil,whichdeclaredthenewKingdomofSlovens,CroatsandSerbs(1918–29)–latertransformedintotheKingdomofYugoslavia(1929–41).TheKingdomofYugoslavia– a more unifying term than the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenians – was headed by theKaradjordjevifamilyofSerbiaproper.FollowingthecommunistvictoryoftheWorldWarTwo,thenew state of the Socialist Federative Republic of Yugoslavia (1945–92) emerged. This statedisintegratedinthewakeofthe1992–96war,givingrisetoanewstateoftheFederalRepublicofYugoslavia(1992–2003),whichmostlycoveredtheSerbianterritory.
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experiences of its constituents [Figure 1]. While the contents of this vision of
commonality were not popularly agreed upon, many shared the belief in the
6D.Grabrijan,PlenikinNjegovaŠola (PlenikandHisSchool),ZaložbaObzorja,Maribor,Slovenia,1968.7SloveniainhabitsarathercompactterritoryonthewesternendoftheKingdomofYugoslavia.Itspopulation is highly homogenous. The Slovenes, who are predominantly Catholic, speak a distinctlanguage,theliterarytraditionsofwhichcouldbetracedbacktothe16thcentury.Wachtel,MakingaNation,BreakingaNation,p.30.
desire to identify and transform the unique qualities of his people into an artistic
expression.
Underpinning Plenik’s approach was his interest in history. Congruent with his
belief that the role of an architect was ‘not to find a new, but to show it anew’,
8 On 28 June 1921 the first Yugoslavia came into being as the constitutional, parliamentary andhereditary Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. In 1929 it was renamed the Kingdom ofYugoslavia.J.Lampe,YugoslaviaasHistory,TwiceThereWasaCountry,CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge,1996,p.125.9QuotedinPrelovšek,JožePlenik1872–1957,p.13.10QuotedinPrelovšek,JožePlenik1872–1957,p.13.Undatedletter.
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Plenik’s designs commonly integrated an historic remnant within new urban
11Grabrijan,PlenikinNjegovaŠola,p.88.12Originalquote: ‘Akobihotelivednosamovnovokopati,binikamorneprišli, za to jeprekratkonašeživljenjeinjetakanameratudismešna’,inGrabrijan,PlenikinNjegovaŠola,p.88.13AlistofGrabrijan’swritingsisincludedinthebibliography.14KreisuggeststhatPlenik’s interestinhistoricalsourcesemergedfromhisexposuretovariousinfluencesduringhis formativeyears.Healsoargues thatwhilePlenik’sclassicismwasseemingly‘reminiscent of “Antiquity”, the “Romanesque” or “Egyptian” styles’, it was in fact the result of acomplexfusionofdiversearchitecturalinfluences.Krei,Plenik,TheCompleteWorks,p.235.15Grabrijan,PlenikinNjegovaŠola,p.25.16Grabrijan,PlenikinNjegovaŠola,p.27.17Grabrijan,PlenikinNjegovaŠola,p.25.
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Plenik’s interest in architectural history extended to his teachings and to
discussions with his students. In his record of the topics discussed at the school,
Grabrijan noted Plenik’s emphasis on the study of historical architecture and his
promotion of classicism as ‘the only complete style’.18 Plenik believed that
students had to start from the very beginning, and that was from antiquity.19
‘Antiquity, isnot thatbeautiful!… It issomethingdivine!’,20Plenikproclaimedas
18Grabrijan,PlenikinNjegovaŠola,p.87.19Prelovšek,JožePlenik1872–1957,p.158.20Grabrijan,PlenikinNjegovaŠola,p.87.21 Prelovšek and Kopa suggest that Plenik’s practical involvement and study with the OttoWagner’sschoolofarchitectureconvincedhimthatthemodernarchitectureneednotbeinventedfromnothingbutdevelopedfromavailablesources.D.Prelovšek&V.Kopa,ŽalebyArchitectJožePlenik,DELO,Ljubljana,1992,p.42.22Grabrijan,PlenikinNjegovaŠola,p.58.23Prelovšek&Kopa,ŽalebyArchitectJožePlenik,p.158.
He [Plenik] almost admitted it himself. Yet, not in the usual meaning of the
word.’26 Plenik’s approach, Grabrijan argued, allowed him to choose from a
treasury of historical styles and apply them in a seemingly random or eclectic
24Prelovšek&Kopa,ŽalebyArchitectJožePlenik,p.52.PlenikstudiedtheornamentationoftheVaesitula(vessel,datedattheendofthe6thcenturyBC),whichwasatthattimethoughtofasatypical Etruscan product. It represented a masterpiece of decorative art and European prehistoryand was considered the most important artefact of the Hallstattian culture in Slovenia. Also seewww.narmuzlj.si/ang/odd/arh/arhobj.html.25Prelovšek&Kopa,ŽalebyArchitectJožePlenik,p.52.26Grabrijan,PlenikinNjegovaŠola,p.25.
27Grabrijan,PlenikinNjegovaŠola,p.25.28Asnotedinfootnote14Plenikwasexposedduringhisformativeyearstoavarietyofsources.ButforPlenik,theotherimportantconsiderationwasthattheclassicaltraditionrepresentedaccesstothedivineandtheworldlyinarchitecture.AdevoutCatholic,PlenikbelievedintheimportanceofRometoWesternculture.Plenik’sfaithinartisticendeavoursthuswasnotunlikefaithinGod–anindividualjourneyforeachpersonwiththeaimofdiscoveringthe‘truth’thatconnectsoneselfandtheeternalqualitiesofarchitecture.Grabrijan,PlenikinNjegovaŠola,p.50.29 Grabrijan, Plenik in Njegova Šola, pp. 96–97. Admittedly, Plenik’s views were deeplyconservativeandhisteachingmethodsseenasdogmatic.Inlettertohiscolleague,Grabrijanwrote‘Ido not wish Plenik’s temper on anyone, I do not wish his pessimism, even if his genius shinesthroughit’.Originalquote: ‘NežalimnikomurPlenikoveljubezni,neželimniomurnjegovevere inpesimizmainvendarobutimvthestvarehgenialnost.Vprašenjeje,alizatodejevostvsetistodrugopotrebno–potemtudinjoodklanjam!’.Grabrijan,PlenikinNjegovaŠola,p.62.Further, Plenik’s promotion of Slovenian nationalism relied on mobilising exclusivist and at timesracistviewsthattovaryingdegreeframedthefascistagenda.ButPlenik’sviewsofbothnationandart, I would argue, emerged amid the intellectual and political struggle to define the Yugoslavculture,andbyextensionhisownSlovenianculture.ResistancetosurroundingnationalismframedPlenik’s views on art and nation. While I do not intend to justify or reject the possibility ofinterpreting Plenik’s approach as racist and nationalistic by suggesting that he reacted to thepressure applied by the other nationalisms, it is important to remember that the discourse thatdefineddiscussionsofYugoslavculturewasonethatpromotedexclusivistnationalism.Itwouldbeonlyas recentas the late1990s thatMarxist cultural theoristSlavojŽižekcriticised Plenik for hiselitism.ŽižekarguedthatPlenik’sperceptionofarchitectureashighart,hisattachmenttohistoryandtherejectionofmodernism,wereallconnectedtotheideasthatstructuredfascisminEurope.ForfurtherdiscussionofthisseeS.Žižek,‘Everythingprovokesfascism’(interview)andA.Herscher,‘PlenikavecLaibach’,Assemblage33,MIT,1997,pp.58–75.30PrelovšeksuggeststhatPlenikleanedtowardsSemper’sideathatnationswereonlydistinguishedbytheircomprehensionandreproduction,whilestyleswerethecommonpropertyofthewholeof
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Grabrijan credited Plenik’s ability to construct new urban realities through the
reuse of heritage remnants as part of his talent for expressing, in architectural
terms, the artistic qualities of the place, reviving the latent value of urban
historians such as Prelovšek and Stele have argued that there is an obvious
connectionbetweenPlenik’snotionofthe ‘innernerveofart’andRiegl’s ‘will to
civilisation. Semper warned against the folk art as being too young, and as such reflects thedeformedoriginsofnationalcreativity.Plenikalsowasnot interested infolkart,anddidnot joinfellowcompatriotsintheirViennaclubVesna.Prelovšek&Kopa,ŽalebyArchitectJožePlenik,p.46.31Grabrijan,PlenikinNjegovaŠola,pp.96–97.32Grabrijan,PlenikinNjegovaŠola.Prelovšekreferredtoitasthe‘innernerveofart’inPrelovšek,JožePlenik1872–1957,p.12.33M.Iversen,AloisRiegl:ArtHistoryandTheory,MITPress,Cambridge,Ma.,1993,p.6.
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art’.34 Grabrijan presented Riegl’s work as particularly relevant to the Slovene
from external purpose, which almost took it over, making art history a history of
spiritualvalues.38
34F.Stelereferredtoitasthe‘geographicconstantsofarthistory’,inPrelovšek,JožePlenik1872–1957,p.12.35Thetranslationofthistermisproblematicanddiffersbetweenvarioustexts.HenriZernerofferstwo interpretations: the first, articulated by Panofsky, interprets kunstwollen as ‘a content orobjective meaning – each work, by its style, involves the whole culture from which it comes’; thesecond, expressed by Sedlmayr, is that it is the ‘central and informing principle, a truly creativeforce’. Iverson defines the highly problematised concept as ‘an artistic will or urge or intentinforming different period styles’. H. Zerner, ‘Alois Riegl: art, value, and historicism’, Daedalus,Journal of theAmerican Academyof Arts and Sciences, 105, winter1976,p.180;and M. Iversen,AloisRiegl:ArtHistoryandTheory,p.6.36 Original quote: ‘Rieglova glavna zasluga je, da nas nauil razlikovati medumetnostjo inrokodelstvom,dajeosvobodilumetnostodzunanjegnamena,kateremujebilazeskorajpodlegla,indajenapravilizumetnostnezgodovineduhovnoznanost.’Grabrijan,PlenikinNjegovaŠola,p.44.37Riegl’sthesissuggeststhatthevisualexperiencesofanartistbecomeusefulandrelevantonly ifthey communicate the requirementsof the stylistic situation ofa particularhistorical moment. O.Pacht,‘Arthistoriansandartcritics–vi:AloisRiegl’,BurlingtonMagazine,105,1963,p.189.38Grabrijan,PlenikinNjegovaŠola,p.44.
41Withinthesquareof theFrenchRevolution inLjubljana,Plenik includedthe Illyrianmonument(1929), the monument to the Slovenian poet Simon Gregori (1937) and the ends of the Romanwall.Prelovšek,JožePlenik1872–1957,p.12.42Historically,SloveniannationalismwasawakenedrelativelyearlybyNapoleonBonaparte’sforces,whichoccupiedtheregionbetween1809and1813.TherevivedancienttermIllyriawasintroducedto promote the integration of Croatian and Slovenian lands into a single administrative unit,governed by theFrench. Plenik, allegedly,wasvery interested in the ideas behind French Illyrianideals,particularlytheconnectionitestablishedbetweentheSlovenecultureandtheEtruscans.P.Rowe,CivicRealism,MITPress,Cambridge,Ma.,1997,p.172.
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dominate the Slovenes. He particularly objected to continual attempts from
48Wachtel,MakingaNation,BreakingaNation,pp.55–56.49Grabrijan,PlenikinNjegovaŠola,pp.96–97.50Grabrijan,PlenikinNjegovaŠola,p.68.51AloisRiegl’ssearchforcorrelationsbetweensocietyandartisticcreationshadasignificantimpacton architectural discourse from the late 19th century on, from the allenveloping art of theGesamtkunstwerk, associated with the work of Wagner, to William Morris and the arts and craftmovement.
Bašaršija business section also accommodated the most important civic and
religious buildings, including the markets, Gazi Husref Beg’s Mosque (1531), the
Jewish synagogue (original building from 1581) and the Old Orthodox Church
(1539–40).55 These structures coupled with the precinct’s narrow, meandering
52 Grabrijan retained his teaching position at Sarajevo’s Technical School until the onset of WorldWarTwo.In1945hereturnedtoSloveniatoapositionasProfessorofArchitectureattheUniversityofLjubljana.53 By the early 20th century, the limits of Bašaršija had been determined geographically: on thesouthbyObalaStreet,whichseparatedBašaršijafromthenorthernresidentialhills;onthewestbyGazi Husref Beg’s Bezistan and the old Jewish Hram (synagogue), which borders a new Austro–Hungariandevelopment;andontheeastbytheVijenica(TownHall)andtheŠeherehajinbridge.54 A. Raymond, The Great Arab Cities in the 16th–18th Centuries, An Introduction, New YorkUniversityPress,NewYork,1984,p.10.55A.Bejtisuggeststhattheoriginalbuildingwasbuilt in1581,andthebuildingthatstandstodaywas built in 1821–23, in Stara Sarajevska aršijajuer, danas i sutra, Osnove I Smjernice za
Regenaraciju (Old Town of Sarajevo, Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow, a Development Proposal),GradskiZavodzaZaštitu iUredjenjeSpomenikaKulture,Sarajevo,1969,p.34.BejtialsosuggeststhattheOrthodoxChristiansbuilttheirchurchin1539–40,p.31.56 Grabrijan, ‘Architecture in human scale’ (Arhitektura nadohvat covjecje ruke), Novi Behar,Sarajevo,1940,br.2,3andspecialeditionreprintedin,D.eli(ed.),GrabrijaniSarajevo,Izabranilanci1963–42,(GrabrijanandSarajevo,SelectedArticles1963–42),MuzejGradaSarajeva,Svjetlost,Sarajevo,1970,p.51.57Grabrijan,‘Architectureinhumanscale’ineli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,p.51.58Originalquote:‘OvestvariimajukvalitetkojimaEuropaoskudjeva.IsprednjihseodjednomosjetibarbarinomtajsuperiorniovjeksaZapada,kojidolaziovamokaoukoloniju.Dakle,poredhaoticnoggradaživitu,negdjeismisaozaljepotuIosjeajzamjerilo!Isrceminaginjeutajdrugi, istonidiograda,Iželiobihmuotkrititajnu!Šta,jedakle,tuštoprivlai,uprkosnerješenogprometa,nehigijeneIneekonomije!PokušatcutonazvatiIizraziti:arhitekturomnadohvatovjeijeruke’;alsopublishedineli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,p.52.
59eli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,p.52.60ExhumationofoldMuslimgraveyardswasstartedbytheAustro–Hungarians,whotookouttwosignificantgraveyardsinthesouthwestcornerofthePresidentialPalace.Oppositethepalace,inthepositionof today’sSmallPark,anoldMuslimgraveyardwas turned intoapark in1886,andafterWorldWarTwonewbuildingswerebuiltonthesite.Themaincitypark,knownastheBigPark,wasalso originally a Muslim graveyard. During the Turkish time AtMejdan, later renamed SijasetMejdan, was used as an execution ground. Nijazija Koštovi presents an extensive record ofexhumed Muslim graveyards, but Koštovi’s inconsistent referencing system makes this studydifficulttouse.N.Koštovi,Sarajevo,IzmedjuDobrotvorstvaiZla,(SarajevoBetweentheCharitableandEvil),ElKalemandMerhamet,Sarajevo,1995,pp.186–99.
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changes and find new revenue, the directorate of vakufs (Islamic pious
endowments) – the legal owner of the all the vakuf properties – apparently
tombs communicated the stylistic requirements of a particular historical moment
61 T. Kruševac, Sarajevo pod AustroUgarskom upravom 1878–1918, (Sarajevo Under the AustroHungarianAdministration18781918),IzdanjeMuzejagradaSarajeva,Sarajevo,1960,p.4762Kruševac,SarajevopodAustroUgarskomupravom1878–1918,p.4763eli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,p.108.64 Original quote: ‘Dakle: park u groblje, grobove usred grada, historiju u moderan život.’ ‘Muslimgraveyards’,ineli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,p.108.65Originalquote:‘AliSarajevoimahistorijupisanunanišanima,tj.historijunarodakojijebivjerskiprepotentan,pajeonda,kadsenijesmioiživljavatiubogumilstvu,prešaoodmahnaislam.’‘Muslimgraveyards’,ineli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,p.107.
66Pacht,‘Arthistoriansandartcritics–vi:AloisRiegl’,p.189.67 While Grabrijan does not mention the specific project, the reference was most likely made inrelationtoPlenik’sdesignofLjubljanacemeteryatŽaleproject.eli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,p.108.68 The whole structure disintegrated, leaving only the minaret standing. The minaret wassubsequentlydestroyedin1960.Koštovi,Sarajevo,IzmedjuDobrotvorstvaiZla,p.170.69Koštovi,Sarajevo,IzmedjuDobrotvorstvaiZla,pp.174–76.
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six years after his arrival in the city, Grabrijan expressed his frustration with
approaches to urban development.70 Discussing zoning, traffic and hygiene in
relation to theurbanplanningofSarajevo,Grabrijanaccusedthecityauthorityof
losing ‘itshead’byallowing the ‘barbarityofmodernisation’ todestroy theurban
specific historical and political factors that framed discussion of Sarajevo’s built
heritage.
To understand the context within which Grabrijan’s articles appeared and the
resistance they faced, it is necessary to outline two broader issues framing the
discussion of Bašaršija: first, the Ottoman origins that underlined the internal
70Grabrijan‘Sarajevoseizgradjuje,NekolikopolemikihmisliourbanizacijiSarajeva’(ThoughtsandcommentsonthedevelopmentofSarajevo),originallypublishedinJugoslovenskiList,Sarajevo,11.4.1936;republishedineli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,pp.101–05.71eli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,pp.101–05.72 In the years 1936–37 Grabrijan published more than 20 papers. Among those that specificallyaddressed the problematic issues of urban development were: ‘Sarajevo se izgradjujeNekolikopolemikih misli o urbanizaciji Sarajeva’(Sarajevo is getting built, some thoughts on the urbandevelopment of Sarajevo), Jugoslovenski List, Sarajevo, 11. 4, 1936; ‘Porodina mala kua’ (Smallfamily home), Tehniar, br. 7, Beograd, April 1936; ‘Muslimanska groblja’, (Muslim graveyards),JugoslovenskiList,Sarajevo,14.6,1936;andNoviBehar,Sarajevo,1937,br.5–6,god.XI;‘Željeznikiproblem,Oastronomskimsumama’, (Aproblemofthe[Sarajevo]railwaystation,aboutexuberantprices),JugoslovenskiList,Sarajevo,24.6,1936;‘Sarajevskiželjeznikiproblem,konkretnipredlog’,(AproblemoftheSarajevorailwaystation,aproposal),JugoslovenskiList,Sarajevo,1.7,1936;‘OsvrtnaarhitektonskuizložbuJurajaNeidhardtanaTehnikomfakultetuuZagrebuGradjevnaidejaGI’,(Areview of architectural exhibition of Juraj Neidhardt at Technical Faculty in Zagreb), GradjevinskiVjesnik,Zagreb,br.1,January1937;‘Arhitektonskiproblemimodernogteatra,OrijentacijaprilikomSarajevskeadaptacije’,(Architecturalproblemsofmoderntheatre,acasestudyofSarajevotheatre),JugoslovenskiList,Sarajevo,6.1.1937.
