African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies Volume 5 No 2 September 2008 Articles eJournal

http://www.ajeds.com

i

http://www.ajeds.com © all right reserved

AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES

(AJEDS)

AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR MULTI-DISCIPLINARY STUDIES

SEPTEMBER, 2008

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF PROF. B.S. OKEKE

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF

PORT HARCOURT

http://www.ajeds.com/�

ii


AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION

AND DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES (AJEDS)

VOL. 5, NO.2 SEPTEMBER, 2008

ISSN: 07945-760


iii


AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES (AJEDS)

EDITORIAL BOARD

• Professor B.S. Okeke - Editor-in-Chief

University of Port Harcourt

• Dr. Nath. M. Abraham - Editor University of Port Harcourt

• Dr. (Mrs.) Maureen N. Koko - Associate Editor Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Nkpolu, Port Harcourt

• Dr. Musa O. Anavberokhai Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma - Associate Editor

• Dr. David Aboho Benue State University, Makurdi - Associate Editor

• Dr. (Mrs.) Grace K. Etuk University of Uyo - Associate Editor

• Dr. (Mrs.) Jessica Ezekiel-Hart Rivers State College of Education, Port Harcourt. - Associate Editor


iv


CONSULTING EDITORS Professor S.P.T. Gbamanja - Njala University, New England, Freetown, Sierra Leone. Professor (Mrs.) C.C. Nwagwu - Institute of Education, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria. Ms. Boakye Cecilia - Institute of Education, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana. Professor Kayode Ajayi - Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria. Dr. Martin Fabunmi - Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. Professor Wey Amaewhule - Rivers State University of Science

And Technology, Nkpolu, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

William Mhuri Masocha - Applied Scholastic, Zimbabwe. Professor Abimbola Olakanmi - University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.

African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol 5., No 2, September, 2008


v


EDITORIAL/NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS

African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS) is making steady progress in its avowed responsibility of publishing and disseminating scholarly research reports. This is Volume 5, Number 2 of the journal, and it contains 14 articles. Being a multi-disciplinary outlet, the journal invites scholarly articles on current issues of educational concern and those from other disciplines. • The Article should not be more than 15 A-4 pages, references and

appendices inclusive. • Each article must be typed with double line spacing on one side of

paper only, using font 14. • Article must have an abstract of not more than 200 words. • Three (3) copies of article should be submitted for peer review with

non-refundable assessment fee as shall be decided by the Board. • Citations and references must conform to current American

Psychological Association (APA) style. • Each submission should be accompanied with one (1) self addressed

and stamped Large (bag) envelope as well as an official self addressed/stamped envelope of return of assessed paper(s), and acceptance letter respectively.

• Cover page of each article should have name(s) of author(s), title of article, institutional affiliation, e-mail address as well as telephone numbers of contributors.

All correspondence should be directed to:

Dr. Nath. M. Abraham – Editor African Journal of Education and Development studies (AJEDS), C/o Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria



vi


LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Jamabo, A. (Ph.D) - Rivers State Universal Basic Education Board, Port Harcourt Jamabo T. (Mrs.) - Rivers State College of Education

Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt Asagwara, C.G. (Ph.D.) - Associate Professor, Faculty of Education, University of Calabar, Calabar. Macaulay, E.D. - Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku, Rivers State. China, Mercy A. (Mrs.) - Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku, Rivers State. Owhondah, Samuel N. (Ph.D)- Rivers State College of Education, Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt. Deemua, G.A. - Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education, University of Port Harcourt. Bassey, Steve U. (Ph.D.) - Department of Educational Management University of Uyo, Nigeria.



vii


Mezieobi, Dan - Department of Social Science Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka Mezieobi, Sam (Ph.D.) - Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology, University of Port Harcourt. Omoni, Grace E. - Institute of Education Delta State University, Abraka Ijeh, Scholastica U. - Department of Psychology, College of Education Agbor Oghuvbu, E.P. (Ph.D.) - Department of Educational Administration and Policy Studies Delta State University Abraka, Nigeria. Iro, P.C.E. (Ph.D.) - Department of Human Kinetics, and Health Education, University of Port Harcourt. Okoro, James (Ph.D.) - Faculty of Education, Delta State University, Abraka, Delta State. Prof. John Bisi Asonibare - Depart of Guidance & Counselling University of Ilorin, Ilorin.