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structure of the precinct and the precinct’s subsequent changes under the new
the newly acquired Ottoman province of Bosnia, built his administrative
headquarters, or saray, from which Sarajevo took its name (saray = military
camp/palace;ovasi=field).74
73HistorianBehijaZlataroffersadetaileddiscussionofthedevelopmentofSarajevofromitsoriginstill the end of 16th century. Zlatar identifies a small town located around the medieval marketsquare Trgovište, or Utorkovište, located where Ali Pasha’smosque and theHygienic Institute aretoday.MostmentionedlocalitiesareintheareathattheIsaBegvakufdocuments(vakufnama)refertoasStaraVaroš(OldTown),dated1468.OldTrgovište(OldMarketplace)isfromthedocumentsof1569,VarošišteorVrhbosnaasitisreferredtoinsomedocuments.Vrhbosnaisalsothenameofthemediaevaltownonthatplace.In1451,theOttomanstookoverthetownofVrhbosna,whichgrewintothemajorOttomancityofBosnia–thecityofSarajevo–andlaunchedaseriesoffurtherattacksthat resulted in the whole mediaeval kingdom falling into Ottoman’s hands. Isa Beg Ishakovi issometimesspelledasIsakovi,and‘beg’isaBosnianspellingofthetitlebeyor‘chieftain.’Heretheformer spelling is used, as it is by B. Zlatar in Zlatno doba Sarajeva (Golden Age of Sarajevo),Svjetlost,Sarajevo,1996,pp.28–37.74AccordingtoZlatar,1463marksthetakeoveroftheBosnianterritoriesbytheOttomans.Thatyearthe territory of Bosnia became a sandžak (commonly translated as ‘province’), with the newlyestablished city of Sarajevo as its centre. Zlatar, Zlatno doba Sarajeva, p. 34. Also, from theestablishment of Ottoman power until 1580, Bosnia formed a part of the eyâlet (governorategeneral) of Rumelia which comprised a number of sandžaks and covered most of the Balkans.SarajevowasthefirstcentreofBosniansandžakandlateronpašaluk(Ottomanadministrativeunit).TheeyeletofBosniawascreatedwhich includedthewholeofmodernBosniaandHercegovinaaswell as some parts of neighbouring Slavonia, Croatia, Dalmatia and Serbia. Traditionally theprovinces of the Ottoman Empire were known as eyâlets. From 1864 they were graduallyrestructuredassmallervilâyets,vilajetinBosnian.N.Malcolm,Bosnia–AShortHistory,Macmillan,London,1994,p.50.
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Having initially established the governor’s palace and Sarajevo’s first mosque, on
the left bank, Isa Beg built a bridge across the Miljacka River, connecting his
development with the existing intersection of roads that would become the new
75InadditiontotheexistingmedievaltownofVrhbosna,theplacethatIsaBegselectedtobuildthenewtownwasclosetoanothermediaevalsettlement–Brodac.There,IsaBegappropriatedlandandinexchangegavethelocalChristianpopulationnewfieldsfurtheraway.However,thefirstbuildingactivities took place before 1462. The transformation was marked by the town’s classification tokasaba,aplacethathasamosquewhereFridayprayersareperforms,acommunityofMuslimsandamarketplace.Zlatar,ZlatnodobaSarajeva,pp.28–30.76IsaBegdesignatedvakufpropertytosecuretheworkingoftekija.Thestructuresthatprovidedthemaintenanceandsupportforhisvakufincludedhamam(baths),watersupply,millsandland.Zlatar,ZlatnoDobaSarajeva,pp.31–33.77 The term Bašaršija is derived from Turkish language as ‘Baš’ is related to ‘ba ’ that in Turkishmeans ‘main’, ‘capital’ and ‘aršija’which is ‘çar ’ that inTurkishmeans ‘bazaar’or ‘market’.Thetermaršijaonlyisalsocommonlyused.78Therehavebeentwospellingsusedforhisname:GaziHusrefBegandGaziHusrevbeg.Heretheformerisused.GaziHusrefBegcameasagovernoroftheBosniansandžakin1521,wherehestayeduntil1541,withtwosmall interruptions.A.Handži,StudijeoBosni,historijskiprilozi izosmanskoturskogperiod,(AStudyofBosniaDuringtheOttomanTurkishPeriod),ResearchCentreforIslamicHistory,ArtandCulture(IRCICA), Istanbul,1994,p.79.ForadiscussionofGaziHusrefBegandhisendowments see also: Gazihusrevbeg’s Vakuf (comp.), Spomenica Gazi Husrevbegove etiristoGodišnjice(FourHundredYearsofGazihusrevbeg’sVakuf)Sarajevo,1932,inparticularthesectionbyH.Kreševljakovi,‘SarajevodoHusrefbega’,pp.3–17.
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status of Sarajevo from kasaba (small town) to a šeher (town).79 In 1531, Gazi
79Handžisuggeststhatmostofthesultan’smosques inBosniawere, infact,statesponsoredandnotestablishedunderthevakufoftheSultan.ThatsuggeststhatthefirstmosquesinvarioustownscanbeseenasmoreaplannedactionoftheOttomangovernmentandlesstheresultofindividualundertakings through the institution of vakuf. A. Handži, Studije o Bosni, historijski prilozi izosmanskoturskogperioda.80 The document compiled by the Gazihusrevbeg’s Vakuf,SpomenicaGaziHusrevbegoveetiristoGodišnjice, contains detailed description of the vakuf and the buildings and structure that itencompassed.81Thehanikahburnedtwice, in1697and1755,andwasrenovatedthreetimes in1769,1831and1852. In 1931, it was replaced by a new medresa. Gazihusrevbeg’s Vakuf, Spomenica GaziHusrevbegoveetiristoGodišnjice,p.57.Thedervisheswereofthehalvetijaorder.82Tašlihan(stonehan,Husrevbeg'scaravanseraioroldhan)wasbuiltbetween1540and1543.Thestructurecaughtfirein1697,andthenagainin1831,beforeburneddowncompletelyin1879.
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3], a covered marketplace constructed by Rustem Pasha in 1551 to facilitate the
83ForathoroughdescriptionofBašaršija’sdevelopmentinthe16thcenturyseeZlatar,ZlatnoDobaSarajeva.84For furtherdiscussionofvakufs in formerYugoslaviaseeM.Serdarevi,PravnazaštitakulturnohistorijskognaslijedjaBiH, (Legislative Regulations for Cultural and Historic Heritage in Bosnia andHerzegovina,Origins,Protection,Destruction),MedjunarodniCentarzaMir,Sarajevo,1997,pp.17–22.85ThespellingofthetermvakufisBosnian.TheauthorisawareofthederivationfromtheTurkishvakifandArabicwaqf,buttomaintainaccuracyinreferencingoriginaldocuments,alltermsinthisthesisarespelledinBosnian.
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schools, libraries, hostels, hospitals, public fountains, kitchens and sometimes
92MuafnamawasfirstgiventoSarajevobysultanMehmedelFatih,andthesameMuafnamawasrenewed at least four more times, in 1572, 1692–93, 1701 and 1748. Serdarevi, Pravna zaštitakulturnohistorijskognaslijedjaBiH,pp.16–17.93 From the early 19th century, the Ottoman Empire started experiencing significant problems inBosnia.InternalpressuresandrebelliousnesswithinBosniaaccompaniedtheendofNapoleonicwarsandtheSerbianrebellion. In1877,RussiadeclaredwarontheOttomans,andby1878Russiawasabletodictatethetermsofsettlementwiththeempire.UndertheTreatyofSanStefano,BosniawastoremainOttomanterritory,butvariousreformshadtobe introduced.However, theCongressofBerlin in 1878 (Treaty of Berlin) changed those arrangements and announced that Bosnia andHercegovina,whilestillofficiallyunderOttomansuzerainty,wouldbeoccupiedandadministeredbyAustria–Hungary.Foradiscussiononthisperiodsee‘Resistanceandreform’inMalcolm,Bosnia–AShortHistory,pp.119–35.
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Figure 4: aršija with its surroundings at the end of 19thcentury, Neidhardt’s map developed on the base of late19th century Austro Hungarian map. Source: Grabrijan &Neidhardt, Architecture of Bosnia and the Way TowardsModernity,p.59.
government immediately focused on introducing an administrative and urban
structure. Authorities began numbering the houses, straightening and regulating
the streets, building containing walls for the river Miljacka and adding a series of
94Bytheearly20thcentury,thelimitsofSarajevo’sBašaršijahadbeendeterminedgeographically:onthesouthbyObalaStreet,whichrunsparalleltotheriverMiljackatothesouth;onthenorthbyPetarKoi/MarshalTitoStreet,which separates theBašaršija fromthenorthern residentialhills;onthewestbyGaziHusrefBeg’sBezistanandtheoldJewishHram(synagogue),whichborderswitha new Austro–Hungarian development; and on the east by the Vijenica and Šeher ehajin. Analternative term aršija (markets) is also commonly used in reference to the same precinct. Bothtermscouldbeinclusiveofthesurroundingresidentialareasofmahalas.
95 For a discussion of the AustroHungarian administration ofSarajevo see Kruševac,SarajevopodAustro–Ugarskom upravom 1878–1918; and H. Kreševljakovi, Sarajevo za vrijeme Austrougarskeuprave (1878–1918), (Sarajevo During the AustroHungarian Government), Izdanje Arhiva GradaSarajeva,Sarajevo1969,pp.23–27.96The first threebooksof regulationsanddirectives (1878–1880)werepublished inVienna in theGermanlanguage,withmoreinstructionalratherthannormativecharacter.InthefirstinstancetheAustro–Hungarian government relied on the existing Turkish ‘buildings and roads regulations’(originallypublished1863)foritsownneeds.Thischangedfrom1881,whenthegovernmentstartedprinting its publications in both German and SerboCroatian and sometimes the SerboCroatianversioninbothscripts(LatinandCyrillic).Kruševac,SarajevopodAustro–Ugarskomupravom1878–1918,pp.36–37.97AtthebeginningthenewauthoritiesacceptedandrespectedTurkishlaws.Butby1880thenewbuildingcode(Graevnired)hadalreadybeenintroduced,stipulatingbuildingheightsandrequiringsubmission of drawings as a part of the building approval process. M. Serdarevi, Pravna zaštitakulturnohistorijskognaslijedjaBiH,p.27alsoinKruševac,SarajevopodAustro–Ugarskomupravom1878–1918,p.37.
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straightening of streets, the opening of new squares and streets and a new
regulation(expropriation)andzoningoftheland.98
A process that initially aimed at making the area safe saw Bašaršija gradually
98Kruševac,SarajevopodAustro–Ugarskomupravom1878–1918,p.37.99 Serdarevi suggests thisdocument was the first legal act that regulated the building industry inSarajevo.Serdarevi,PravnazaštitakulturnohistorijskognaslijedjaBiH,p.29.100Serdarevi,PravnazaštitakulturnohistorijskognaslijedjaBiH,p.29101BrankaDimitrijevirefersto‘BosnischePost’of12May1903,whichoutlinestheattemptbytheAustro–Hungarians to regulate building in the area of Bašaršija. B. Dimitrijevi, Prilozi o zaštitigraditeljskog nasljedja u Bosni I Hercegovini I valorizaciji Bašaršije u Sarajevu u AustroUgarskomperiodu(1878–1918),Sarajevo,September1988,unpublishedpaperpresentedataconferenceonthedevelopmentofBašaršija.102Serdarevi,PravnazaštitakulturnohistorijskognaslijedjaBiH,p.27.
103 The introduction in 1892 of the ‘Order of the Government for Bosnia and Herzegovina of theprotection of monuments, the handling of heritage items and other historically and culturallysignificantstructures’(‘NaredbaZemaljskeVladezaBosnuIHercegovinuod27.6.1892br50.243/1ouvanju historikih spomenika, zatim postupku sa starinama i drugim u historikom I kulutrnohistorikom pogledu znamenitih objekata) specifically defined the heritage protection procedures.Serdarevi, Pravna zaštita kulturnohistorijskog naslijedja BiH, pp. 26–27. Discussion of thisdocument and its significance is presented in Dimitrijevi, Prilozi o zaštiti graditeljskog nasljedja uBosniIHercegovini.104Kostovi,Sarajevoizmedjudobrotvorstvaizla,pp.114–15.105Dimitrijevi,PriloziozaštitigraditeljskognasljedjauBosniIHercegovini.
106Dimitrijevi,PriloziozaštitigraditeljskognasljedjauBosniIHercegovini.107 By the institutional laws ofvakuf, once a property is a part of avakuf it could never revert toordinaryownership.AtthetimeoftheAustro–Hungarianannexationin1878itwasestimatedthatnearlyonethirdofalluseablelandinBosniawasownedbyvakuf.Malcolm,Bosnia–AShortHistory,p.146.
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the government land (mirija land).108 As the landholders became the owners, the
108 Inprinciplevakufwasestablishedonthe ‘real’property fullyownedbythepersonestablishingthevakuf(evkafivakuf).Landtitlesweredividedinfivegroups:private–mulk;governmentowned–mirije; religious endowment/vakuf – mevkufe; common use – metruke; and nonusable land –nesvak.Whileitwascommontoendowthegovernmentownedland,permission(temliknama)wasneededinanytransactions.Serdarevi,PravnazaštitakulturnohistorijskognaslijedjaBiH,p.18.109Forexample,thebuildingofBrusaBezistan,originallyestablishedunderthevakufofRustempaša,ended up being recorded as the private property of several individuals Serdarevi,Pravna zaštitakulturnohistorijskognaslijedjaBiH,p.22.110Serdarevi,PravnazaštitakulturnohistorijskognaslijedjaBiH,p.22.111Amongothersignificantexamplesofbuildingsdesigned in ‘pseudoMoorish’ styleare: thehighschool(1885)architectH.Niemeczak;Muslimcommunityreadingroom(1888),vakuf’sbuildingat8Zrinjskogstreet(1889)andthebuildingof IsaBeg’sbath(1890),alldesignedbyJ.Vancaš;andtheSheriatSchoolofLaw(1887)byK.Paržik.
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that of the neighbouring Ottoman structures – stated the AustroHungarian
questioned the authenticity of the Bosnian Muslims in their national rhetoric.116
115ForanaccountofBosnia’sinternalnationalistdivisionsrefertoButurovi,StoneSpeaker,p.128.116 This is a reference to the wellknown ImaginedCommunities, by Benedict Anderson. Andersonargues that the nation is not a given historical entity, but a constructed and ‘imagined politicalcommunity’. It isan imaginedcommunitybecausemembersofeventhesmallestnationcanneverhopetomeet,orevenhearof,allfellowmembers.Itsmembership,thus,isusuallyestablishednotuponthecommongroundsoftheobjectivelyidentifiablecriteriasuchascommonlanguage,cultureor history, but because ‘they think’ they belong to such a community. See B. Anderson, ImaginedCommunities,ReflectionsontheOriginandSpreadofNationalism,Verso,London&NewYork,1992.Theconceptof‘imaginedcommunity’hasalsobeenusedinrelationtoBosnia.FordiscussionoftheYugoslav ‘imaginedcommunities’seeLampe,YugoslaviaasHistory,TwiceThereWasaCountry,p.
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Serbian nationalism did so by promoting its superiority and resistance in the
struggle against Ottoman foreign dominations in the territories, and Croatian
40,andfortheYugoslavnationas‘astateofmind’,an‘imaginedcommunity’seeWachtel,MakingaNation,BreakingaNation.117Lampe,YugoslaviaasHistory,TwiceThereWasaCountry,p.40.118 Balkan historians such as Maria Todorova have argued that the main rationale behind thisattituderestsonwhatshesuggests is ‘thenotsoerroneousperceptionofsegregationofthe localChristianpopulation’andtheprivilegesthatMuslimsenjoyedwithintheessentially Islamicstate–privilege that, in historic terms, marked the interethnic relationships in Bosnia well after theOttomansleft.Todorovaarguesthatasasupranationalornonnationalstate,theOttomanEmpirein its very structure neither provided nor desired to achieve that kind of interaction. Todorova,ImaginingtheBalkans,OxfordUniversityPress,NewYork,1997,pp.164–65.
119IvoAndri,ALetterfrom1920,trans.LenoreGrenoble,ForestBooks,London&Boston,Dereta,Belgrade,1992.Foradiscussionofthisnovelsee,I.Lovrenovi,Bosnia:ACulturalHistory,NewYorkUniversity Press, New York, 2001, pp. 221–23. Lovrenovic suggests that Lord Owen and some USpersonnel involved inthepeaceprocessof1992hadbeengiventhis letterasafactualdocument.Lovrenovi highlights the fact that the novel, while set in the period between two wars, was firstpublishedin1946.Forextractsfromthenovelsee,[http://www.ivoandric.org.yu/html/body_andric_s_treasury_ii.html]120Grabrijan,‘Arhitekturanadohvatovjejeruke’(Architectureinhumanscale),originallypublishedinNoviBehar, Sarajevo,1940,br.2,3; republishedasaseparate issue (sametitle)Architecture inhumanscale.eli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,pp.51–70.121ForfurtherdiscussionseeAli&Bertram,‘Sarajevo:amovingtarget’.122Vizier, is a highranking political or religious adviser to a Muslim monarch, such as a caliph orsultan.TheBosnianspellingisvezir.Külliye,isatermthatdesignatesacomplexofbuildingscentredaroundamosqueandmanagedbyasingle institution,oftenbasedonavakuf. InBosniaonly thetermvakufisused.
126Originalquote:‘Kadovakousporedjujem,nemogu,adanemislimnanastojanjearh.Plenikauarhitekturigrobova.Njegovradskorodasenemožepregledati,adasenevidinjegovanadgrobnaarhitektura.Njegovatežnjautomraduudnovatosepoklapastimštosupostigliuesteticigrobovanaši Muslimani. … Plenik svjesno uklanja sagrobova sve elemente kojipobudjuju unamaosjeajsmrti: emprese zamjenjuje brezama, mogile zelenim cvijetnim poljanama, crne mrtvake natpisenadgrobnika sa živocrvenim I tako dalje.’ Grabrijan, ‘Muslimanska groblja’, in eli, Grabrijan iSarajevo,p.106.127 Original quote: ‘I sad me ne iznenadjuje više kad se sjeam Plenikovih izjava o muslimanskimgrobljima: “Sniježno bijeli kamenovi, svi jednoobrzni, koji se, pošto su bez temelja, jedan drugomklanjaju iznad zelenih ilima,koji im tvore travnjaci:moždanajljepšagrobljana svijetu!’Grabrijan,‘Muslimgraveyards’,ineli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,p.106.128Grabrijan,‘Muslimanskagroblja’,ineli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,p.106.129Grabrijan,‘Muslimanskagroblja’,ineli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,p.106.130Originalquote:‘Nišaniiznadmuslimanskihgrobovaestopokazujumotiveiztogapredislamskog,krisanskogživota. Iovihspomenikabiesvamanje Imanje, jošmalopaneetemoivišepronaiklesara, koji bi umio iskelsati taj tradicionalni oblik.’ Grabrijan, ‘Muslimanska groblja’, in eli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,p.108.131 Grabrijan, ‘Muslimanska groblja’, Jugoslovenski List, Sarajevo, 14. 6, 1936; republished in NoviBehar,Sarajevo,1937,br.5–6,god.XI.eli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,p.108.
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artistic creations. Seizing an opportunity to present the architectural relics of
qualities discussed by Le Corbusier in his Journey to the East.142 Referring to the
140However,thestudents,Grabrijanamongthem,wereinterestedincontemporarydebates.Inanattempttokeepupwithcurrentarchitecturaldebates,Grabrijan’s classorganisedanexcursiontothe InternationalExhibitionofModernDecorativeand IndustrialArts inParis in1925.Pleniksawthisasachallengetohisteachingmethods.Hedeclinedthestudentinvitationtoaccompanythem,pullingoutatthelastmoment.Prelovšek,JožePlenik1872–1957,p.160.141TomislavPremerl,inHrvatskaModernaArhitekturaizmedjudvarata,suggestedthatAdolfLoosmadeasignificantimpactontheZagrebarchitecturalscene,througharchitectssuchasKovacicandEhrlich.ZlatkoNeumannwasLoos’studentandcollaborator,andVladoPotonjakworkedwithhiminParis.Manyother significantEuropean architectsdisseminated their ideasvia theworkof theirstudentsorcolleagues.The influenceofPoelzigreachedZagrebviaDragoIbler,ZdenkoStrižicandJosipPiman,whileErnestWeissmann,JurajNeidhardt,DragoIblerandZlatkoNeimannpromotedof Le Corbusier’s ‘school of thought’. T. Premerl,HrvatskaModernaArhitektura izmedju dva rata(Croatian Modern Architecture Between the Two World Wars), Nakladni Zavod Matice Hrvatske,Zagreb,1989,p.31.142 I. Žanki, (ed.), Le Corbusier (CharlesEdouard Jeanneret), Journey to the East, MIT Press,Cambridge,Ma.,1987.
Le Corbusier’s work and local architectural practices often assumed rather than
143 Grabrijan, ‘Le Corbusier I Sarajevo Uoi izložbe njegovog bivšeg asistenta arh. Juraja J.Neidhardta’,(LeCorbusierandSarajevo),originallypublishedinJugoslovenskiList,Sarajevo,31.10,1936;citedineli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,pp.29–37.144 Original quote: ‘Gledam Le Corbusieve prve publikacije. Pocinje skicama sa svojih studijskihputovanja,nakojimakasnijeosnivasvojumodernu.PatojeBosanskakuca!Tosuvrtoviokonje!TudžamijaImunare!ItujemuslimanskogrobljeInišani,sadivnimpogledimakrozzamreženeprozore,usjeeneu zidaneograde! Da li je LeCorbusier biou Bosni? Kakve su paralele izmedju današnje Ibosanskekue–izmedjumoderneIislamskearhitekture?’Grabrijan,ineli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,p.29.145Žanki , LeCorbusier, Journey to theEast.ForadiscussionofLeCorbusierandOrientalismseeÇelik,‘LeCorbusier,Orientalism,Colonialism’,Assemblage,17,December1992,pp.59–77.146D.eli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,p.29.
SwissTurkisharchitecton theTurkishhousecouldbealsoapplied to theBosnian
house.150 Egli’s most significant assistant was Sedad Hakki Eldem (1908–88), who
built his reputation leading the quest for a national expression in modernism,
148 D. Grabrijan, ‘Turska kua Osnove i porijeklo’ (Turkish house, its roots and origins), originallypublished in Novi Behar, Sarajevo, 15. 7, 1937; cited in eli, Grabrijan i Sarajevo, pp. 37–43.HadjijahisuggeststhatNoviBeharwasafamilyorientedpublicationcateringmostlyfortheMuslimpopulationofthecity.M.Hadjijahi,OdTradicijedoIdentiteta(FromTraditiontoIdentity),Svjetlost,Sarajevo,1974,p.203.149 Original quote: ‘No moje zanimanje za tursku kuu ima drugu osnovu. Upoznao sam je umuslimanskoj kui u Sarajeva, a iznenadila me udnovata slinost njezinih osnovnih težnji satežnjama moderne arhitekture. Tako me svezao za nju dvostruki interes; prvi: ovo je kua i našakua,adrugi–onasadržinekeiskušaneljepote,kojebihhtioprimjenitiinanašumodernu.’Ineli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,p.42.150Egli,suggestedSibelBozdogan,hadreplacedtheclassicalBeauxArtsmodelofeducationwithonebased on the rationalist and functionalist principles of European modernism. Bozdogan & Kasaba,ModernismandNationBuilding,pp.57&70.GrabrijanexplainedthatDr.EgliwasaSwissarchitectwhotaughtarchitectureatTechnicalUniversityandpractisedarchitectureinIstanbul.
153Publishedin1936,Grabrijan’spaper‘Smallfamilyhome’discussedthemainpointsofthe‘housewith one wall’ as designed by Loos. The same paper also commented on the students’ projectundertakeninGrabrijan’sclass,whichanalysedLoos’houseinitsrelevancetothecontextofBosnia.D.Grabrijan,‘Porodinamalakua’(Smallfamilyhome),Tehniar,Beograd,April1936,br.7;ineli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,pp.161–66.154eli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,p.38.155eli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,pp.37–43.156Originalquote:‘Automseodnosupremaprirodeturskakuabitnorazlikujeodnjih.Onajenastaluklimigdjeprirodeovjekušapue;ovjekjojsesmješkomodaziva;uživaunjojipromatrajeusvomomedjenom i sredjenom svijetu. Prema takvom odnosu priroda postaje elemenat kompozicije;prirodeprelaziuarhitekturu–kuasepremavanijavljakaoarhitektonskaplastika.Grabrijanineli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,p.38.
157Originalquote:‘Osmanlijaumijekuuplasiratiuprirodi,itojevelikiumjetnost!Onjestavljanesamopobrežuljcima,nanajljepšamjesta, usred vrtova,ve i iznadsamevode (kafanaBendbaša iVrbanja),a konstrukcije mu pri tomedozvoljava da prostorije izbacuje ak ipreko vodeu vazduh,imearhitekturaprestajebitiracionalnaiprelaziupodrujefantazije.’D.Grabrijan,‘Kulturateferia(osvrtnabosansko islamskuarhitekturu)’(OnBosniancultureofteferi[picnics],viewofBosnianIslamicarchitecture), JugoslovenskiList,Sarajevo,8.7,1939.Cited ineli,Grabrijan iSarajevo,p.46.
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the relationship between humans and their buildings. As a result, thebuilt fabric,
1D.Grabrijan&J.Neidhardt,‘Sarajevoinjegovitrabanti’,TehnikiVjesnik,br.7–9,Zagreb,1942.Thepublication was partially sponsored by Neidhardt’s employer at the time, the Croatian MiningCompany(HrvatskiRudniciiTalionice).ThelistofcreditsincludestheCroatianEngineeringSociety,theeditorialboardofTehnikiVjesnikandthedirectorateofCroatianMinesandSteelProduction.2 The translation of publication’s title is my own. The word trabant (plural trabanti) meansattachment, something that follows. Despite the difference in English between ‘attachment’ and‘satellite’(satelitinbothSerboCroatianandBosnian)thetranslationoftrabantito‘satellites’makesmore sense. I am aware of the problematic connotations of ‘satellites’ in the context of 1920s’debates concerning the urban vs. suburban satellite, particularly Le Corbusier’s hesitation aroundsuburban expansion, as discussed in McLeod, ‘Urbanism and Utopia: Le Corbusier from regionalsyndicalismtoVichy’.
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Islamic urban forms with stereotypical and preconceived notions based on
oppositional relationships between new and old, between progressive and
backward. As this chapter demonstrates, the result of this approach was that
Grabrijan and Neidhardt’s master plan assigned only a peripheral role to the old
precinct within their proposed vision. This was moderated to some extent by
plans for Algiers and Nemours.9 Neidhardt was significantly influenced by Le
5 Original quote: ‘Konzervirajmo staro – ali izgradimo novo Sarajevo!’ Grabrijan & Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.210.6 Original quote: ‘Kakogod se Sarajevo u budunosti razvijalo, u svakom sluaju iz njegovogdosadašnjegrazvojaostajuizvjesnaiskustva,kojatrebauvažavati’.Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.201.7Originalquote:‘AkropolajošIdanasživimeunama,njeniprincipisusvudarasijani–jersuvjeni.’Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.201.8 Certificate to J. Neidhardt issued by Le Corbusier: ‘I certify that Mr. J. Neidhardt architect fromZagrebworkedinourofficefrom1January1933untiltheendofthesummer1935’.Paris,22August1937.J.Kapetanovi,‘ThearchitecturalworkofJurajNeidhardt’,p.115.9LeCorbusier’sinvolvementwithAlgiersspanstheperiodbetween1932and1942.Whileworkinginhis office, Neidhardt was involved in a number of projects, including urban proposals for Algiers(1933–34) and for Nemours (Algeria), Anvers (Belgium) and Stockholm (Sweden). He was alsoinvolvedinstudiesofthe‘futurecity’–LaVilleRadieuse–thebuildingofRentenanstaltinZurich,aprojectforthe1937exhibition(foravenueKallerman)andresearchforanagriculturalreorganisationscheme(afarmandvillage).TheextentofhiscontributiontotheAlgiersprojectisunclear,butinalettertohisfriendKarlMittelin1933,NeidhardtmentionedhisinvolvementwiththeAlgiersproject
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Corbusier’s ideas, and was particularly intrigued by the Algerian project, in which
the dialogue between ‘Islamic’ and ‘modern’ echoed themes apparent in
Like Le Corbusier17, who recommended that Algiers retain its basic linear
organisation because it was particularly suited to ‘modern life’ and rapid
transportation, Grabrijan and Neidhardt retained the linear layout established by
12Evenatthetimeofitsdevelopmentthe1891planhadlimitedscope.Itwasoriginallydevelopedin1879fortheprecinctofBašaršija,butwasextendedandputinplaceonlyafterfiredestroyedmuchoftheprecinctin1891.13 M. umruki, ‘Izrada Generalnog Urbanistikog Plana’ (The development of a general urbanplan),inM.ankovi(ed.),SarajevouSocijalistikojJugoslavijiodOslobodjenjadoSamoupravljanja,1945–1950, Istorijski Arhiv Sarajevo, vol. 1, Sarajevo, 1988, pp. 387–88. In its scope the planextendedfromBašaršija,throughthenewlyestablishedurbancentretothesuburbs,asfarwestasDolacMalta.14TofacilitatesuchchangestheAustro–Hungariansintroducedtheregulatorysystemofcadastre–asystemoflandownershipregistration.15 Various partial urban regulatory plans were proposed and accepted, but a master plan for thewholecityofSarajevowasonlyacceptedin1974.16 For more detailed discussion of the destruction of Muslim heritage see, Koštovi, Sarajevo,IzmedjuDobrotvorstvaiZlaSarajevo,pp.169–85.17McLeod,‘UrbanismandUtopia:LeCorbusierfromregionalsyndicalismtoVichy’,p.337.
preoccupation appears to be with the new city –beyond the borders of the old
precinct. The proposed plan included a geographically expansive area, which
indicated the authors’ interest in largescale planning and regional development.
The inclusion of six new satellite towns showed the extent of their ambition. The
satellites’ proximity to Sarajevo varied from Ilidža (2), only about 10 kilometres
away from the old town, to Breza (1), Riica (3) and VarešMajdan (6) up to 45
kilometres away, to towns as far as Zenica (7), some 70 kilometres away. On a
18 Horsepulled tramways were introduced in 1884. H. Kreševljakovi, Sarajevo za vrijemeAustrougarske uprave (1878–1918) (Sarajevo During the AustroHungarian Government), IzdanjeArhivaGradaSarajeva,Sarajevo1969,p.33.19Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.202.
Figure 7: ‘Schematic representationof thenewsuburbs ofthe middle Bosnian mining basin’. Map of satellite townsincluded in the proposal: (1) old and new Sarajevo; (2)Ilidža; (3)Breza; (4)Riica; (5)Riica;(6)VarešMajdan; (7)Zenica. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt, ‘Sarajevo and ItsSatellites’,p.272.
major monuments marking the urban context, the proposal’s visual presentation
23Grabrijanreviewedthe1935ideacompetitionforthenewrailwaystationinthearticle‘Sarajevskiželjezniki problem, konkretni predlog’ (The problem of Sarajevo railway station, a proposal),JugoslovenskiList,Sarajevo,1.7.1936.24ThisstreetwasnamedafterAntePaveli,theCroatianfascistleaderwhoheadedaCroatianstatesubservienttoGermanyandItalyduringWorldWarTwo.DuringsocialistYugoslaviathestreetwasnamedafterJosipBrozTito,theYugoslavcommunistleaderandthepresidentofthestate.
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looked more like a tourist map than a professionally designed contribution to a
developingurbanmasterplan.
Figure 8: ‘East–west artery’, an urban vision for Sarajevopresentedinitsrelationtosignificantlocations(fromtoptobottom of the drawing) that include: city gate at BijelaTabija; bazaar of Bašaršija; King Tvrtko urban square;StjepanTomaševiurbansquare,intersectioninfrontofAliPasha’s Mosque, Marijin Dvor and New Railway Station.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt, ‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.239.
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Theoldprecinctandthenewcity
Grabrijan and Neidhardt present their discussion of Bašaršija in the section of
‘Sarajevo and Its Satellites’ titled ‘Heritage’ (Predaja).25 Despite the introductory
25Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,pp.210–25.26 Reference made to the Hijri (Hidžra in Bosnian) calendar. Years 1069–72 are equivalent to theyears1650–53intheGregoriancalendar.TheIslamiccalendarmarksyearsinrelationtotheIslamicprophetMuhammad'semigrationfromMeccatoMedina.27Anotestatesthattheincludedtextisa‘freeinterpretation’oftheoriginaldiscussionbyPospišilpresented in Monatschrift für Städtebau, No.617, 1916. Grabrijan & Neidhardt, ‘Sarajevo and ItsSatellites’,p.224.28 Original quote: ‘Na zemlji ima po imenu ‘Saraj’ nekoliko gradova … ali Bosna – saraj od sviju jenajureenijiinajljepšikamenegrad!’,inGrabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.224.
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Figure 9: Drawings illustrating the organic unity of terrainand architecture. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt, ‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.225.
elebija’s picturesque vision of the city and Pospišil’s complimentary views of
31 It was common for OttoWagner’s students to take their first journey to the East, where theynoted and sketched the beauty of the ‘original’, ‘natural’ and ‘pure’ architectural forms of the‘Mediterranean house’. Wagner’s firstrecorded student interested in studying local vernacular,ErnstLichtblau,uponhisarrivalinBosniain1904notedthe‘pure’qualitiesandrationalgroundingoftraditionaldwellings.(Asdiscussedinchaptertwo,thosequalitieswerealsoobservedbyGrabrijaninhis early writings on the city.) On his trip through the countryside Lichtblau produced numeroussketchesoftheBosnianlandscapeandhouses,emphasisingthegeometricsimplicityofformofthehouse.ErnstLichtblau‘StudienundSkizzenausBosnienundDalmatien’(StudiesandsketchesfromBosnia and Dalmatia), Der Architekt, 14, 1903, p. 85, cited in I. Krzovi, Arhitektura Bosne iHercegovine,1878–1918,(ArchitectureofBosniaandHerzegovina,18781918),UmjetnikaGalerijaBiH,Sarajevo,1988,p.231.Seealsochaptersix,‘Thesearchforanationalstyle’,inA.Moravanszky,Competing Visions: Aesthetic Invention and Social Imagination in Central European Architecture,1867–1918, MIT Press, Cambridge, Ma.,1997; and R. Besarovi, Iz kulturnog životau SarajevupodAustrougarskom Upravom (Inserts from Cultural Life of Sarajevo Under the Austro–HungarianAdministration),VeselinMasleša,Sarajevo,1974.32 Josip Vancaš was born in Sopron, Hungary, in 1859 and died in Zagreb, Croatia, in 1932. Hecompleted his architectural degree in Vienna in 1881, and from 1882 to 1884 studied at theAcademy of Arts in Vienna. Vancaš’s first major commission in Sarajevo was the design of theCatholiccathedral.ArchitecturalhistorianNedžadKurtosuggeststhatintheirsearchforanarchitectto design the cathedral the authorities approached the government. Minister Kallay in turnapproached Friedrich von Schmidt, professor at the Academy of Applied arts in Vienna, whosuggestedhisstudent,aCroatiancalledJosipVancaš.Vancašwasonly25atthetime,andhesettledpermanently inSarajevo in1894.Duringhis fruitfulcareer inSarajevohedesignedmorethan240buildings, of which most were executed. He became one of the most prominent architects in theAustro–Hungarian personnel, in the city in which almost 600 projects were designed. For furtherdiscussionseeKurto,‘ArhitekturaSecesijeuSarajevu’,1988.33Kurto,ArhitekturaBosneIHercegovine,razvojBosanskogStila,p.298.
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of Ottoman times.34 The design made reference to the spatial organisation of
Muslim houses, with divanhana (large, openplanned living spaces), recesses and
protrusions on the upper level, white walls and steep, high roofs. It also made
reference to public buildings suchas hotels (han). Other architects, among whom
Figure11:JosipVancaš:housesdesignedin‘Bosnianstyle’.Source: I. Krzovi, Arhitektura Bosne i Hercegovine, 1878–1918,pp.232&235.