viii


Oniye, Abdulrazaq O. (Ph.D.)- Depart of Guidance & Counselling University of Ilorin, Ilorin. Prof. P.O.M Nnabuo - Department of Educational Management, University of Port Harcourt. Afangideh, Sunday T. - Department of Educational Management, University of Port Harcourt. Kpee, G.G. (Ph.D.) - Institute of Education, University of Port Harcourt. Prof. E.B. Awotua-Efebo - Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology, University of Port Harcourt. Baribor Vikoo (Ph.D.) - Institute of Education, University of Port Harcourt.



ix


TABLE OF CONTENTS

Editorial i Editorial Board ii Consulting Editors iii List of Contributors iv Table of Contents v

Perceptual styles and scholastic status of students in rivers state ATUBOBARALABI JAMABO & TAMUNOIMAMA JAMABO & ASAGWARA, C.G. 1 Functional foods: an evolving food for healthy living CHINA, MERCY & MACAULAY, EGBO D. 15

Sensitization and empowerment of female teachers: a trend towards gender parity in Nigeria. OWHONDAH, SAMUEL NARIOCHUKWU, 22

Towards enhancing Nigeria’s sports performance: issues and prospects. DEEMUA, G.A. 34 Causal attributions of success on goal attainment of principals in Akwa Ibom state of Nigeria STEVE U. BASSEY, 48 Conflict generation and management in the Nigerian socio-political environment, DAN. I. MEZIEOBI & SAM A. MEZIEOBI, 61

Death, bereavement and caregiving: implications for counselling GRACE EGO OMONI & SCHOLASTICA U. IJEH 70



x


Analysis of resources management in primary schools in Delta State, Nigeria. ENAMIRORO PATRICK OGHUVBU 80

Knowledge and practice of lesbianism among Nigeria university athletes: implications for mitigating the HIV/AIDS scourge P.C.E. IRO, 94 Assessment of working conditions of business studies teachers in secondary schools in delta state, OKORO, JAMES 114

Retirement and retirement counselling: issues and challenges PROF. JOHN BISI ASONIBARE & ABDULRAZAQ OLAYINKA ONIYE 126 Effects of bibliotherapy and story telling Counselling techniques on primary school teachers’ perception of retirement, GRACE EGO OMONI 140 University autonomy and quality education in Nigeria PROF. NNABUO, P.O.M; AFANGIDEH, S.T. & KPEE, G.G. 150 Education for sustainable development: a coherent philosophy for environmental education? AWOTUA-EFEBO, E.B. & BARIBOR VIKOO. 160



1

http://www.ajeds.com © all rights reserved

PERCEPTUAL STYLES AND SCHOLASTIC STATUS OF STUDENTS IN RIVERS STATE

BY

DR. ATUBOBARALABI JAMABO;

DR. (MRS) TAMUNOIMAMA JAMABO &

DR. C. G. ASAGWARA Abstract The study investigated if there was a relationship between perceptual style and scholastic status of J.S.S. II students in Rivers State of Nigeria. The ex post facto research design was used with a hypothesis guiding the study. The stratified random sampling technique was used in drawing a sample of 1205 subjects. The instrument used for data collection was captioned “Perceptual Organization Visual Battery Test” (POVBT). The major finding of the study was that, there was a high significant relationship between perceptual style and scholastic status. It was recommended that the mode of the learners’ perceptual style should be taken into consideration before effective teaching and learning would take place. Introduction School failure and dropping out of school are serious educational and societal problems (Ianni & Orr, 1996). These are equally costly to the individual, family and nation. Because students who leave school before receiving a certificate reduce their opportunities. Besides, school failure and attrition impinge upon retention and graduation rates of schools. Expectedly, high level of attrition affects institutional planning for facilities long term planning for the curriculum and an institution’s survival. Large number of dropouts also increase the average cost per student. All these are critical for


2


the nation because of the fair portion of Nigeria’s human and financial resources that go into the education enterprise (Onyejiaku, 1982).

Many factors are assumed to contribute to school failure namely, the home, the school, the educational policy, the teachers and the students themselves. While some of these postulations may be correct, it can be surmised that most underachievers have not actually learned, possibly due to inappropriate application of their perceptual modes of understanding and abstractions to the teaching behaviour and life generally.