While Grabrijan and Neidhardt acknowledged the efforts of their predecessors,
including a version of Pospišil’s essay on the urban positioning of the traditional
34InatalktotheSocietyofYugoslavEngineersandArchitects(UdruženjejugoslavenskihinžinjeraIArhitekata–SekcijaZagreb)VancašcriticisedtheAustro–HungariangovernmentfortheinadequatesupportitprovidedtopreservingSarajevo’sheritagefabric.Hecriticisedtheauthoritiesforavoidingfinancialcommitmentgivingonlyverbalsupportforpreservation.Originalquote: ‘Veina kulturnih država imaveovakovih komisija,a Inaša ju je domovina dobilapodnaslovom‘PovjerenstvozaouvanjespomenikauKraljevinamaHrvatskojISlavoniji’.lanovisutekomisijemeuostalimadirectoruroSzaboIprof.ArhitektMartinPilar.Nažalost,tajekomisijakulturna institucija na papiru, jer ne raspolaže dovoljnim novanim sredstvima, da bi uzmoglapoduzimati potrebna nauna istraživaka putovanja, snimanja, crtanja I publikacije objekata,vrijednihzaštite’.J.Vancaš, ‘BosanskoNarodnoGraditeljstvo’ (Bosnianbuiltheritage),published inTehnikiList(TechnicalJournal),vol.31,no.24,December1928,pp.353–56.
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house, they perceived the Austro–Hungarian efforts as ‘well meaning’.35 But they
argued that the Austro–Hungarian colonial obsession with the ‘exotic in Bosnian
architectural expression’ resulted in their failure ‘to understand things’.36 In an
attempt to rectify limited understandings of the significance of the traditional
house, they focused their discussion on the search for clues embedded in the
hidden interiors. Central to this was their assumption that a patriarchal and, by
extension, gender relationship between Muslim men and women underpinned
familyrelationships.
The idea of the Islamic home as a shell for daily activities, primarily for women,
stimulated their imaginations and promised insights into otherwise private
domains.37GrabrijanandNeidhardtwrote:
To a Muslim man a woman is his joy – and that is why he carefully hides and
framed the best views of the garden for her … Through women, a Muslim man
divides the world into a colourful and intimate interior world and a sober and
constrainedpublicworld.38
35Originalquote:‘Nesmijemopoiniputem,kojijepošlabivšaAustrija,putemdobronamjernim,alibezpravogshvaanjastvari.Austrijskiarhitektividjeli suuBosni samoegzotiku,pasumislili,daeBosnuusreitiegzotinimgradnjamaumaurskomsloguInekojkolonijalnojarhitekturi.’Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.241.36Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.241.37 For further discussion of the Islamic home as a shell for daily activities and other ‘lessons’ formodernarchitectureandurbanism,whicharchitectssuchasLeCorbusierfoundinAlgiers,seeÇelik,UrbanFormsandColonialConfrontations,AlgiersUnderFrenchRule.Forafurtherdiscussionofthesignificance of the indigenous house in broader modernist discourses see Z. Çelik, Displaying theOrient, Architecture of Islam at NineteenthCentury World’s Fairs, University of California Press,Berkeley,1992,pp.87–113.38Originalquote:‘Muslimanuježenaužitak–pajezbogtogatolikoljubomornouvaIzatvara.Zbognjedivanhanaumrežama,mušepci,zanjunajljepšiInajbiranijividiciiizglediuprirode.Ovakomožemuslimanuzetiodtogasvijetasve,štogodmugodi,adaganištaneometaunjegovu–eifu.…Kroznju je musliman podijelio svijet na dva dijela: šareno intimni i trijezno suzdržljivi javni život.’
39Originalquote:‘Subjektostajeuvijekisti,mijenjasesamoobjekat,pajemrežaprematomeuvijekdrugaija.’Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.212.40Originalquote:‘Muslimanusuobeananebesasahurijama,t.j.zamamnimženama.ZbognjeIokonjenagomilavaonsvebogatstvo.ilimi–radinje,peškiriIurešenijastuci–radinje,šadrvaniirajskebaše – sve radi nje. U tom se svijetu musliman nasladjuje t.j. predaje svom eifu.’ Grabrijan &Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.212.41Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.212.
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house’s austere public elevations as reflective of what they perceived as the
overall fabric. Instead it considered the precinct’s relevance to the new urban
42Originalquote:‘Ženumuslimannepuštausvijetbezvalet.j.kopreneispredlica,kojajeimunizirapredjavnošu,bezzarat.j.ogrtaa,kojisveženesvodinaistitrijezni,monumentalnioblik,ItimeihsveizjednaujeIneutralizira.TheEnglishtranslationinfull:‘TheMuslimmandoesnotlethiswomengooutonthestreetwithoutacover.Thatwayhereducesherappearancetoageneralshapethatpresents all women within the same monumental form, making them all same and neutral.’Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.212.
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development. Like their mentor Le Corbusier, Grabrijan and Neidhardt identified
Bosnian Muslims’ allegiance was not to the local population but to the greater
43Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.227.44 Original quote: ‘Ispred svih drugih gradova Sarajevo ima posebno dispoziciju za arhitekturu. TospecijalnoproizlaziizIslama.IslamskanaukanaimezabranjujeprikazivanjeprirodnihuzoraIlikovauumjetnosti. Na taj nain onemoguuje razvoj slikarstva I kiparstva, pa se islamski svijet timintenzivnije iživljava u apstrakciji t.j. u ornamentici umjesto u slikarstvu, u arhitekturi umjesto ukiparstvu’.Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.227.45MuslimsreverethecityofMeccaforcontainingtheMasjidalHaram(SacredMosque),consideredthe holiest site of Islam. Medina is the second holiest city in Islam. The city is the burial place ofMuhammadandtheplacewhereheandhisfollowersfledafterbeingexpelledfromattacksagainstMecca,nowknownastheHijira.BothMeccaandMedinaarelocatedinwhatisnowSaudiArabia.
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world of Islam. Based on that rationale, the nationalists argued, Bosnian Muslims
possessednosenseofnationalorregionalbelonging.
Figure13:Medinamosque.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘Sarajevo and Its Satellites’, p. 210. [Image republished inArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity].
46 Original quote: ‘Zapadnjak pristupa likovnoj umjetnosti nekako posredno: ona mu je delekcijaintelekta:razumijeje.OdatleenambitishvatljivaIglorifikacijatehnikenazapaduIpojavaulikovnojumjetnostikakvajenaprimjerkonstruktivizam.’Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.211.
47Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.211.48 Original quote: ‘Kad god pogledam potporne lukove na obodima gotske katedrale, osjeamodmah, da bi se bez njih zgrada srušila ili da je bez njih nemogu prostor gotskog profila. A kadpogledam tanko armirane betonske stupove, koji nose glomazne gradjevne mase – onda uvijekmislimnainžinjeraInjegovustatiku.IkupolaIkubussvesutoodredjenegeometrijsketvorbe.AlinaOrijentunijetako!’Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.210.49Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.211.50Originalquote‘Arabeskunemogunikadaodgonetnutipremdajesvaisprepletenageometrijom.Iovivaljci,Ilukovi,injeviIkalote,pakubusi,nikadaminisukonanoodredjeni–uvijekonivarirajunaviše ilinaniže–svakiputdrugaijipremasvompoložaju’.Grabrijan&Neidhardt, ‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.210.
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Figure 14: Sketch of an arabesque. Source: Grabrijan &Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.212.
TheimpactofLeCorbusier’sviews
For Neidhardt at least, this interest in the Oriental can be explained by his time
mode of thought based upon an ontological and epistemological distinction
51 For a discussion on Le Corbusier’s work during this period see: M. McLeod, ‘Le Corbusier andAlgiers’, Oppositions, 19/20, winter/spring 1980, pp. 53–85; and Çelik, Urban Forms and ColonialConfrontations.MaryMcLeodarguesthatLeCorbusier’sinvolvementwiththesyndicalistmovementsignificantly informed his approach to urban studies and subsequent proposals for Algeria in theyears1931to1942.52Z.Çelik,‘LeCorbusier,Orientalism,Colonialism’,pp.59–77.53 Said acknowledged his debt to Foucault, particularly hisArchaeology of Knowledge, Routledge,London, 1989, c1972 andDiscipline and Punish Penguin, Harmondsworth, England, 1979. E. Said,Orientalism,WesternConceptionsoftheOrient,pp.3–4.
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between ‘the Orient’ and ‘the Occident’. In Europe from the 18th century on,
Orientalist thinking underpinned understandings of the East–West relationship.54
Said’s thesis has provided a framework through which the work of many modern
60 Çelik, ‘Le Corbusier, Orientalism, Colonialism’, pp. 59–77. In contrast, scholars such as SibelBozdogan have attempted to liberate Le Corbusier from what they describe as themisunderstandingsoftheOrientalistapproach,arguinginsteadforgenuine,ifattimesproblematic,interest in the local context. The Journal of Architectural Education recorded a debate betweenRichard Ingersoll and Sibel Bozdogan. Bozdogan, attempted to distance Le Corbusier from the‘Orientalistsin’byarguingthathisinvolvedandengagedrepresentationoftheOrientwasacriticalandexploratoryvehicleratherthananaffirmativeandexpositoryone.SeeS.Bozdogan,‘JourneytotheEast:waysoflookingattheOrientandthequestionofrepresentation’,JournalofArchitecturalEducation, vol. 41, no. 4, summer 1988, pp. 38–45. However, Ingersoll questioned Bozdogan’sargumentand insisted that LeCorbusier indeed ‘proved inevery instance tobeon the sideof hiswhitefathers’.SeeR.Ingersoll,‘Lettertotheeditor’,JournalofArchitecturalEducation,vol.42,no.4,1989,p.61.SubsequentlyBozdoganrespondedin,‘MoreonLeCorbusier’sOrientalism’,JournalofArchitectural Education, vol. 43, no. 1, fall 1989, p. 63. Ingersoll and, by extension, Çelik havepersisted in stating that Le Corbusier’s experience of the East, which accepted the Orientalistframework,wasaimedatextollinghisownculture.Unwillingtogiveawayhispositionofpower,LeCorbusier, among others, was thus almost inevitably associated with what Ingersoll called the‘originalsin’ofWesterners.61Çelik,‘LeCorbusier,Orientalism,Colonialism’,pp.59–77.62Çelik,‘LeCorbusier,Orientalism,Colonialism’,p.63.
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never reached Grabrijan and Neidhardt’s home towns of Lož and Zagreb,
the Oriental within the Bosnian context. Their observations of local culture
presented in ‘Sarajevo and Its Satellites’ were framed by an inquiry into social
norms, particularly religious and sexual norms – the realms that Çelik has argued
definedLeCorbusier’sOrientalistapproach.65
63Originalquote:‘Muslimanskekuesunamsuvišezatvorene,adabismomoglinanjimapastisvojeoi I stvaratinekezakljuke. Donjih treba doi I indirektnimputem, tj.prekomuslimanskih javnihzgrada: hanova I kafana.’ Published in ‘Bašaršija – jedna nova alternativa’ (‘Bašaršija – a newalternative’), Jugoslovenski List, Sarajevo, vol. 30, no. 6, 1940; republished in eli, Grabrijan iSarajevo,p.67.64eli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,p.67.65ÇelikreferstoworkofhistorianNormanDaniel,whichidentifiedenquiryintosocialnormssuchasreligious, sexual and power as the three realms that have characterised Islam in Europeandiscourses.Çelik,‘LeCorbusier,Orientalism,Colonialism’,p.60.
meaning. Their purpose is to cover up the poor quality and the absence of
relevance.It isall falseanddeceptive. Ithasall lost itspurpose.Bašaršija, is[not
real]buta‘mirage’.67
66TheMerriamWebsterOnlineDictionarydefinesbijouterieasacollectionoftrinkets,ornamentsorjewels; and also decoration. In SerboCroatian and Bosnian the word implies imitation, and, byextension,lowqualityandcheapdesign.Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.203.67Originalquote:‘DanašnjaBašaršijajepremaživotukaoapstrakcijapremarealizmu,t.j.kuliserija,gdjejesveneopipljivo.SvisutiodnosinejasniIzbogtoganesolidni.Svakiornamenttuzastirenešto,štonijerealno.Svrhajetihšara,dazavaraju,Idaprikrijuslabukvalitetu.Lažanjetajornament,jerjeizgubiosvojunužnost,svojupotrebaIsvojusmisaoIpoštosetolikoudaljioodsvojihizvora,danema
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In the final analysis, the precinct’s existing fabric had little to offer to their new
snjimapraveveze.SvataBašaršija,kojasenatimšarama,jestekaoneka‘fatamorgana’’.Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.218.68Originalquoteinfull:‘Ukolikoseidezaotkrivanjemostatakastaretradicije,možeseneštonauitiuBašaršiji.Alineštoidejnonovosetunemožeotkriti.TužnosevraaizBašaršijeonajkojijepošaoda nešto nova vidi I naui, jer sve što tu vidi, mogao je pregledati za prvih 14 dana.’ Grabrijan &Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.218.69Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.218.70Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.218.71Originalquote:‘Bašaršijajeumrlakaocity.’Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.255. Original quote: ‘Kirurgija ili medicina. Kucnuo je dvanaesti as – treba pristupiti regulacijiSarajeva’.Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.201.72Originalquote:‘Adanegovorimooneodrživimhigijenskimprilikama.Gdjegodzaviriteuavliju–svudazaudarapoplijesniIgnjiloi,amnožinanonihživotinjicaIposredbijeladanaplazipozemlji’.Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.256.
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professionals who lived or worked in the precinct to support their views, they
wrote:
If we consult doctors, fireman, insurance experts, or tradespeople and
businesspeople who live in Bašaršija, they will all agree about the unbearable
conditions that are present there ... Today’s Bašaršija is like sick lungs, full of
cavities. There are empty holes left from the burned downhans, courtyards and
ruinsofallkindsofbathsandresidencesthat shouldno longerhaveanyplace in
73Originalquote:‘DanašnjaBašaršijanaliibolesnimpluimakojasupunakaverna.Tusupraznineod pogorjelih hanova, pa razna dvorišta I ruševine kojekavih kupališta I stanbenih kua, kojima uovakvombazarunijemjesto.NatajnacindanašnjaBašaršijanijeskoroninapolovicuiskorištenazatrgovakesvrhe!’Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.256.74Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.255.75 Original quote: ‘Ako sve rezimiramo, dolazimo do uvjerenja, da tu lijekovi više ne pomažu.Lijeenjepostojeegstanjaispravljanjem,opravljanjem,krpanjem,Iispunjavanjamporušenihmjesta,dalo bi samo iskrpanu polovinu I slabu stvar. Pomoi može tu samo kirurski zahvat, t.j. Rušenjesvega trošnog I nevaljalog, pa onda sprovesti urbanizaciju, t.j. podjelu u zone. Zona sa podrujemvisokihgradjevinadošlabiokoaršije,zonaniskihgradjevinaIbazaraunutarovezatimzonastarih
kulturnih gradjevina te park, koji bi povezao sve navedene elemente u cjelinu!’ Grabrijan &Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.257.76Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.257.77 There have been two spellings used for this name: Gazi Husref Beg and Gazi Husrevbeg.Gazihusrevbeg’s Vakuf (comp.), Spomenica Gazi Husrevbegove etiristoGodišnjice’ (Four HundredYearsofGazihusrevbeg’sVakuf),Sarajevo,1932,p.57.78Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.257.79Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.257.
81JelicaKarliKapetanovisuggestsanumberofreasonsforNeidhardt’sarrivalinBosnia,themainonebeinghisneedtoobtainasecurejobandcommissions.Inaddition,hiswifewasBosnianandhisclose friendGrabrijanwas living inBosnia.Soonafter itopened in1937, Jugoelikbecameastateenterprise.ThecompanywasoneofthelargestintheIndependentStateofCroatia(NDH).Lampe,YugoslaviaasHistory,TwiceThereWasaCountry,p.180.Upon its creation the NDH took over some sections of the company. The takeover included allbranchesinBosnia,includingBreza,Zenica,LjubijaiVareš,consideredinGrabrijanandNeidhardt’surbanproposal.TheproductionchangedthenametoHRUTATd.d.anacronymforCroatianminesandsteelproduction(Hrvatskirudnici Italionice).I.Mamuzovi,‘Croatianmetallurgy,past,presentandfuture’,Metalurgija,43,1,2004,pp.3–12;alsoat:http://public.carnet.hr/metalurg/Metalurgija/2004_vol_43/No1/MET_43_1_003_012_Mamuzic.pdf82SomehousesinIlijašwerebuiltin1942.TheproposalswerepresentedinGrabrijan&Neidhardt,‘Sarajevo and Its Satellites’, pp. 273–322; most of the housing projects were presented again inGrabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity. Insomeinstances,suchasthedesignofNeidhardt’sworkers’housing,bothpublicationspresentedthesameprojectinorder to support the respective urban visions. In ‘Sarajevo and Its Satellites’ the housing projectsrepresentedthepowerofrationalplanandefficiency,whileinArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowards Modernity they were proof of the socialist government’s efforts to accommodate theproletariat.
big landowners were Muslims and the great majority of the nonlandowning
85Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.201.86 McLeod has argued that Le Corbusier’s new social and political commitment to the regionalsyndicalisminevidentinthesixprojectsthathedevelopedforAlgiersintheperiodbetween1932and1942.McLeod,‘UrbanismandUtopia:LeCorbusierfromregionalsyndicalismtoVichy’,pp.333–63,withthereferencetothesyndicalistmovement,p.342.87 Original quote: ‘U interesu je cjelokupnosti, da se u gradu provede komasacija’. Grabrijan &Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.201.88ForfurtherdiscussionseeI.Banac,TheNationalQuestioninYugoslavia,Origins,History,Politics,CornellUniversityPress,Ithaca,1984.
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peasants were Christians’.89 Thesehistorical conditions made land distribution or
the ‘agrarian question’ one of the central Yugoslav political dilemmas, which, as
historian Ivo Banac has stated, ‘could be solved only at the expense of one
94The‘agrarianissue’polarisedtheYugoslavpoliticalscene.MehmedSpaho,theleaderofYugoslavMuslimOrganisation, foughthardtosoftentheblowofagrarianreformsonMuslim landlordsandensure their compensation. Spaho’s commitment to this issue allowed his critics to denounce hispartyasrepresentativeofoldfeudalclass.Malcolm,Bosnia–AShortHistory,p.164.95 Original quote: ‘U interesu je cjelokupnosti, da se u gradu provede komasacija’. Grabrijan &Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.201.96Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.282.
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Figure 17: Urban development of Ljubija, with a newlydesigned church located in the centre of town. Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.280.