It has become obvious that individual differences in the cognitive processes of perception, memory and problem solving do not necessarily reflect differences in basic intelligence (Onyejiaku, 1980; Jamabo, 2004). Much meaningful and usable learning activities depend on pupil’s meaningful understanding or categorization and not necessarily on the quality or richness of their native intelligence. Onyejiaku (1980) and Jamabo (2004) further confirmed that potentialities or abilities per se do not influence behaviour more than mode of perceptual style. An individual’s reaction to a stimulus is to a large extent a function of how he perceives, analyzes and categorizes the situation which is a function of his perceptual style.

The knowledge of this makes teaching-learning process meaningful and transfer of knowledge possible. That is the reason why Onyejiaku (1982) affirmed that if a person’s manner of understanding receives some boost and is allowed free expression, he would maximize his potentialities, learn more effectively and be more effective in his preferred career. Conceptualization of perceptual styles It must have to be emphasized at this point that the terms ‘perceptual style’ and ‘cognitive style’ are used interchangeably. In the dictionary of Behavioral Sciences (1975), it is defined as “the mode in which a person organizes and classifies his perception of



3


environment in order to impose order upon a confusing series of events” (p.175). Kagan, Moss and Sigel (1963), define the term as “stable individual preferences in mode of perceptual organization and conceptual categorization of the external environment” (p.74). Schroder, Driver, and Strufer (1967), refer to the term as the stable idiosyncratic differences among people in the way they go about taking in, processing and utilizing information obtained from their environment. In the light of these definitions, the term ‘perceptual style’ or ‘cognitive style’ simply refers to the strategies which the brain uses to actively select, attend to, organize, perceive, encode, store, and retrieve information.

There have been several models of perceptual styles formulated by psychologists of these streams of activity. Four of such approaches have received greater attention. These are:

1. Levelling-sharpening (Gardner, Holzman, Klein, Linton & Spence, 1959)

2. Field Dependence – Independence (Witkin, Dyke, Faterson, Good -enough & Karp, 1962).

3. Analytic – Relational conceptual styles (Kagan et. al 1963).

4. Impulsivity – Reflectivity (Kagan, Roseman, Day, Albert & Philips (1964)

Leveling – Sharpening tendencies to stimulus categorization is a stream of activity in perceptual functioning grown out of the work of Gardner and his associates (1959). Klein and Schlesinger (1950) describe this conceptual style in terms of individual variations in differentiation of the stimulus field. Individuals with leveling tendency characteristically do not easily distinguish between successive perceptual impressions so that distractions within a perceptual field are blurred. On the other hand, sharpeners are characterized by a high degree of separation between memory of what has been learnt before and new information. That is

Perceptual Styles and Scholastic Status of Students in Rivers State, JAMABO , JAMABO & ASAGWARA


4


why Onyejiaku (1980) presented sharpeners as having discrete recalled images. For levelers, perceptual impressions are not so distinct and categorization is somehow vague.

Field Dependence–Independence, often referred to as psychological differentiation, is the work of Witkin and his group (1962). His approach distinguishes between individuals who separate an object from an organized field (field independent) from those who do not (field dependent). It is because of the consistencies individuals manifested in both perceptual and symbolic activities that led Witkin to distinguish them as styles of intellectual functioning. Characteristically, field independent individuals are able to perceive, imagine, separate and analyze units embedded in a larger configuration. Field independents can distinguish and co-ordinate relevant attributes in a complex and often unstructured and distracting stimulus world. On the other hand, the field dependent individuals are characteristically unable to separate and co-ordinate discrete units or sub units from a larger context or stimulus world.

Analytic –non-analytic perceptual functioning grew out of the work of Kagan and his associates. They proposed analytic, inferential and relational modes of conceptualizing and categorizing stimulus. They observed that some individuals fractionate a stimulus world into small sub-units and respond to them accordingly while others simply respond to a large stimulus chunk as a whole. Out of these varying strategies of responding, they distinguished two groups: the “splinters’ and the “lumpers’. The former characteristically analyze and differentiate stimulus field applying labels to sub-unit of whole. The latter refers to those who tend to categorize a relatively undifferentiated stimulus, thus, paying less attention to details within a stimulus arrangement (Onyejiaka, 1980).

On a closer examination of these characteristic modes of categorizing stimuli, Kagan and associates postulated three perceptual styles, namely:



5


(1) analytic – descriptive (2) inferential – categorical and (3) relational concepts. The authors’ definition of these styles as paraphrased by Onyejiaku (1980). Analytic Descriptive. Analytic descriptive responses are defined on the basis of shared stimuli. The subjects differentiate the stimulus configuration by applying labels to sub-elements of the whole characteristically, they prefer to split environmental stimulus or a given configuration into discrete entities and responds to them as separate entities. Operationally, analytic individuals refer to those who classify objects together on their shared characteristics, for example, objects having four legs, objects having one leg missing, animals with only one eye. An analytic individual scores above the median on analytic responses but below the median on inferential and relational responses. Inferential Categorical Individuals with inferential categorical responding mode use common class membership in relating to stimuli. In other words, they group stimuli together on the basis of inferential quality of language convention, not on the sub-elements of the whole. Classification is based on the super-ordinate concept. Operationally, individuals with inferential style are those who tend to group objects because, for example, they are wooden furniture, or vehicles, or living things, or just human beings. An individual with an inferential style scores above the median on inferential responses but below the median on analytic and relational responses. Relational Style

Individuals with relational responding mode characteristically pair stimulus configuration on the basis of functional relationship between the stimuli. In a relational concept, two stimuli are not independent conceptually, rather each derives



6


meaning from the other. In some texts, this style has been variously labeled as global, contextual or theoretical mode of categorization because of the characteristic ways these individuals associate a whole stimulus with another whole stimulus in making an individual with relational style group objects on functional basis. For example, “a man lives in a house,” “a pen is used for writing”, “husband and wife live together.” A relational individual scores above the median on relational responses but below the median on analytic and inferential responses.

According to Kagan et al (1963), relational concepts differ from analytic descriptive concepts with respect to the part – whole analysis of the stimulus. In a relational concept each stimulus in a group retains its complete identity and is classified as a whole. In an analytic-descriptive concept, the subject selects from each stimulus a specific sub – element that is similar to a sub-element within another stimulus, thus, separating figures, and there are no background elements. For example, in a descriptive concept, “people wear shoes on”, the crucial stimulus element is the presence of shoes, while the remaining aspects of the stimuli are disregarded. While the descriptive concepts involve an active conceptual analysis, relational concepts seem to involve a passive acceptance of the whole stimulus configuration. Impulsivity-Reflectivity Impulsivity-reflectivity dimension of intellectual functioning was identified by Kagan et al (1964). It describes an individual’s tendency to reflect on an aspect of problem situation, that is, when there are available alternative solutions to a given problem but with some uncertainty over which one is the most appropriate . when highly alternative answers of which only one is the correct answer are provided to subjects, subjects who respond quickly and in most cases register more errors are labeled impulsive while those who characteristically pause to as “reflective”.



7


Thus, under experimental conditions in impulsivity-reflectivity measures, response time and errors are most important. It should be noted, however, that delay in responses due to ignorance should not be taken as reflective stance.

Kagan (1964), operationally defines the reflection variable as the response time in problem situation in which the subject is presented with a standard stimulus and an array containing the standard and 5 to 10 highly similar variants.

The reflective and the impulsive may arrive at the same answer in a given situation, yet there is difference in action time. Generally, in any given situation, the child who is above the median on MFF response time and below the median in errors is called reflective. On the otherhand, the child who is below the median on responses time but above the median on errors is called impulsive. Purpose The purpose of this study was to investigate if there was a relationship between perceptual style and scholastic status. Hypothesis There is no significant relationship between perceptual style and scholastic status in J.SS.II students in Rivers State. Assumptions Of The Study

1. In the school system, scholastic status of a learner can be measured.

2. The learner’s perceptual style can be identified, measured and it varies among learners.

Sample The sample was drawn from the population of J.S.S. II students in Rivers State. The population was made up of thirteen thousand, two hundred and fifteen boys (13,215) and thirteen thousand, eight hundred and eight (13,888) girls with a total size of twenty seven thousand, one hundred and three (27,103)



8


students. Their age range by between twelve (12) and fifteen (15) years. Actual sample size was 1205. Stratification of the sample was based on territories.