Neidhardt’s concerns for hygiene and workers’ health further neutralised the
98Grabrijan&Neidhardt,‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.282.99 In the article ‘Le Corbusier and Sarajevo’ Grabrijan stated that it is ‘hard to enter the Muslimhouse’andoffered‘lookingintolikeplaces’suchasinnsetcasanalternative.
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the mesh of traditional latticework (mušepci) were all shown as freefloating
elements used in a modern expression, abstracted form their context and
presentedindividually[Figure18].
Figure 18: Neidhardt’s development of the ‘elemental’architectural vocabulary of Bosnia. Single man housingproject for Zenica. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,Architecture of Bosnia and the Way Towards Modernity,alsopublishedin‘SarajevoandItsSatellites’,p.317.
The drawings make reference to the formal qualities of the traditional house’s
stairs mediated a series of spatial experiences from open to enclosed, here the
stairs functioned only as a physical connection linking the upper and lower levels
[Figure19].
Figure 19: Single man housing project for Zenica. Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowards Modernity, also published in ‘Sarajevo and ItsSatellites’,p.292.
Figure20:Singlemen’shousingproject forZenica.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowards Modernity, also published in ‘Sarajevo and ItsSatellites’,p.292.
appear comfortable in their new roles, enjoying themselves, their bodies relaxed,
and engaging in an active relationship with their surroundings. On thedivanhana
edges, the delicate timber lattices of the traditional Muslim house, so well
described and analysed in Grabrijan’s writings, were replaced by metal screens
alongtheexternalwall[Figure21].
Figure21:Singlemen’shousingproject forZenica.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowards Modernity, also published in ‘Sarajevo and ItsSatellites’,p.287.
Thiscontextofworkers’housingallowedNeidhardt toaccept the influenceofold
1DušanGrabrijandied in1952, fiveyearsbeforethepublicationofArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,Ljudska Pravica, Ljubljana, 1957. It appears that the book was ready forpublication as early as 1953, as the publishing company Država Založba Slovenije placed anadvertisementintheprofessionaljournalArchitectthatyear;citedinKapetanovi,‘ThearchitecturalworkofJurajNeidhardt’,p.314.2 In1946,thestatewasnamedtheFederalPeople'sRepublicofYugoslavia,andin1963renamedtheSocialistFederalRepublicofYugoslavia.ThisstatedisintegratedinthewakeofYugoslavwarthatstartedinSloveniaandCroatia1991andinBosniain1992.
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national selfdetermination and the Communist Party’s domination in public life.3
Fulfilling Tito’s wartime commitments, the constitution officially recognised five
Yugoslav nationalities: Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Macedonians and Montenegrians.
Croatia, Slovenia, Macedonia, Monte Negro and Bosnia and Hercegovina.4 Bosnia
and Hercegovina was the only one with no majority nationality or national name
[Figure22].
Figure 22: Territorial divisions of the former Yugoslavia,19451991.Source:Lampe,YugoslaviaasHistory,p.231.
3 For further discussion on post–World War Two Yugoslavia see Donia & Fine, Bosnia andHercegovina–ATraditionBetrayed;Lampe,YugoslaviaasHistory,TwiceThereWasaCountry,;andN.Malcolm,Bosnia–AShortHistory,specificallythechapters ‘BosniaandtheSecondWorldWar,1941–1945’and‘BosniainTitoistYugoslavia,1945–1989’.4Thenewterritorialborderscloselycorrespondedtothehistoricunitsbroughttogetherin1918toformtheKingdomoftheSerbs,CroatsandSlovenes.Malcolm,Bosnia–AShortHistory.
religious schools, with the teaching of children in mosques becoming a criminal
6 Raymond Williams argues that the concept of tradition has been neglected in Marxist culturalthought.IhereuseWilliams’notionsoftraditionsdevelopedin‘Traditions,institutions,andtheories’todiscussMarxistdiscoursesofsocialistYugoslavia.Forfurtherdiscussionsee,R.Williams,MarxismandLiterature,OxfordUniversityPress,NewYork,1977,p.115.7JosipBrozTito,‘NOBInacionalnopitanjeuJugoslaviji’,Tito’s1942speech,publishedinA.Isakovi,O ‘Nacionaliziranju’ Muslimana, 101 godina afirmiranja i negiranja nacionalnog identitetaMuslimana (101 years of affirmation and negation of Muslim national identity), Globus, Zagreb,1990,pp.130–31.8 ScholarshiponYugoslavapproaches to resolving the ‘nationalquestion’havebeen articulated inthe following periods: 1944–51, teleological industrialisation: it was believed that rapidindustrialisation would reduce the disparity between regional living standards and thus erodenationalantagonism;1951–60,Yugoslavnationalism:itwasbelievedindustrialisationwouldalleviatenationalism in the long term, although more immediate strategies focused on strengtheningYugoslavnationalism;and1960–69,thearticulationofYugoslavnationalismbasedoncommunityofnations. R. V. Burks, ‘Nationalism and communism in Yugoslavia: an attempt at synthesis’, in H.Birnbaum&S.J.Vryonis(eds.),AspectsoftheBalkans,ContinuityandChange,TheHague,1972,pp.397– 423; proceedings of an international conference held at UCLA, 23– 28 October 1969. Whileseeminglyoperatingwiththeparametersof1950sYugoslavnationalism,GrabrijanandNeidhardt’sviewspromotedadifferentagenda.
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offence. Many Catholic and Orthodox churches, monasteries, convents and
9MalcolmnotesthattheCommunistPartytookasofterapproachtowardstheOrthodoxChurch,assomeof itsclergyservedas ‘progressive’priests inTito’sarmy.Healso indicatesthatsomeofthemeasuresintroducedbythecommunistswerecovertlyresisted:Islamictextscontinuedtocirculate,childrenwere taught inmosques, thedervishorderskeptuptheirpractices inprivatehomes,andthe Young Muslims, a student organisation, resisted the campaign against Islam until severalhundredof itsmemberswereimprisonedin1949–50.Malcolm,Bosnia–AShortHistory,pp.195–96.10Malcolm,Bosnia–AShortHistory,p.195.11 The majority of Yugoslav Party members spent their formative years in the USSR, so the‘bolshevisationoftheCommunistPartyofYugoslavia’wasfeltstronglyintheearlypostwaryears.Indiscussion of the impact of Soviet artistic debates on Yugoslavia, historian Pekovi identified theSecond International Writers Conference, held in the Soviet town of Harkov (Kharkov) in 1930, ofparticular importance. The conference highlighted the role of the ‘proletariat’ in promoting thecommunistagenda,butbecausestrictadherencetothe‘Harkovagenda’andpromotionofsocialistrealismwasslightlydelayedinYugoslaviaitlostitsoriginalstrengthandpotency.R.Pekovi,NiRatNi Mir, Panorama književnih polemika 1945–1965 (Neither War nor Peace, [Yugoslav] LiteraryDebatesof1945–1965),Zavodzaizdavakudelatnost‘FilipVišnji’,Beograd,1986,pp.7–8.12SketchedoutbyLenin,socialistrealismbecameadominantmodeintheperiodbetween1946and1953.Itwaspresentedasastrict‘codeoflaw’ofSovietaesthetics,philosophyandtheoryofart.ThemainpromoterofthenewculturalpolicywasAndreiZhdanov.HejustifiedthisturnfromproletarianinternationalismtoRussiannationalismduringhisspeechattheCentralCommitteeconferencewithSoviet composers and musicians (February 1948), saying ‘Internationalism is engendered wherenationalartflourishes.Toforgetthistruthmeanstolosetheguideline,toloseone’sface,tobecomerootlesscosmopolitans.’Thewaveofculturalpogroms in1946 in theSovietUnionsweptawayallthose opposing the official views, who, in the official party views, distorted and negated thesignificanceofnationalculturalheritage.I.Golomstock,TotalitarianArtintheSovietUnion,theThirdReich,FascistItalyandthePeople’sRepublicofChina,IconEdition,GreatBritain,1990,pp.140–43.
13Kapetanovi, ‘Thearchitecturalworkof JurajNeidhardt’,p.271.Kapetanovistatedthat inMay1945 the Action Committee (Akcioni Odbor za osnivanje saradnje sa SSSR) in charge of culturalcooperationwiththeUSSRwasestablished.ItspresidentwasMinisterDrNedoZec;thesecretarieswereJurajNeidhardtandSlavkoMiunovi.14KarliKapetanovi,JurajNajdhart,životidjelo,pp.272–82.
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Figure 23: Stage designed by Neidhardt for Tito’s visit toSarajevo. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt, Architecture ofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.321.
Figure 24: ‘People build, state helps’ poster designed byNeidhardt. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt, Architecture ofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.320.
16 Original quote: ‘Zalaže se u poslu koji sam izabere I koji mu se svidi. Likovno spreman I odliancrtaneprilaogodljivnašimprilikamaustrunomposlu’.Kapetanovi,‘ThearchitecturalworkofJurajNeidhardt’,p.300.17Kapetanovi,‘ThearchitecturalworkofJurajNeidhardt’,pp.297–81.18Kapetanovi,‘ThearchitecturalworkofJurajNeidhardt’,pp.297–81.19Fullquote:‘Decadencyandformalisminarchitectureinourcontext,areexpressed,amongstotherthings,inaseriesofnew,recentlyconstructedordesignedarchitecturalobjects[thedesignsfornewstreetscapes of Sarajevo, etc] as well as in formalist theories that proclaim that the socalledfunctional constructivism … is the architecture of the new socialist society. The fight against theremnantsandrecidivism[sic.]of theWestern formalismanddecadency… includedsofarandwillinclude–toacertainextent–inthefuturefightforpopularizationofthegreattraditionsofSovietart, and the fight against any attempt to intellectually undermine Soviet artistic production.’ R.Zogovi, originally published inArhitektura, nos. 11–12, 1948, p. 56; cited in I. Štraus,ArhitekturaJugoslavije,1945–1990,(YugoslavArchitecture,19451990),Svjetlost,Sarajevo,1991,p.12.
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decadency and formalism’, and therefore incapable of representing the
‘architecture of the new socialist society.’20 Such an approach, Zogovi suggested,
22Štraus,ArhitekturaJugoslavije,p.12.23G.Castillo,‘SocialistrealismandbuiltnationalismintheColdWar“BattleoftheStyles”’,Centropa:AJournalofCentralEuropeanArchitectureandRelatedArts,vol.1,no.2,2001,pp.85–94.Seealso,G. A. Castillo, ‘Constructing the Cold War: architecture, urbanism and the cultural division ofGermany,1945–1957’,PhDthesis,UniversityofCalifornia,2000.24Castillo,‘SocialistrealismandbuiltnationalismintheColdWar’,pp.85–94.
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Sarajevo to Ljubljana in 1945contributed to the significant decrease in the public
25UponthebeginningoftheWorldWarTwoGrabrijanstayedinSarajevo,teachingattheTechnicalSchooluntil1945.Hewas imprisonedbytheGermansforsometimeduringthewar,consideredasupporter of the resistance movement. Soon after the end of the war, in 1945, Grabrijan leftSarajevo and returned to Slovenia to take up an academic appointment at the University ofLjubljana. In 1946 he was appointed Associate Lecturer, in 1947 Docent and 1951 AssociateProfessor of history of architecture and principles of design at the Faculty of Architecture inLjubljana.26TheconflictresultedintheCominformResolutionof28June1948,whichexpelledtheCommunistParty of Yugoslavia from Cominform. Extensive literature on this issue suggests the CominformResolution arose from Stalin’s attempts to control other communist states, as well as Tito’sunwillingnesstoobeyStalin’sinstructions.Inparticular,YugoslaviawasconsideredtobepushingtoofasttowardsunificationwithBulgariaandAlbania.AlthoughfollowingStalin'sproposalforaseriesofsuch unifications, Tito was seen to be proceeding without proper consultation with Moscow.Another issue was Tito's eagerness to ‘export the revolution’ to Greece. For an overview of thispoliticalconflictseeMalcolm,Bosnia–AShortHistory,pp.194–95.27Cominformisanabbreviationfrom‘CommunistInformationBureau’.Theword‘Informbiro’istheYugoslavnameoftheCominform.TheCominformwasanetworkmadeupofthecommunistpartiesof Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, France, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Romania, the Soviet Union andYugoslavia (until1948). In thehistoryofYugoslavia, Informbirorefers totheperiodbetween1948and1955,andischaracterisedbyconflictwiththeSovietUnion.
such was constructivism.30 So once the Yugoslav Party denounced its shortlived
28Forseveralyearsaftertheconflict,Tito’spolicieswerecloselymodelledonthoseofStalin.Unclearaboutitsgoals,thepartyaffectedabalancebetweenauniqueYugoslavapproachandanappealtotheSovietblock,toregain itssupport.TheYugoslavfederalconstitutionproclaimed in1946wasacopyoftheSovietconstitutionproclaimed10yearsearlier.The1949communistleadership’srapidcollectivisationofpeasantsmallholdingsdemonstrated thehesitancyofYugoslav leadershipat thetime.Malcolm,Bosnia–AShortHistory,pp.194–95.29S.Musabegovi,‘War–theconstitutionofthetotalitarianbody’,PhDthesis,EuropeanUniversityInstitute,2004.30 Musabegovi, ‘War – the constitution of the totalitarian body’; and S. Musabegovi, Ratkonstitucijaratnogtijela,Svjetlost,Sarajevo,2007,pp.13–14.
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dedication to Sovietstyle social realism in art and architecture, it was left with a
lose faith’ and to persevere in the promotion of what they now referred at as
31Theambiguityoftheartists’positionwasreflectedinthealternatingsupportandresentmentofthe Soviet government. In a letter to the conference of the Society of Artists of Bosnia andHercegovina, held in February 1949, artists stated their commitment to ‘the exploration anddefinitionofsocialistrealisminthearts’aswellastheirrejectionof‘theuntruestatementsandthe[Stalinist’s] campaign against our people’. Quoted in Prilike 1945–1974, Umjetnika Galerija BiH,Sarajevo,p.15.TheCommunistPartycommitteessuchasAgitprop[agitationandpropaganda]thatpreviously supported the Soviet agenda shifted their interest towards defining the parameters ofauthentically Yugoslav artistic production. For further discussion see M. Markovi & G. Petrovi(eds.), Introduction, Praxis, Yugoslav Essays in the Philosophy and Methodology of the SocialSciences,BostonStudiesinthePhilosophyofScience,D.ReidelPublishingCo.,Holland,1979.32Originalquote:‘Štodalje,tolikouvidjamdajeovajzahvatprekodomaedomodernevrlostretan!IkadBežek(ljub.arhitekt,D.Grabrijanovprijatelj,prim.aut.)kojijedobronamjeranujedaTitotraži‘našu’ arhitekturu, veli više je našega u onom gdje se Najdhardt približio Bosni nego li uRavnikarovom klasicizmu’. English translation: ‘The more I think about it [Bosnian Orientalarchitecture],themoreitbecomescleartomethatthispathtolocalarchitectureviathemodernisveryfortunate!WhenBežek(aSlovenianarchitectfromLjubljanaandGrabrijan’sfriend)whoisverywell intentioned,heardthatTitowasafter ‘our’architecture,hesaidthattherewasmoreof ‘our’[architecture] in Neidhardt’s interpretation of Bosnian architecture than in [Slovenian architect]Ravnikar’sclassicism’.Letterdated8June1947,citedinKapetanovi,‘ThearchitecturalworkofJurajNeidhardt’,p.297.
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BosnianOrientalarchitecture.33Grabrijansuggested that their ideaswere ‘twenty
to fifty years ahead of their time’ and that their further development could only
33Kapetanovi,‘ThearchitecturalworkofJurajNeidhardt’,p.297.34 Grabrijan suggested that their approach had been already recognised by some, such as hisSlovenian colleague Bežek who, according to Grabrijan, had suggested that Bosnian Orientalrepresented the qualities sought from ‘our’ architecture. Kapetanovi, ‘The architectural work ofJurajNeidhardt’,p.297.35Thedesignsfortheworkers’housinginVarešMejdanwereexecutedin1954,Kralupiin1952andBrezikin1947.ThecompetitionentryfortheSlovenianParliamentwasdonein1947–48.36D.Grabrijan,‘MislioNašiDedišinivZvezizReferatisPosveta,ArhitektovvDubrovniku’,SlovenskiEtnograf, no. 5, 1952, pp. 101106; originally presented as ‘O naši orientalski in sodobni hiši, at asymposiumonhistoricheritageofYugoslavia,Dubrovnik,1950.37AlistofarticlesthatspecificallydealtwiththetopicofOrientalheritageinYugoslaviaisincludedinthecollectionofGrabrijan’sreprintedarticlespresentedinDž.eli,GrabrijaniSarajevo.Itincludesfollowingtitles:‘OrijentalnahižavSarajevu’,Arhitektura,nos23–24,Zagreb,1949;‘Našaorijentalnai savremena kua’, paper presented at a conference ‘Problemi arhitekture in urbanizma LRS’, Iposvetovanje FLRJ, Dubrovnik 1950; ‘Misli o naši dedišini v zvazi z referati s posveta arhitektov vDubrovniku Ljubljana, 1950’ presented also under the title ‘Dedišina narodov FLRJ v arhitekturi’,Likovni svet, Ljubljana, 1951; ‘Arhitektura v merilu loveka’, Arhitekt, Ljubljana, May–June 1952;‘ArhitektonskonasljedenarodaJugoslavije’,Arhitektura,br.5,Zagreb,1952; ‘Organskiurbanizem’,Arhitekt, Ljubljana, November–December 1952; ‘Le Corbusier’, Naši razgledi, Ljubljana, 4 October1952;‘Obeležjemakedonskecivilnearhitektureinnjenitvorci’,Naširazgledi,Ljubljana,18October1952.
39 Original quote: ‘Zar nije takav izvor savremene arhitekture sarajevska aršija? Zašto da izvoretražimo na drugim mjestima, da neprestano primamo iz tree ruke, kada smo na izvoru? Zar nisumusandere – savremeni uzidani ormari? Zar nisu seije savremeni kaui? I savremeno niskopokustvo,tedvoetažniprostoriijednakokrakestepenice,pavegetacija,kojaulaziuprostoristan,kojaseprelijevaupriroduitd.’Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.14.