Research Instrument The research instrument was modified from Sigel’s cognitive style Test (SCST). The actual triads used in the test were adapted from a doctoral study titled, “Effects of cognitive styles and instructional strategies on Academic Achievement, “(Onyejiaku, 1980). The instrument was captioned ‘Perceptual Organization Visual Battery Test’ (POVBT). An analysis of the various items in the different tests making up the POVBT reveal ‘Embedded Figure Tests’ (sub-test on figure-ground differentiation) which turns out subjects that are Field independent/Dependent. Matching Familiar Figure Test (MFF) (sub-test on constancy of shape) which way diagnose subjects under the mould of impulsivity/Reflectivity. While the SCST which stipulates the child to identify related pictures will indicate students who are Analytic and Non-Analytic in their mode of perceptual categorization. The instrument was validated by a team of experts in psychology. Besides, reliability was also established using the simple random sample to select a sample of 60 students. The Cronbach Alpha Reliability technique revealed a reliability coefficient of .73. Result There is no significant relationship between perceptual style and scholastic status. TABLE 1: Chi square contingency test result: perceptual style versus scholastic status. Perceptual Mainstream Highrisk Total n=1204 Styles students students (n=742) (n=462)



9


Analytic Fo = 266 Fo = 252 Fo = 518 Fe = 319.2 Fe = 198.8 Fe = 518 Inconsistent Fo = 112 Fo = 98 Fo = 210 Fe = 194.4 Fe = 80.6 Fe = 210 Non-analytic Fo = 364 Fo =112 Fo = 476 Fe = 293.3 Fe = 182.7 Fe = 476

742 462 1204

X2 = 73.61., DF = 2, P <.05 From table 1, the observed (ie computed X2value of 73.61) far exceeded the critical X2 value of 10.60 for 2 df at the .05 significance level. This implies that the null hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between perceptual style and scholastic status is rejected. Discussion The result showed that relationship between style and scholastic status is significantly high. However, the finding of this study supports that of Goodacre (1971), Onyejiaku (1982) and Schneider (1996) who found that perceptual cognitive styles influence the manner in which the learner understands and interprets what has been presented to him.

Perceptual styles must play an important part in the degree of persistence the learner brings to the task. In studies by Ward, Pelco and Landrum (1998), Schaiper and Flores (1985), individual differences in learning were determined and subjects were made more aware of their overall perceptual/cognitive learning style, their overall perceptual/cognitive learning style preferences and their actual strengths. Possible reasons for this finding can be explained in the examination of the construct of perceptual style itself. An individual’s perceptual style is based on his responses to each triad of familiar pictures.



10


Analytic students choose to break these perceptions into discrete entities while the nonanalytic students choose to treat them as unified wholes.

This is supported by Onyejiaku (1980), Satterly (1976), Frehner (1973), Mercer and miller (1992) where results of tests of significance show that analytic students scored significantly higher than nonanalytic students.

In a similar vein, Crow and Piper (1993), in their study found that students who were field dependent and possessed a positive attitude scored significantly higher on a science achievement test than students who were field dependent and possessed a negative attitude.

Ogunyemi (1973), and Duttweiler (1992) investigated the relationship between science achievement and cognitive style. They reported that among boys, the difference between high and low science achievers on the inferential and analytic styles increased with academic level. The studies also confirmed the finding that the preferential style is superior to the analytic in terms of cognitive hierarchy. This is also in consonance with the findings of Cropley and Field (1969), Stevens (1990) who reported that honours graduates came almost exclusively from among those who have been rated high divergent in their style of thinking on entry to the University four years previously. In effect, what Cropley and Field observed is that better understanding of the role of style in classroom performance would be particularly useful in view of the current desire to identify talent early and to foster its realization. In the same vein, De Nike (1974), Deshler and Shumaker (1993), demonstrated that teachers can individualize instruction by being aware of the cognitive style of the individual learner.

This present study also affirmed that students with analytic cognitive style perform significantly better than students with nonanalytic cognitive styles.



11


Recommendations/Counselling Implications Based on the finding of this study, and subsequent conclusions, the following recommendations have been made: For effective teaching and learning, the mode of the learner’s

perceptual style, in other words, his mode of understanding seems to be basic. The results of this study have shown that analytic and nonanalytic students react differently to stimuli presented to them.

Students should be exposed to the instructional technique in which they would benefit more. If learning activities are prescribed that match even the highrisk student’s perceptual style, the certainty of successful accomplishment of a learning task are guaranteed.

References Cropley, A.J & Field, T.W. (1969). Achievement in science and

intellectual styles. Journal of applied psychology. 53, (2), 132-135.

Crow, L. W. & piper, M.K. (1993). A study of the perceptual

orientation of community college students and their attitude towards science as they relate to science achievement. Journal of research in-science teaching. 20, (6). 537-541.

De Nike, L. (1974). An exploratory study of cognitive styles as a predictor of learning from simulation games. Dissertation abstracts international. 34 (9), 5797-5798. Deshler, D.D.& Schumaker, J.B. (1993). Strategy mastery by at-risk

students. Not a simple matter. Elementary school journal. 94 (2), 153 – 167.



12


Duttweiler, P.C (1992). Engaging at – risk students with technology. Media and Methods. 29, (2), 6-8.

Frehner, V.I (1973). Cognitive style as a determinant of educational

achievement among sixth grade elementary school students. Dissertation abstracts international. 33, 7, 3379-80.

Gardner, R. W., Holzman, P.s, Klein, G. S, Linton, H.B. & Spence,

D. P. (1959). Cognitive control: A study of individual consistencies on cognitive behaviour. Psychological issues. 1,4.

Goodacre, E J (1971). Children and learning to read. students library

of education. London: Rutledge & Kegan Paul. Ianni, F. A. J., & Orr, M. T. (1996). Dropping out. In J. A. Graber &

J. Books – Gunn (Eds), Transitions in adolescence. Hillsdale,

New – Jersey: Erlbaum. Jamabo, A. (2004). Perceptual organization of academically highrisk

students in secondary schools in Rivers State. Unpublished M.Ed thesis, University of Calabar. Nigeria.

Kagan, J., Moss, H. A. & Sigel, I. E. (1963). The psychological

significance of styles of conceptualization. In J. F. Wright & J. Kagam (Eds)

Basic cognitive processes in children. New York: klans Reprint co. Kagan, J., Roseman, B., Day, D., Albert, J., & Philips, W. (1964).

Information processing in the child: significance of analytic and reflective attitudes. Psychological monographs. 78 (578).



13


Klein, G. S & Schlesinger, P. S. (1950). The schematizing process: personality qualities and perceptual attitudes in sensivity to change. American psychologist. 5,312.

Mercer, C. D. & Miller, S. P. (1992). Teaching students with

learning problems in maths to acquire, understand and apply basic maths facts. Remedial and special education. 13 (3), 19-35.

Ogunyemi, L. E. (1973). Cognitive style and students science

achievement in Nigeria. The journal of experimental education. 42, (1), 59-63.

Onyejiaku, K. O. (1980). Effects of cognitive styles and instructional

strategies on academic performance. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Onyejiaku, F. O. (1982). Cognitive styles, instructional strategies

and academic performance. Journal of experimental education. 51 (1), 31-37.

Rivers State Government, (2000). Department of Research and

Planning, Ministry of Education, Port – Harcourt, Rivers State

Satterley, D. J. (1976). Cognitive styles, spatial ability and school

achievement. Journal of educational psychology. 68 (1) 36 – 42.

Schaiper, L. & Flores, J. (1985). Perceptual learning diflerences

among Mexico – American high school and university students. A paper presented at the annual conference of the National association for bilingual education.



14


Schneider, E. (1996). Teaching foreign language to at- risk learners Washngton: ERIC Digest.

Schroder, J. M., Driver, M. J. & Strufer, S. (1967). Human

information procession. New York: Holt, Rhinehart & Winston.

Stevens, S. H. (1990). How to rescue at – risk students. A guide for

parents and teachers. Winston – Salem: Learning development network.

Ward, S. B., Pelco, L. E. & Landrum, M. S. (1998). Getting noticed:

An alternative, multi-component assessment model for identifying gifted preschool learners in at-risk populations. Journal of at-risk issues. V.4, N.2, P.38-44.

Witkin, H. A, Dyke, R. B., Faterson, H. F., Goodenough, D. R. &

Karp, S. A. (1962). Psychological differentiation. New York: Wiley.

Wolsen, B. B. (1975). Dictionary of behavioral science. London:

Macmillan Press.



15


FUNCTIONAL FOODS: AN EVOLVING FOOD FOR HEALTHY LIVING

BY

CHINA, MERCY A (MRS.) & MACAULAY, EGBO D.