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physical aspects such as materials, climate and topography. Growing out of the
roots, the tree trunk shows a blending of factors from the root system and the
mediation of those by additional factors, such as ‘people and their land’ and the
‘unwritten laws’ – a reference to customary building practices.40 The city is the
40The‘unwrittenlaws’included:localbuildingpractices(gradjevnipostupak);rightstoaview(pravona vidik); relationship to nature (odnos do prirode); spatial architecture (prostorna arhitektura);‘growing’houses(kuekojerastu);houseswithoutfurniture(kuebezmobilijara);surfacestructure(površinestruktura);domeandcubes(kupolastaIkockastaarhitektura)[abstractform];architectureinhumanscale(arhitekturaumjeriluovjeka).41Thewordsusedinthisdrawingare ‘Turcism’;theyarenottheSerboCroatianorBosnianwordsbut‘loans’,wordsmostcommonlyfromTurkishbuttransformedandpronouncedasBosnian/SerboCroatian.
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Figure 25: Structure of the book as represented as a tree.Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,Architecture of Bosnia andtheWayTowardsModernity,p.4.
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Figure26:DrawingofapanoramaofSarajevo,showinganharmonious connection between the terrain and the city.Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,Architecture of Bosnia andtheWayTowardsModernity,p.5.
The introduction concludes with the statement that this new analysis of the old
44 Chapter one ‘The people and land’ (Narod and Zemlja); chapter two ‘The city’ (Grad); chapterthree‘Themarketplace’(aršija);chapterfour‘Theneighbourhood’(Mahala)andchapterfive‘Thehouse’(Kua).45 Chapters six ‘Unwritten laws’ (Nepisani Zakoni) and chapter seven ‘The revival of Bosnian andHercegovinanarchitecture’(PreporodArhitektureuBosniIHercegovini).46Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.318.Thebookfeaturesarangeofvisualmaterial,includingphotographs,sketchesanddrawingsbytheauthors’aswell as children’s and students’ drawings. A section titled the ‘Specification of collaborators andgraphicmaterial’presentedadetailedlistofillustrationcredits.ThelistsuggeststhatbothGrabrijanand Neidhardt provided illustrations for the historical research presented in the introduction andfirst five chapters. The drawings of the last two chapters were credited to Neidhardt only. Mostcommonly historic and technical/architectural drawings were contributed by Grabrijan,interpretativesketchesandthreedimensionaldrawingsbyNeidhardt.
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Redefiningthegroundsuponwhichanationisconstructed
The origin of Bosnian Muslims that opens the book is presented as a series of
dialectical questions and answers that seek to highlight the subjective nature of
historic interpretation and the shifting grounds upon which those views are
constructed. ‘Who are these people?’ the authors ask. The answer, they state,
cannot be provided definitively, but rather in a rhetorical question such as, ‘[Are
they]Turkswhosettledhere’or ‘the localpopulation’ofBogumils?And if indeed
they are the Turks who came with the Ottomans, ‘What happened to all the
49Buturovi,‘ProducingandannihilatingtheethosofBosnianIslam’,pp.29–33.50 For a broaderdiscussion of theMountainWreath seeA. Wachtel,MakingaNation,BreakingaNation,pp.40–45.51Wachtel,MakingaNation,BreakingaNation,pp.40–45.
52Wachtel,MakingaNation,BreakingaNation,pp.40–45.53 Buturovi’s ‘Producing and annihilating the ethos of Bosnian Islam’ presents a summary of theissuesrelatedtothepositionandroleofIslaminBosnia.WachtelalsodiscussestheissuesofIslaminrelationshiptoYugoslavculturaldevelopment.54Buturovi,‘ProducingandannihilatingtheethosofBosnianIslam’,pp.29–33.
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some Croatian and some promoted uniquely Bošnjak national identity.55 Others,
however, argued that Islam was more important than any nation, or alternatively
recognised their Slavic origins and membership of a SerboCroatian tribe as the
55AlthoughBošnjaknational identityincludedthethreemainreligiousgroupsofBosnia’sMuslims,Serbs (Orthodox) and Croats (Catholics), in reality it relied on Bosnian Muslims. Bosnia’s Austro–Hungarianadministrator,FinanceMinisterBenjaminKállay–theheadtheBosnianBureaubetween1882 and 1903 – first introduced the concept. Kallay believed the formation of a political nation,suchascollectiveBosniannation,wouldunitealldifferentpeoplewithinacommonadministrativeand political structure and deny or diminish the relevance of national unity based on nationalidentity. For further discussion see T. Kraljai, Kalajev Režim u Bosni i Hercegovini 1882–1903(Kallay’sGovernanceofBosniaandHercegovina),VeselinMasleša,Sarajevo,1987.56TheJMO,thestrongestMuslimparty,recognisedandacceptedthedifficultiesofcompetingwiththe Serb and Croat nationalist agenda and suggested that its members choose between the two,based on the economic prospects offered by either side. Illustrative of the curiousness of thisarrangementistheoftencitedexampleofJMO18deputies(andtheiralternativeselectedin1923election) who all, but for party president Dr Mehmed Spaho, declared themselves as Croats.MehmedSpaho, who in his student days declared himself a Serb, later refused either the SerborCroatian label, while his brother Fehim, the reis ululema (Islamic religious head) of Yugoslavia’sMuslimsfrom1938to1942,wasaCroatandhisthirdbrother,Mustafa(anengineer),wasaSerb.Banac,TheNationalQuestioninYugoslavia,p.375.57Theterm‘internalnationalisation’iselaboratedinButurovi,‘Producingandannihilatingtheethosof Bosnian Islam’, pp. 29–33. Malcolm uses like term in relationship to a search for a ‘national’identityamongdifferentconfessionalgroupsthatheargueswereinspiredandmovedbytheforcesoutsideBosnia.Malcolm,Bosnia–AShortHistory.58Inanattempttotransformitself,thestructureoftheCommunistPartyofYugoslaviachangedinthe1950s.In1952,itsnamewaschangedtoLeagueofCommunistofYugoslavia,andthePolitburowas renamed Executive Bureau. The leadership decided the party should be transformed into amovement of socialist forces, that ‘should not command, but offer ideological leadership’. Thechange in approach decreased the party’s control over the public domain. Djilas, The ContestedCountry,p.174.
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first party congress stated, in his speech, that Bosnia needed to accept those
divisions:
Bosnia cannot be divided between Serbia and Croatia, not because Serbs and
of capacity to finally resolve the issue, and resist and overcome nationalist
pressures.
63Thechangewasofficiallyrecognisedinthe1971constitution.ForfurtherdiscussionseeDonia&Fine, Bosnia and Hercegovina, pp. 178–79 and Buturovi, ‘National quest and the anguish ofsalvation:BosnianMuslimidentityinMešaSelimovi’sDervishandDeath”’.64Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.23.65Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.23.66Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.23.67Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.23.
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Grabrijan and Neidhardt perceived the socialist government’s ongoing changes to
local Muslim population to focal points of Islam outside of Yugoslavia, the
discussion presented in Architecture of Bosnia and the Way Towards Modernity
68Kapetanovi,‘ThearchitecturalworkofJurajNeidhardt’,p.239.69 Vidovdan or St Vitus' Day is a religious holiday observed on28 June. Vidovdan is also adate ofhistorical importance,markingSerbia’sbattleagainsttheOttomans,aswellastheassassinationofthe Austro–Hungarian crown prince Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, which triggered WorldWar One among the most significant events. Kapetanovi, ‘The architectural work of JurajNeidhardt’,pp.324–26.
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focused on the Muslims links to regional and local traditions. The authors argued
71Buturovi,StoneSpeaker,p.128.72Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,pp.10&15.73 For a detailed discussion of steak, its history and role the tombstones played in the collectiveimaginationofBosniaseeAmilaButurovi’sStoneSpeaker.Buturovi’sstudypresentsanoverview
the visible world was Satan’s creation and the only way for humans to free
themselvesoftheflawsofthematerialworldwastofollowanasceticwayof life.
of various hypotheses on the origins and symbolism of steak. It also situates the archaeology ofsteakwithintheinterpretativeframeworksthatlocatedtheoriesinscholarlyaswellaslaycircles.74 For further discussion see Malcolm, Bosnia – A Short History, particularly the chapters ‘ThemedievalBosnianstate,1180–1463’and‘TheBosnianChurch’.75Malcolm,Bosnia–AShortHistory,pp.28–29.Raki’stheorygainedsignificantpopularityamongboth historiansand politicians.There were,of course, rival theories proposed by mostlySerb andCroathistorianswhoarguedthattheChurchofBosniawasonlyabranchoftheOrthodox/SerbianorCatholic/CroatianChurchrespectively,oracombinationofthetwo.
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Also important, the Church rejected the traditional hierarchy of church structure
accepted as common in preOttoman and early Ottoman times [Figure 29]. They
76Acommonlyacceptedview,oftenpromotedbymembersoftheMuslimcommunity,suggeststhatBosnianMuslimsareconvertsoftheformerBosnianChurchandtherefore,ifnottheonlythenthemost, righteous carriers of the Bosnian nation. Donia & Fine present this view as a threefoldargumentunderlinedbytheassumptionthat1)theBosnianChurchwasBogumil;2)themajorityofBosniansweremembersofBosnianChurch;and3)atthetimeofconquesttheBogumils,frustratedbytheCatholicChurchpassedover,withouthesitation,tothenewreligionofIslam.DemonstratingthatconversiontoIslamwasgradual,takingBosniaalmost150yearstogainamajoritypopulationofMuslims, undermines the argument that acceptance of Islam in Bosnia was a result of massconversionoftheBosnianChurch.Malcolm,Bosnia–AShortHistory,pp.51–52;andDonia&Fine,BosniaandHercegovina.77Malcolm,Bosnia–AShortHistory,p.29.78Malcolm,Bosnia–AShortHistory,p.29.79 Malcolm states modern scholarship presents comprehensive evidence demolishing claims ofmassiveconversionstoIslambymembersofBosnianChurch.Malcolm,Bosnia–AShortHistory,p.29.80Foradetaileddiscussionofsteak,itshistoryandroleinthecollectiveimaginationofBosniaseeButurovi, ‘Thearchaeologyof thesteak,historicalandculturalconsiderations’, inStoneSpeaker,pp.51–79.
81Buturovi,StoneSpeaker,p.53.82BosniaandHercegovinaisnottheonlyterritorywheresteciarefound,andabout12percentofsteak cemeteries are found in other parts of former Yugoslavia, namely southern Croatia,Montenegro and Serbia. According to Buturovi, the number of steak cemeteries in formerYugoslaviais2988,whileindividualstecinumber66,663.Buturovi,StoneSpeaker,p.53.
83Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.20.84Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.2085 Original quote: ‘Radi se dakle of narodu koji je … prilagodljiv I dovoljno nadaren, da preuzmepostupke okoline, ali toliko samosvjestan, da ne govori kao ostali nego se izražava na svoj vlastinain’.Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.20.
the historical development of Bosnian art not only undermined nationalist views,
butalsoofferedanacceptableconceptualplace for theremnantsof theOttoman
legacy. Interpreted within what historian Maria Todorova has referred to as the
‘separatist’ view, the Ottoman legacy was commonly presented as residue of a
religiously, socially and institutionally alien society.86 Absorbed within the general
title of ‘Oriental’ artistic expression the Ottoman architectural heritage was
presented as synonymous with those of the Islamic and Turkish, and thus of
questionableauthenticity.87
86ThisviewwasbasedonaperceptionofincompatibilityofChristianityandIslam,andbyextensionbetweentheessentiallynomadicOttomansocietyandtheold,settled,urbansocietyoftheregion.Some aspects of this approach supported the ‘mechanical’ or ‘separate spheres’ approach to theOttoman legacy, which identified different aspects of cultural or political life. Todorova, ‘TheOttoman legacy in theBalkans’, inC.L.Brown (ed.), ImperialLegacy,TheOttoman Imprinton theBalkansandtheMiddleEast,ColumbiaUniversityPress,NewYork,1996,pp.45–77.87Todorovaidentifiestwobroadinterpretationsofthislegacy:theseparatistandtheorganicist.Theorganicist presents the Ottoman legacy as the complex symbiosis of the many influences thatimpacted on the region, namely Turkish, Islamic and Byzantine/Balkan traditions. The underliningrationaleisthatdespiteapparentreligious,socialandotherdifferences,thecenturiesofcoexistencemusthaveproducedacommonlegacythatwouldhavebeenthesameforalltheconstituentpartiesoftheOttomanlegacy.Todorova,‘TheOttomanlegacyintheBalkans’,pp.45–77.
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Willing to accept the historical condition from which this architecture emerged,
modernity. It was local, produced by all irrespective of their ethnic background,
inclusive of all and the Muslims in particular. The artistic expression of the new 90Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.12.
Figure 33: Bosnia as a place of negotiations, ‘Urban andarchitectural analysis’. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.322.
Theauthors’ faith in thecapacityofBosnia toaccommodateandmediatevarious
were often Communist Party members who had largely abandoned their religion
during the internal secularisation project. With the small ‘m’ Muslim sense of
religious belonging marginalised, the big ‘M’ Muslim identity that was previously
94 The opportunity Tito found was on a tour in Ethiopia, India and Egypt in 1955. Soon after, Titojoined Nasser and Nehru in constructing the new movement, in which being a Muslim wasconsideredbeneficial.Malcolm,Bosnia–AShortHistory,pp.196–98.
the selection by the Society of Architects of Yugoslavia of Neidhardt’s work for
inclusion in the International Union of Architects (UIA) exhibition held in Rabat,
Morocco in 1950.96 These designs comprised the antituberculosis hospital in
Travnik (1947), the skiing house (1947) on the mountain of Trebevi [Figure 35],
bachelors’ housing in Zenica, Vareš and Ljubija, workers’ housing in Ljubija, a
95I.Štraus,ArhitekturaJugoslavije,1945–1990,(YugoslavArchitecture,19451990),Svjetlost,Sarajevo,1991,p.23.ŠtraussitesnumerousinfluencesofLeCorbusier’sandMiesvanderRohe’scontemporarybuildingsonYugoslavarchitects.Referringtobuildingssuchas1953designforArmyPrintingServices(Vojnaštamparija)byarchitectMiloradMacura(ofwhichbuildingcommencedevenbeforeWorldWarTwo);urbanideasembeddedinthedesignofSajmištebyMilovanPantoviorthedesignof‘Hempro’andSocialInsurancebuildingsbyAleksejBrki,ŠtraussuggestsagreaterrecognitionoftheinfluencesofwesternarchitectstoYugoslavcontext,aswellastheacceptanceofarchitecturalexpressionassociatedwiththeInternationalModernism.ForfurtherdiscussionseeI.Štraus,ArhitekturaJugoslavije,pp.2333.96 Neidhardt’s work was selected to represent the country where all republics of Yugoslaviapresented their work. The exhibition brochure showed geography, people, folklore, traditionalarchitecture,andhistoricpartsofYugoslavia,andincludedaselectionofmodernbuildings,amongwhichweresomeofNeidhardt’s.Whentheantituberculosishospital inTravnikwasbuilt in1948,the name of the architect was not mentioned in any of the daily papers (Borba, Oslobodjenje);however, three years later the project and the architect were selected to represent of the newYugoslavia.Kapetanovi,‘ThearchitecturalworkofJurajNeidhardt’,p.311.
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regulation plan in Zenica (model) and some of his collaborative landscape
architectureprojects.
Figure 35: House on the mountain of Trebevi (1947).Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,Architecture of Bosnia andtheWayTowardsModernity,p.279.
By the 1950s Neidhardt’s design projects were starting to materialise, and were
publicly promoted in professional papers. His Sarajevo projects such as the
relevance of Islamic cultural heritage and the mediaeval past, respectively, for
modernBosnianculture.102
99N.Šegvi,‘StvaralakekomponentearhitektureFNRJ’,Urbanizam/Arhitektura,nos.5–6,1950,pp.5–40;citedinKapetanovi,‘ThearchitecturalworkofJurajNeidhardt’,p.309.100Kapetanovi,‘ThearchitecturalworkofJurajNeidhardt’,p.310.101Thesuggesteddateofhisofficialappointmenttoapositionofassociateprofessorwas22June1953.Kapetanovi,‘ThearchitecturalworkofJurajNeidhardt’,p.310.102 Among some examples are: J. Neidhardt & D. eli, ‘Stari most u Mostaru’, (The old MostarBridge), Naše Starine, no. 1, 1953, pp. 133–40; J. Neidhardt & D. eli, ‘Rješenje Marindvora INarodneSkupštine’,(ThesolutionforMarindvorandtheNationalParliament),NašeStarine,bookI,1956;‘BaštinaInovo’,(Heritageandnew),SlovoGorina,Stolac,1972;‘Smjenakultura’,(Transition
landscape presented new ways of mapping the terrain and towns of Bosnia. The
106 I. Štraus,NovaBosanskohercegovakaArhitektura1945–1975 (The New Architecture of BosniaandHercegovina1945–1975),SvjetlostOOURIzdavakaDjelatnost,Sarajevo,1977,p.26.107Štraus,15GodinaBosanskohercegovakeArhitekture1970–1985,p.26.108Whilehisinterestandenthusiasmfordesigncompetitionsappearedhighatalltimes,thesuccessofhisentriesvaried. In1945Neidhardtwonthedesigncompetitionforavillage library(1945);his1950s’ proposal for a monument to the Liberation Army on the mountain of Trebevi was alsoawardedaprize,but itwasnotexecuted.From1950to1953Neidhardtparticipated inaseriesofurbancompetitions,whichincludedproposalsforthetownsofKonjic(competitionentry),Trebinje(plan accepted) and Zenica (partially executed). For a comprehensive list of design projects andcompetitionentriesseeKapetanovi,‘ThearchitecturalworkofJurajNeidhardt’,pp.647–65.
the valuable lessons from the past whilst rectifying past mistakes.5 Thus,
1Fullquote: ‘It iseasy,bythismethod, togivebuildingsand interiorsa“vanish”ofculture,whichseems automatically to invest them with a definitive character, a kind of national local, patrioticvalue,etc.Lazyandstupidpeoplearesatisfied[withthisapproach],firstbecausetheymakeagoodbusiness this way, and others because they feel that they have saved themselves any efforts ofthinkingandsearchingfortheirown[architectural]expression’.Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.6.2Fullquote:‘Thereisstillanothermethod,methodofcontinuity–continuityofspirit,continuityofevolution … Grabrijan and Neidhardt have felt all this. The extraordinarily copious book they arepublishing needs no commentary. These pages will speak eloquently of their sentiments, theirtechnique,theiraesthetics’values,etc.’Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.6.3Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.11.4Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.11.5Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.11.
6 Full quote: ‘Is aršija not a source of modern architecture? Why do we look for inspirationelsewhere,continuouslygettingitfromsecondhandsources,whenweareatitsorigins?’Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.14.7Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.11.
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Figure 38: Division of precinct based on crafts. Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.64.
century Sarajevo suggests that more than half of the city’s income earners were
8EsnafisanOttomantermcommonlyreplacedwiththelocalwordceh.ForathoroughdiscussionoftheSarajevo’sesnaforganisation, seeH.Kreševljakovi,Esnafi iObrtiuStaromSarajevu,NarodnaProsvjeta, Sarajevo, 1958, pp. 47–65. The wordesnaf, Kreševljakovi suggests, is the plural of theArabicwordsunufun,whichmeansclass,orderor,broadly,organisation.Forawiderdiscussionofthis organisation, see N. Todorov, The Balkan City 1400–1900, University of Washington Press,Seattle,1983,p.108.
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members of esnaf, making it the economic support structure of the time.9 As
Figure40:‘Storebesidestore,handicraftbesidehandicraft’.Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,Architecture of Bosnia andtheWayTowardsModernity,p.66.
11 Original quote: ‘U aršija mogao je svaki od njih izradjivati samo odredjeni dio cjelokupneproizvodnjetako,daseradovauaršijimoguusporeditisaproizvodnjomnatekuojvrpci.Biloje,naprimjer, za izradu opreme vojnikog konja s konjanikom potrebno etrnaest zanata koji su jedandrugogdopunjavali.’Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,pp.67&77.
Figure 43: Beg’s Mosque, crosssection and axonometric.Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,Architecture of Bosnia andtheWayTowardsModernity,p.83.
12 Grabrijan was aware of Choisy’s work as he published a textbook titledZgodovinaArhitekture,svobodno poChoisyju (Historic Architecture, Based on Choisy), by University of Ljubljana 1949. A.Choisy,HagiaSophia,fromHistoried’Architecture(1899);reprintedinA.Forty,WordsandBuildings,AVocabularyofModernArchitecture,Thames&Hudson,London,2004,p.23.Thesectionandaplandrawing[Figure43]werecreditedtoanengineer,I.Štrukelj.Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,pp.83–84.13Forty,WordsandBuildings,pp.23–24.
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Figure 44: A. Choisy, Hagia Sophia, from Historied’Architecture (1899); reprinted in A. Forty, Words andBuildings,AVocabularyofModernArchitecture,Thames&Hudson,London,2004,p.23.
16AmihrabisawallnicheinamosqueindicatingthedirectionoftheKaabainMecca,andhencethedirection that Muslims should face when praying. Amimber is the pulpit in a mosque where thereligiousleaderImamstands.
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and Neidhardt’s discussion in this text, displayed a radical departure from their
position in ‘Sarajevo and Its Satellites’, where they critiqued the precinct for its
In the early years of socialist government Neidhardt avoided making explicit
reference to the traditional house, presenting his mining housing projects not in
relation to the traditionalmodelbut in termsof its capacity toaccommodate the
proletariat. With the official priority for architects described as providing ‘a roof
over the heads’ of the thousands made homeless by war, Neidhardt focused his
attention on developing a standardised housing solution and considered mass
production as the appropriate way of responding to the specifics of the Yugoslav
condition.17 His 1945 design for temporary homes proposed buildings made from
17 Štraus,NovaBosanskohercegovakaArhitektura1945–1975, p. 8. Despite collective efforts, thepostwar urban conditions of Sarajevo were improving more slowly than expected. According to1954censustherewerestillabout2,240familieswiththeirhomesleftinruins,and13,000familieswho livedinunacceptableconditions invariouskindsoftemporaryhousingstock.Asplansforthehousingdevelopmentlagged,atleast10,000familieswereinaneedofappropriateaccommodation.For further discussion see L. Zubevi, ‘Sarajevo (Area, population, employment, communications,traffic connections)’, in M. ankovi (ed.), Sarajevo u Socijalistikoj Jugoslaviji odOslobodjenja doSamoupravljanja,1950–1963(SarajevoinSocialistYugoslaviafortheLiberationtillSelfgovernance,1950–1963,IstorijskiArhivSarajevo,vol.2,Sarajevo,1988,pp.9–23.
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‘bent cane sticks’, a system that would provide efficient, cheap construction
appropriate for a country founded on guerrilla resistance. Importantly, such
20 Numerous new institutions were established and new laws passed that aimed to preserve andmaintain the nation’s material heritage. In July 1945, the law for the Protection of Cultural and
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Liberation of Yugoslavia in February 1945, the state claimed responsibility to
‘protect all objects of artistic and scientific value, that included, (but was not
collected by institutions and their relevance to the contemporary society.
Architecture of Bosnia and theWay TowardsModernity incorporated sketches of
internal layouts of numerous historic homes in the city recently opened to the
NaturalHeritage(ZakonozaštitispomenikakultureandprirodnihrijetkostiuBosnia IHercegovini)wasintroduced.Itwasfollowedbyadditionallawsdesignedtoprotectheritageitemsunderthreat.The Institute for Research and Protection of Cultural Monuments and Natural Resources startedoperating independently in 1947 (Zemaljski Zavod za Zaštitu I Nauno Prouavanje SpomenikaKulture i prirodnih rijetkosti BiH). Serdarevi,Pravna zaštita kulturnohistorijskog naslijedjaBiH, p.35. Also see N. Šipovac, Kultura u Socijalistikoj Republici Bosni i Hercegovini (The culture of theSocialistRepublicofBosniaandHercegovina),NISPOslobodjenje,Sarajevo,1976.21Serdarevi,PravnazaštitakulturnohistorijskognaslijedjaBiH,p.37.22 Vodi krozMuzej Grada Sarajeva (Guide Through the Museum of the City of Sarajevo), MuzejgradaSarajevo,Sarajevo,1976,p.5.23VodikrozMuzejGradaSarajeva,pp.17–21.
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public [Figure 50 & Figure 51].24 Combined with an extensive collection of
24 Vodi kroz Svrzinu kuu (Guide Through Svrzo’s House), Muzej Grada Sarajeva, Sarajevo 1976.Svrzo’shousebecameapropertyoftheMuseumoftheCityofSarajevo(MuzejGradaSarajeva) in1952;by1953itwasopenedtothepublicasamuseumhouse.
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Figure 51: Inner courtyard and a room in Svrzo’s house(Svrzinakua),openedtothepublicin1953.Source:MuzejGrada Sarajeva, Stambena Kultura Starog Sarajeva, DES,Sarajevo.http://www.muzejsarajeva.ba/content/view/37/52/lang,en/
Figure 53: ‘Modernity of the traditional house’s interior’,erzelezhouse.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.208.
Ultimately it was the framing of the traditional house within the modern and
Figure 54: Modernity of the traditional home: crossventilationandaninteriorofamutvak(women’skitchen)oftheDjerdjelesfamilyhouse.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,Architecture of Bosnia and the Way Towards Modernity,p.208.
The authors’ emphasis on the building type’s organisation, their discussion of its
development and the documentation of the house’s architectural qualities was
presented as a search for universal values in the existing fabric. The relationship
Meyer argued that ‘the elements in a building that have a telling psychological
effect (poster area, loudspeaker, light dispenser, staircase, colour, etc.) must be
29 E. Laclau, ‘Universalism, particularism and the question of identity’, in J. Rajchman (ed.), TheIdentityinQuestion,Routledge,NewYork,1995,p.97.30Laclau,‘Universalism,particularismandthequestionofidentity’,p.97.31K.M.Hays,‘DiagrammingtheNewWorld,orHannesMeyer’s“Scientization”ofarchitecture’,inP.Galison&E.Thompson(eds),TheArchitectureofScience,MITPress,Cambridge,Ma.,1999,p.246.
prototypes useful in the development of modern architecture of socialism was a
table of 24 sketches accompanied by individual, succinct and directive captions
[Figure 55]. The table presented a summary of the ‘positive’ values identified in
theiranalysis.34
32Hays,‘DiagrammingtheNewWorld,orHannesMeyer’s“Scientization”ofarchitecture’,p.246.33 D. Grabrijan, ‘Turska kuaOsnove i porijeklo’ (Turkish house, its roots and origins), in D. eli,GrabrijaniSarajevo,pp.37–43.34Forarelateddiscussionofethnographicandarchitecturalstudiesofthe‘Algerianhouse’andtheprototypes that emerged, see Z. Çelik, Urban Forms and Colonial Confrontations, Algiers UnderFrenchRule,UniversityofCaliforniaPress,Berkeley,1997,pp.87–113.
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Figure 55: The city, aršija, mahala, house, 24 sketches.Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,Architecture of Bosnia andtheWayTowardsModernity,pp.56–57.
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For example, the caption to the sketch no. 1 referred to the openness of the
suburban layouts of mahala, as ‘a neighbouring unit in a contemporary sense’.
concept. The drawing titled ‘Uptodate architectonic dictionary alphabet of the
carpettown’ presented a series of threedimensional building typologies as a
dictionary for new architectural forms [Figure 56]. The intent was stated in the
subtitle: ‘The glossary complied in an attempt to find a new vocabulary based on
theexperienceofthepast’.37
Figure 56: Neidhardt’s ‘Uptodate architectonic dictionaryalphabet of the carpettown’. Source: Grabrijan &Neidhardt, Architecture of Bosnia and the Way TowardsModernity,p.324.
Grabrijan and Neidhardt suggested that using these forms would allow for the
38 The formula was presented as a design idea equalling a series of concepts:IP=ODP+PNV+VDN+PNS+UP+ANDR+KK+KNS+JS. Grabrijan & Neidhardt, Architecture of Bosnia andtheWayTowardsModernity,p.333.
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Demonstrating the capacity of the traditional house to accommodate significant
1BothprojectsareincludedinGrabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity. The project’s title New aršija refers to the business section (aršija) of the Bašaršijaprecinct.
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old fabric and was presented as an abstract force capable of informing the new
Figure 58: Bašaršija precinct during the socialist period.Plan indicating the chronological development of theprecinct:A)GaziHusrefBeg’smosque;B)Orthodoxchurch;C) Jewish synagogue; D) Brusa bezistan; E) Rustem pashaBezistan; F) Czar’s mosque; G) Town Hall. Originallypresented in JSAH, vol. 51, no. 1, March 1991, drawingadjusted from the map used in A. Bejti, Stara Sarajevskaaršija–juer,danasIsutra.
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However, despite the public debates and the controversies that surrounded
Bašaršija, government policies rarely admitted the impact of nationalist tensions
on such city debates. Only a few indirect references indicated the difficulties
2 Original quote: ‘Stari dijelovi grada, izgradjeni u osmanskom periodu smetali su u ono vrijemepojedinim intelektualcima bliskim režimu koji su u osnovi negirao svaku posebnost I kulturniintegritet Bosne. Kroz gledanje na objekte džamija, medresa I turskih groblja provejavala je Ivjekovna gorina porobljenog naroda. Naprotiv, ti objekti zadivljavali su došljake, intelektualce izdrugihsredinakojisusetunastaniliIdjelovali.TakvisubiliVancaš,Pospišil,Grabrijan,Najdhardt…Oni su svaki na svoj nain u ovim bosanskim gradjevinama vidjeli jedan suptilni orijentalni duh Iestetiku, izazov za prouavanje, ouvanje I poticaj za novo stvaralaštvo’. Kapetanovi, ‘ThearchitecturalworkofJurajNeidhardt’,p.248.
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historic or cultural value’, and they are only a ‘fire hazard’ and a ‘source of
which was surrounded by a graveyard that was in use until 1924, was under a
heritage protection order when it was demolished in 1957.6 That is, it was a
3A.Bejti,StaraSarajevskaaršija– juer,danas i sutra (OldSarajevoaršija–Yesterday,Today,Tomorrow),GradskiZavodzaZaštituIuredjenjeSpomenikaKulture,Sarajevo,1969,p.61.4 The demolition process was finally slowed down due to significant protests by prominent cityfigures. While Neidhardt was ultimately among those who objected to the precinct’s destruction,initially he was a ‘committee’ member in charge of the demolition. On the 29 April 1949, acommittee (Komisija pri Gradskoj upravi) was formed to oversee the demolition process. Itsmembersincluded:engineerEmanuelŠamanekDirectorofUrbanDevelopment,engineerMuhamedKadi, professorHamdijaKreševljakovi,DrVlado Jokanovi,DirectorofZemaljski Zavodzazaštituspomenikakulture,engineerJurajNeidhardtandVeraKrstiGaleb.V.KrstiGaleb‘Cultureandartsintheearlyyearsofpostwardevelopment’(KulturaIumjetnostuprvimposlijeratnimgodinama),inM.ankovi,SarajevouSocijalistikoj JugoslavijiodOslobodjenjadoSamoupravljanja,1945–1950,vol.I,p.478.5DemolishedpartsoftheprecinctincludedthesouthsidefromtheareaofSaraitoKazazStreetontheeast,numeroussmallshopsofUpperandLowerTrgovke,almostallshopsthatsurroundedBrusabezistan,theeasternendofKolobarahan,alltheshopsandstoresbetweentheMilosObiliaStreetandSagrdjija.Kostovi,Sarajevoizmedjudobrotvorstvaizla,p.135.6TheofficialwebsiteoftheKomisija/PovjerenstvozaOuvanjeNacionalnihSpomenika(CommissiontoPreserveNationalMonuments)presentsanoverviewofthehistoricaldevelopmentofIsabegovatekija(zawija).In1878,theAustro–Hungarianauthoritiestemporarilybannedthemusafirhana,andthus also the tekija, from operating. The tekija, however, remained in use until 1924, and wasmaintainedfromtherevenueofvakif(patron)FadilpašaŠerifovi.In1941,claimingthatitneededto regulate traffic, the government of the Independent State of Croatia issued plans for the area,proposingthedemolitionofIsabeg'stekija.ThecommencementofWorldWarTwopreventedtheplansbeingcarriedout.In1950,theexecutivecommitteeoftheSarajevoCityPeople'sCommitteeresolvedtocarryoutanewregulatoryplan,whichagainproposedthedemolitionofthetekija.Thisbegan on 23 June 1950 and, despite protests, the tekija was demolished in 1957; its foundationswerefilledwithlayersofsoiltoregulateandleveltheterrain.Thecommissionfoundthatgravesofsomeleadingfiguresfromthetekijawerecoveredbydemolitiondebris,withnorecordofwhether
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registered monument, documented and described in literature and in receipt of
or not the graves had been exhumed beforehand. For more information see the Commission toPreserveNationalMonumentswebsiteat:http://www.aneks8komisija.com.ba/main.php?id_struct=6&lang=1&action=view&id=2539;http://www.aneks8komisija.com.ba/main.php?id_struct=50&lang=4&action=view&id=25397Serdarevi,PravnazaštitakulturnohistorijskognaslijedjaBiH,p.36.8 In February 1949, an administrative and executive body of the city committee (Gradski Odbor)calledforacompetition.In1951,thecommitteepronouncedHamdijaKreševljakovi’sstudy‘Historyof Sarajevo’ as the winning entry. KrstiGaleb ‘Culture and arts in the early years of postwardevelopment’,inankovi,SarajevouSocijalistikojJugoslavijiodOslobodjenjadoSamoupravljanja,1945–1950,vol.I,pp.477–78.9 The chapter on the old aršija presented various aspects of the study and included historicalimages, numerous sketches and annotated diagrams of the precinct. Grabrijan & Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,pp.60–109.
urban strategies that included massive demolition, selective restoration, the
10Themodelwasdonetothescaleof1:100;itcoveredanareaintheoldprecinctof500metresby500metressquare(model50mx50m).ThemodelmakerwasMrHuseinKarišik,withNeidhardtthearchitect in charge. KrstiGaleb ‘Culture and arts in the early years of postwar development’, inankovi,SarajevouSocijalistikojJugoslavijiodOslobodjenjadoSamoupravljanja,1945–1950,vol.I,p.478.11AversionofthisdiscussionwaspresentedinD.Ali&M.Gusheh,‘ReconcilingcompetingnationalnarrativesinsocialistBosniaandHerzegovina:Bašaršijaproject(1948–53)’,JournaloftheSocietyofArchitecturalHistorians,vol.58,no.1,March1999,pp.6–25.
1913muchofithadbeenpulleddowntoallowforthevakuf’sinitiativeofdevelopingtheTašlihansite.www.aneks8komisija.com.ba/main.php?id_struct=50&lang=4&action=view&id=285714Serdarevi,PravnazaštitakulturnohistorijskognaslijedjaBiH,p.40.Paradoxically,alackoffundsalsopreventedthemodernisationandupgradingofthevakuf’ssites.Sufferingthisfatewasthe1939design competition for the New Tašlihan (Novi Tašlihan) business building, which remainedundeveloped.15Serdarevi,PravnazaštitakulturnohistorijskognaslijedjaBiH,p.76.16Serdarevi,PravnazaštitakulturnohistorijskognaslijedjaBiH,p.35.17 Original quote: ‘Da bi te muzejske vrijednosti bile što životnije, želimo im dodati još društvenopolitike. Istodobno emo optiki poveati utisak oko Begove džamije i Brusa bezistana saspomenikom NOB. Ne znamo naime zašto ne bi smjestili u aršiju u mauzolej NOB…’ Grabrijan &Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,pp.111&137.
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documents from 1535, were affected by this approach.18 Despite the hamam
historically providing a sacred space for abdest (ablution), Neidhardt proposed
18Serdarevi,PravnazaštitakulturnohistorijskognaslijedjaBiH,p.76.19Originalquote:‘Zgradajedaklekaostvorenazapivnicuustilunašihvinskihpodruma.Utubisvrhumogli iskoristiti i ‘koje’ na zapadnoj strani, koje se otvaraju prema Begovoj džamiji. Kod takvogpreuredjenjaunutrašnjihprostorijausavremenesvrhe,moralibibudnopaziti,davanjštinaneizgubisvoju historijsku vrijednost’. Grabrijan & Neidhardt, Architecture of Bosnia and theWay TowardsModernity,p.93.20Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.137.21 The selected artwork dealt with the themes of the revolution was done by recognisedrevolutionary artists. It included a sculpture of ‘Mother and child’, a scene from the NationalRevolution War; ‘Ploughing’, a scene from World War Two by Kostovi; ‘Mother’ by Meštrovi;‘Hostage’, a scene from the National Liberation Struggle by Baki; and a relief from the NationalLiberationWarbyMujezinovi.Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,pp.120–37.22 Original quote: ‘Da bi te muzejske vrijednosti bile što životnije, želimo im dodati još društvenopolitike. Istodobno emo optiki poveati utisak oko Begove džamije i Brusa bezistana saspomenikom NOB. Ne znamo naime zašto ne bi smjestili u aršiju u mauzolej NOB…’ Grabrijan &Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,pp.111&137.
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Figure 61: The New aršija proposal: view of new artistsstudios above the Old Orthodox church (top and bottomleft);proposedchangeofGaziHusrefBeg’sbezistan intoabar(topright);aninteriorofthenewTownMuseumtobehousedintheformerSheriat(MuslimLaw)School.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.114.