Abstract In the world today good health is one of the major concerns of every nation because, a healthy nation is a wealthy nation. Food plays a paramount role in our lives; everyone has the ambition of becoming something in life this can only be true if we are healthy. This paper therefore, focuses on the consumption of functional foods. In a country where people are well fed with these functional foods, there will be less incidence of sickness therefore; less amount will be expended on health. The importance of functional foods was critically examined. This paper concludes with the note that functional foods are an integral part of on overall healthy lifestyle. The paper recommends among others that people should strive to consume a wide variety of functional foods. Introduction Consumer interest in the relationship between diet and health has increased the demand for information about functional foods. Rapid advances in science and technology, increasing health care cost, changes in food laws affecting label and product claims, an aging population, and rising interest in attaining wellness through diet, are among the factor fueling a nations interest in functional foods. Food has been defined as any substance, which after consumption, digestion and absorption by the body produces energy, promotes the growth and repair of tissues and regulates all the body process (Olusanya, 1988). Functional food on the other hand is defined as the dietary components that provide a health benefit beyond basic


16


nutrition (Hasler, 1998). (Achalu 1998) equally asserts that health is more than just the absence of physical pain or disease as previously thought in the ancient past. He defines health as a condition of the body that enables one to cope with his or her environment and enables one to derive reasonable satisfaction from one’s daily activities, physically, emotionally, socially or otherwise. World Health Organization (2003), views healthy living as the state of complete physical, mental and social well – being of an individual, individual healthy living is often contingent upon his dietary pattern, which largely makes for his overall life success. There could therefore be no skepticism that most person could struggle with much assiduity to achieve good health through the consumption of functional foods. In the same vein, healthy living may not be achieved if we fail to take personal responsibility for promoting health by practicing good eating habits especially, consumption of functional foods (Haster, 1998). Functional Foods from Plants Sources Oats Functional foods have been defined in a number of ways by different persons, the emphasis however, inspite of the variation is on disease prevention and health promotion. Borrowing from the words of Okada (2005:40), “Oats products are dietary source of the Cholesterol – lowering soluble fiber b-glucan”. From the foregoing, it therefore means that oat consumption can reduce total and low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol thereby reducing the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) some examples of oat products are Quaker oat, corn flakes etc. Soybean Soybean is without doubt one of the most important food crop ever discovered by man from nature. Soy has been in the spotlight during the 1990s not only is soy a high quality protein as assessed by the FDA’s protein digestibility correction amino acid score method, soy



17


is now thought to play preventive and therapeutic in Cardiovascular Disease (CVD), Okaka (2005), held that, soybean consumption is relatively low in some countries especially Nigeria. However, soy is form of milk and flour is fast becoming household food in some countries including Nigeria because of its diet improving capabilities and disease prevention. Soybean should be made a household food he added. Tomatoes Credible scientific research indicates there are many clinically demonstrated and potential health benefits from food components. These benefits continue to expand the health claims not permitted to be identified by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Hasler (1998), clearly stated that tomatoes as a functional food have received significant attention, that tomatoes was selected by eating well magazine as the 1997 vegetable of the year because of its role in cancer risk reduction. However, the big question here is! Are we eating tomatoes at least 10 or more time per week? (Fresh or processed) the answer may not be far from the negative, if this be the case, then we are very far from attaining or achieving good health. Buttressing further, he added that tomatoes should be eating at least 10 times per week for prevention and reduction of cancer risk. Garlic (Allium Sativum) The purported health benefits of garlic are numerous, garlic is widely quoted in the literature for medicinal properties. According to Hasler (1998), garlic has ranked as the second best selling herb in the United States, reason been that garlic is noted for prevention of CVD, through it’s antihypertensive properties. However, there is still insufficient evidence to recommend it as a routine clinical therapy for the treatment of hypertensive subjects. Adlercreutz and Fotsis (1982) opined that, the cardioprotective effects are more likely due to its cholesterol – lowering effect. According to them, the result of five randomized placebo controlled clinical trials, involving