Figure 63: Proposal for the New Museum of RevolutionwithintheoldGaziHusrefBeg’sbezistanthatwouldincludeart celebrating ‘Liberation war’. Source: Grabrijan &Neidhardt, Architecture of Bosnia and the Way TowardsModernity,p.126.
In regards to the more incontrovertibly religious buildings such as mosques,
Neidhardt’s proposal for New aršija honoured their original functions, although
Figure 64: The proposed gate to the Bašaršija precinct.Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,Architecture of Bosnia andtheWayTowardsModernity,p.109.
24 W. Lesnikowski (ed.), East European Modernism, Architecture in Czechoslovakia, Hungary andPolandBetweenWars,1919–1939,Thames&Hudson,London,1996,p.10.
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Passage through this gateway would mark the beginning of a journey that
demonstrated Bosnia’s history from prehistoric times through to the Illyrian, the
Bogumil and the Bosnian Oriental, culminating in the socialist era.25 The
Figure 65: Proposed Bogumil gravestones in the precinct.Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,Architecture of Bosnia andtheWayTowardsModernity,p.113.
25AlthoughthedrawingofBašcaršija’sgatewayappearsasanopenertoNeidhardt’schapterontheNewaršijaproject,heborrowedthe imagefromthepartialanalysishemadeofBašcaršija inthe1940s.26 Referring to the 1950 Paris Universal Exposition, where steci represented the Bosniancontribution,Neidhardtstated:‘theworldwasimpressed[byBogumilheritage]…theyaretheprideof our people … [the] story of our distant and close past’. Grabrijan & Neidhardt,Architecture ofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.112.
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Contrary to the government position in Neidhardt’s proposal the Ottoman period
was represented through Bašaršija’s mosques, the existing graveyards and other
Feudal social structure [of theOttomans]and thewayof life in those timeshave
given us three fundamental architectural forms, the expression of three various
functions: the ‘ošak [corner]’, the dome and the minaret, i.e. cube, sphere and
cylinder.28
27 Original quote:’ Mi vidimo u tom razvoju logian historijski kontinuitet: neka arhitektonskaostvarenja, kaoekonomskenepotrebna i asocijalna,postepeno izumiru, drugase transformiraju,atrea, sasvim nova, se raaju, jer su uslovljena novin uslovima i nainom života’. Grabrijan &Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.322.28 Original quote :’Feudalna društvena struktura I tadašnji nain života dali su nam na poljuarhitektureuglavnomtrielementarnaoblika,kojisuproizašliiztrijurazliitihfunkcija:ošak,kubeimunaru.Daklekocku,polukugluivaljak.’Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,323.
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Skilfully using aspects of previous arguments developed in collaboration with
Grabrijan, Neidhardt reminded the reader that it was thisvery similarity between
29Originalquote:‘Upravonaovommožemotemeljitiporijeklokubizma–likovnogpokretapreteumodernog arhitekture, jer su upravo ova primarna geometrijska tjela poetna slova njegoveabecede.’Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,323.30Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.330.Neidhardtlinked his interest in a geometric and elemental approach to his time in Le Corbusier’s office. Forfurther discussion of Le Corbusier’s use of primary forms see, A. M. Vogt,LeCorbusier, theNobleSavage,TowardanArchaeologyofModernism,MITPress,Cambridge,Ma.,1998,pp.153–82.
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restaurant conveniently included the Orthodox Church and the minarets of Beg’s
mosqueinthebackground[Figure66].
Figure 66: Interiors of proposed restaurant ‘Aeroplane’.Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,Architecture of Bosnia andtheWayTowardsModernity,p.294.
The plans shown and the crosssection through the precinct shown in Figure 67
extend the notion of diversity further. The latter included domestic dwellings,
Figure68:PlanoftheNewaršijaproposal:A)GaziHusrefBeg’smosque;B)Orthodoxchurch;C)Jewishsynagogue;D)Catholic churchofStAnthony;E) new graveyard; F) Czar’smosque; G) new public/cultural buildings; H) newresidential area for cultural workers. Source: Grabrijan &Neidhardt, Architecture of Bosnia and the Way TowardsModernity,p.117.
According to Neidhardt, the buildings’ designs were all based on the modern
qualitiesof the traditionalhouse, thescale,materials,geometriccompositionand
32 Original quote: ‘Zašto da ne zakljuimo arsiju sa takvim objektom u obliku savremene kuleznanostiismjestimounutraorijentalniibalkanskiinstitutiliAkademijuznanostiiumjetnosti.Kojibise grad [u Jugoslaviji] mogao ponositit takvim profilom koji bi obuhvaao cijelu arhitektonskuklavijaturu BiH’. Grabrijan & Neidhardt, Architecture of Bosnia and theWay Towards Modernity,pp.112&137.
Figure 70: Collection of architectural ‘elements’ includessteak; traditional house and mosques’ domes. Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.416.
Ultimately, Neidhardt’s Bašaršija project became an architectural synthesis of
nationalist ideologies, where the heterogeneous, progressive and secular Bosnia
confidently represented a socialist Yugoslavia. His modernist reading and the
33 An earlier discussion of this project was presented in D. Ali, ‘Sarajevo and the making ofmonuments(1945–1992)’,inM.Ghandour,M.Labban,M.Lozanovska(eds),SitesofRecovery,TheFourth'OtherConnections’Conference,Beirut,Lebanon,October1999,pp.11–18.34Neidhardt’sassistantswerearchitectsD.eli,E. JahiandB.Mileusni,architecturestudentZ.Ugljen,artconsultantR.Miševi,modelmaker I.Komsi.Theprojectwaspublished inGrabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,pp.408–26.
Figure 72: Masterplan view of the new Marindvorproposal. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt, Architecture ofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.414.
Figure 73: The map of Marindvor precinct and Sarajevo,drawn by Neidhardt. ‘Dwelling complex in Yugoslav ArmyStreet (196647). First [example] in the history of Sarajevo[where] the principle of a spacious meander street isapplied’. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt, Architecture ofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.408.
thatstretch towards itswesternend.Neidhardt remarked, ‘If thedevelopmentof
Sarajevo isapproachedfromthepointofviewofhistoricalcontinuity then, in the
line of continuity with the ancient town of guilds [Bašaršija] and the later of
capitalists [central part], the construction of Marindvor is an expression of the
socialistsociety’[Figure74&Figure75].40
Figure74:Source: ‘Graphicanalysisof theelementsoftheurban solution’ described through use of keywords (fromtop) ‘zone’; ‘zigzag space’; ‘visual markers of heights’;‘space’; ‘views’, ‘traffic’; ‘historic precinct’; ‘continuity’;‘pedestrian zones’ and patterns’; ‘squares’ and ‘city as acarpet’. Grabrijan & Neidhardt,Architecture of Bosnia andtheWayTowardsModernity,p.415.
Figure75:Fromtop:urbansolutionforMarindvorprecinct.Bird’seye view of ‘Manifestation square’ and theparliament House building. Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,pp.410&413.
Figure 76: ’Elements’ of the new National Assemblybuildings: tower, atrium, shells, balcony and veranda.Source: Grabrijan & Neidhardt,Architecture of Bosnia andtheWayTowardsModernity,p.417.
Figure 77: Design for theNationalAssemblyofBosnia andHercegovina.Source:Grabrijan&Neidhardt,ArchitectureofBosniaandtheWayTowardsModernity,p.417.
54A.Bejti,StaraSarajevskaaršijajuer,danasisutra,OsnoveISmjernicezaRegenaraciju.Thelistof contributors included Juraj Neidhardt, Husref Redži, Mustafa umruki, Midhat Aganovi,VojislavJoksimovi,SretislavMarjanovi.Theideaspresentedin1969hadbeenalreadypresentedina 1962 analysis of the precinct in ‘Program for urban development of aršija’ (Program zaurbanistikoureenjearšije),alsobyAlijaBejti.55Focusedonmaintainingtheexistingfabric,thefundestablishedthe1878mapofBašaršijaasthereferencepointindefiningtheheritagefabricconsideredofcollectivevalue.Themapalsomarkedtheboundariesofthefund’sjurisdiction.AccordingtothearchivesoftheInstituteforProtectionofMonumentsofCulturefortheCityofSarajevo(ZavodzaZaštituSpomenikaKultureGradaSarajeva)the fund for the protection of Bašaršija was established in 1983. For more detail see Serdarevi,PravnazaštitakulturnohistorijskognaslijedjaBiH,pp.56–57.56 Regulation Plan for the Preservation, Conservation, Restoration and Revitalisation of Sarajevoaršija (Regulacion plan sanacije, konzervacije, restauracije I revitalizacije Sarajevske aršija),SkupštinaGradaSarajeva,Sarajevo,1975.Thelistofprojectarchitectsincludes:AlijaBejti,Džemaleli,RadivojJadri,JurajNeidhardtandHusrefRedži.57M.umruki,‘IzradaGeneralnogUrbanistickogPlana’,pp.387–559.
this thesis, both Lampe and Wachtel consider the power of cultural models as
2 For further discussion of use of primitive art in the developing modernist agenda see J. Clifford,‘Historiesofthetribalandthemodern’, inK.Pinder(ed.),RaceingArtHistory,CriticalReadingsinRaceandArtHistory,Routledge,NewYork,2002,pp.217–31.3J.Clifford,‘Historiesofthetribalandthemodern’,p.219.
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central to the construction and deconstruction of dominant political models in
of a unified national identity, historically ‘the sentiments of group belonging in
4Lampe,YugoslaviaasHistory,TwiceThereWasaCountry;andWachtel,MakingaNation,BreakingaNation.5Wachtel,MakingaNation,BreakingaNation,p.5.6Wachtel,MakingaNation,BreakingaNation,p.5.7 Buturovi, ‘National quest and the anguish of salvation: Bosnian Muslim identity in MešaSelimovi’sDervishandDeath’;Buturovi,StoneSpeaker;andButurovi,‘ProducingandannihilatingtheethosofBosnianIslam’.
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BosniaHercegovina have neither been rigid nor inflammatory as their war image
suggested’.8
Operating in the same moment of Yugoslav socialism as the writers Buturovi
investigated, Grabrijan and Neidhardt explored the embedded tensions between
cultural practices and institutional demands in Bosnia. Their model of Bosnian
war in Bosnia by the Serbian nationalist forces that surrounded the city. The
Parliament was attacked in July 1992, during the early days of the Bosnian war
[Figure80].
12 A. J. Riedlmayer (principal investigator), Destruction of Cultural Heritage in Bosnia andHerzegovina, 1992–1996, A Postwar Survey of Selected Municipalities, Cambridge, Mass., 2002,Expert report commissioned by the International Criminal Tribunal for Former Yugoslavia (ICTY).Riedlmayer’s study of 392 cultural and religious sites in 19 municipalities in Bosnia presentedevidence of widespread ethnic and communal violence resulting in a destruction of cultural andreligious buildings of religious groups of former Yugoslavia. However, within Bosnia the Islamicheritagesufferedthemost.Thefindingsshowthatoutofthe227Islamicmosquesconsidered92%wereheavilydamagedordestroyed.ThesamewastrueforotherIslamicreligiousmonumentssuchasturbesandtekkes.Initsconclusion,thereportstatesthat,‘theBosnianSerbdestructionofIslamicandCatholicculturalheritagesiteswasintentionalandsystematic’.In an attempt to formalise the procedures and position the destruction of cultural and religiousheritagewithinthecontextofwarcrimes,theInternationalCriminalTribunalforformerYugoslavia(ICTY) in The Hague included architectural historian Andras Riedlmayer’s report on the culturaldestruction in Bosnia and Kosovo in the case against the former president Slobodan Miloševi,accusedofwarcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity.
Gazi Husref Beg’s mosque and Bašaršija mosque, came under attack for their
obvious connection with and value to specific ethnic groups, not all buildings
attackedweremarkedbyreligioussymbolism.
13‘Warchitecture’ARCH,MagazineforArchitecture,TownPlanningandDesign,specialissue,no.24,Sarajevo, June 1993, p. 9. The project was undertaken in association with other institutions andbodies,suchastheSpecialUnitforCulturalRescueofCityCivilDefence,thearchitecturalunitoftherepublican headquarters for Protection of Cultural Heritage, the Commission for Cultural HeritageRescueandCityAssembly.The subsequent exhibitions that travelled to numerous European andUScities – presented underslogans such as ‘In circumstances of general destruction’, ‘Genocide and urbicide’, ‘Where life isreducedtoelementaryneeds’,‘Architectsmaintaintheircreativeenergy’and‘Thespiritofthecity’–passionatelypromotedtheroleofarchitectsintheconstructionandprotectionofthecity.
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Among the most significant structure of collective value to be attacked was the
the building, as well as the library collection, was enhanced by the support of
internationalorganisationssuchasUNESCOandtheWorldBank.UNESCODirector 14 For further discussion of the Town Hall’s destruction and rebuilding see D. Ali, ‘Ascribingsignificance to sites of memory, Sarajevo’s Town Hall’, in P. Somma (ed.), AtWarWith the City,UrbanInternationalPress,Gateshead,2004,pp.65–86.15B.Bollag, ‘RebuildingBosnianarchitecture’,TheChronicleofHigherEducation,13 January1995,pp.A35–A37;Riedlmayer, ‘Erasingthepast: thedestructionof librariesandarchives inBosniaandHerzegovina’,MiddleEastStudiesAssociationBulletin,vol.29,no.1,July1995,pp.7–11.16 A. Riedlmayer, ‘Killing memory: the targeting of libraries and archives in BosniaHerzegovina’,NewsletteroftheMiddleEastLibrariesAssociation,no.61(MelaNotes),Fall1994,p.1.
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General Mr Federico Mayor, in his appeal for the reconstruction of the library,
called ‘on all States, international governmental and nongovernmental
organizations, public and private institutions … to participate through voluntary
uncertainties about the future use of the Town Hall were all factors that
contributedtothedelay.18
17 Appeal by Federico Mayor, DirectorGeneral of UNESCO for reconstruction of the National andUniversityLibraryofBosniaandHerzegovinainSarajevo,Paris,13April1994.18 The proposals for the new use of the Town Hall varied significantly – retaining the building’sprevioususeas theNationalandUniversity Library; theTownHall; amuseumand library for rarebook collections; a ‘Monument of Interethnic Peace in the World’ etc. UNESCO report, Libraries,UNESCO’sassistance to the NationalandUniversityLibraryofBosnia andHerzegovina, May1998,www.unesco.org.
has added to ongoing debate, the complexities of the issues involved open
opportunitiesforfutureresearch.
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Grabrijan, D., ‘Muslimanska groblja’, (Muslim graveyards), Jugoslovenski list,Sarajevo,14.6.1936;andNoviBehar,no.56,Sarajevo,1937.
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Grabrijan, D., ‘Sarajevo se izgradjuje Nekoliko polemikih misli o urbanizacijiSarajeva’ (Thoughts and comments on the development of Sarajevo),JugoslovenskiList,Sarajevo,11.4.1936.
Grabrijan, D., ‘Arhitekt Juraj Neidhardt, prilikom predstojee izložbe njegovihradova pod pokroviteljstvom ‘Cvijete Zuzori’’ (Architect Juraj Neidhardt,Discussion in relating to forthcoming exhibition of Juraj Neidhardta, at ‘CvijetaZuzori’gallery),JugoslovenskiList,Sarajevo,18.10.1936
Grabrijan, D., ‘Izložba arh. Juraja Neidhardta, tuma izložbenih radova’ (TheguidetoJurajNeidhardt’sexhibition),JugoslovenskiList,Sarajevo,7.11.1936
Grabrijan, D., ‘Kosta Strajni (uoi njegovog predavanja o Meštroviu)’ (KostaStrajni in relation tohisdiscussionofMeštrovi), JugoslovenskiList, Sarajevo,25.11.1936.
Grabrijan, D., ‘SLOVA (misli i uputi)’ (Letters, thought and ideas) Tehniar,Beograd,November/December1936.
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Grabrijan, D., ‘Prijedlog za regulaciju Jelaievog trga”’ (A proposal for theregulationofJelaisquare),GraevinskiVijesnik,no.9,Zagreb,1937.
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Grabrijan,D.,‘Otvorenjeizlozbe‘Kruga’Ing.Arh.GrabrijanorazvojuslikarstvauSarajevu’ (The opening of the exhibition ‘Circle’, arch engineers Grabrijan’sreview of the development of art painting in Sarajevo), Jugoslovenski List,Sarajevo,26.10.1937.
Grabrijan, D., ‘Le Corbusier propovijeda kako je ako 18 godisnji mladic gradioprvukucusvojimroditeljimanaŽenevskomjezeru’(LeCorbusierstoryabouthisfirst building, his parents home on Geneva lake), Tehniar, no. 2, Beograd,November1937.
Grabrijan,D., ‘RadnikakuaakutanproblemSarajevaprimjenaprincipastareislamske arhitekture na modernu’ (Workers housing, an acute problem ofSarajevo – application of the principles of Islamic architecture in modernarchitecture),NoviBehar,nos.1316,Sarajevo,February1938.
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Grabrijan, D., ‘Spomenik kralju Aleksandru u Ljubljani’ (Monument to the KingAlexanderinLjubljana),Slovenec,Ljubljana,9August1938.
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Grabrijan, D., ‘Za skeletnu, aprotiv masivne konstrukcije (slobodno po LeCorbusieru: Les precisions)’ (For skeletal and against masonry construction, aninterpretationofLeCorbusier’slesPrecisions),Tehniar,no.1,Beograd,Oktobar1938.
Grabrijan, D., ‘Kultura teferia (osvrt na bosansko islamsku arhitekturu)’ ( Thekultura of teferi, a view of Bosnian Islamic architecture), Jugoslovenki List,Sarajevo,8.7.1939.
Grabrijan, D., ‘Skloništa protiv napada iz vazduha’ (Anti air raid shelters),JugoslovenskaPošta,Sarajevo,27.9.1939.
Grabrijan, D., ‘Problem akustike u modernoj arhitekturi (po Loosu i LeCorbusieru)’ (The acoustic problems in modern architecture, according to LoosandLeCorbusier),TehnikiList,nos.17&18,Zagreb,31.10.1939.
Grabrijan,D.,‘Zahorizontalniaprotivverikalnogprozora(poLeCorbusieru)’(Forhorizontal and against vertical windows, according to Le Corbusier), Tehniar,Beograd,January1940.
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Grabrijan, D., ‘Sluaj Šerijatske gimnazije’ (The case of Sheriat school)JugoslovenkiList,Sarajevo,17.11.1940.
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