Functional Foods: An Evaluation food for Health Living, CHINA & MACAULAY


18


410 patients, showed that an average of 900mg garlic per day (as little as one – half to one clove of garlic) could decrease total serum cholesterol level. Citrus fruits The major nutrient in citrus fruit is Vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Borrowing from the words of Olusanya (1998), “citrus fruits are protective against a variety of human cancers” from the foregoing, it therefore means that, oranges, lemons, limes and grape fruits should be adequately consumed because they are the principal source of this nutrients. Hasler (1998) views it as mild natural laxatives, as the cellulose is however indigestible and so adds bulk to the stool. He held that consumers should strive to consume a wide variety of citrus fruits. Citrus are particularly high in a class of phytochemicals (ADA, 1995). Tea Tea is second only to water as the most widely consumed beverage in the world. A great deal of attention has been directed to the polyphenolic constituents of tea particularly green tea (AHF, 1992), ADA(1995) posits that tea consumption can reduce the risk of CVD in human. AHF (1992) held that, most research on health benefits of tea has focused on its cancer chemopreventive effect. This of course makes it functional. Wine and Grapes Wine and grapes particularly red wine has some functional attributes. Red wine has been known to reduce the risk of CVD (Hasler 1998). He added that, the link between wine intake and CVD first became apparent in 1979 when St. Leger in 1979 found a strong negative correlation between wine intake and death from Ischemic heart disease in both men and women from 18 countries.



19


France in particular has a relatively low rate of CVD despite diet high in diary fat. AHF (1992) supported that, moderate wine consumption has bee associated with a decrease risk of age related macular degeneration especially non-alcoholic wine ADA (1995) attributed the positive benefits of red wine to the ability of phenolic substance to prevent the oxidation of low density lipoprotein (LDL) a critical event in the process of atherogenesis. However, a note of caution is in order, as alcoholic wine of all kinds have been linked to increased risk of several types of cancer, including breast cancer (Adlercrleutz et al 1982). Functional Foods from Animal Sources Although the vast number of naturally occurring health-enhancing substances are of plant origin, there are a number of physiologically – active component in animal products that deserve attention for their potential role in optimal health. Fish Omega – 3 According to Albert and Hennekens (1998) Omega – 3 fatty acids are essential class of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAS) derived primary from fish oil and known to play an important role in reducing CVD risk. Conclusion and Recommendation As scientific and technological advances develop in the field of health and nutrition, more and more focus has been directed towards the emerging field of personalized nutrition which involves the application of the human genome to nutrition and personal health to provide individual dietary recommendations. Since functional food has already been described as foods or dietary components that provide a health benefit beyond basic nutrition, this gives clarity that, you can take greater control of your health through the food choices you make, knowing that some foods can provide specific health benefits. Examples are fruits and vegetables, whole grains, fortified or enhanced foods and beverages etc. It is therefore



20


recommended that people should strive to consume a wide variety of functional foods.

- Attention should be paid on preventive rather than curative

- Diet should be personalized considering genetic make upon and nutritional requirements.

- Access to food by all, food security should be achieved. References Achalu, E. I. (1989). Communicable and non-communicable

diseases, Causes and prevention (Rev. Ed.) Ibadan Afrika – link books publishers Int. Ltd.

American Dietetic Association (ADA) (1995). Phytochemicals and

functional foods. Retrieved on 15/07/2008 from wikipedia Org/nutrition/functional food/index.cof.

Albert C. M. & Hennekens, C.H. (1998). Fish consumption and risk

of sudden death J.A.M. Assoc. 279:23-28 http/www.nutriwatc.org/04foods/ffhtmt 15/07/2008.

Adlecreutz H. & Fotsis, T (1982). Excretion of the lignans

enterolactone and enterodiol in Omnivorous and vegetarian postmenopausal women with breast cancer. Lancet: 1295-1299. Retrieved on 15/07/2008 from wikipedia org./nutrition/functional food/index.Cof.

American Health Foundation (1992). Pharmacological effect of

camellia Snensis (Tea): Implication for cardiovascular disease, cancer, and public health. Retrieved on 18/07/2008 from Http/www.nutriwatch.org/04foods/ff.html.



21


Hasler, C. M. (1998). A publication of the institute of food technologists expert panel on food Safety and nutrition. http/www.nutriwatch.org/o4food/ff htm/ 15/07/2008.

Iwe, M. O. (2003). The science and technology of soybean Enugu.

Rojoint Communication Services Ltd. Okaka, J.C. (2005). Handling, storage and processing of plant foods.

Enugu. OCJ Academic Publishers. Olusanya, J. O. (1990). Foods and Nutrition for Senior Secondary

School 1 – 3 Ibadan University Press Plc. World Health Organization (2003). A health and nutrition atlas.

Retrieved on 17/0708 from http/www.health and nutrition.org.



22


SENSITIZATION AND EMPOWERMENT OF FEMALE TEACHERS: A TREND TOWARDS GENDER PARITY IN

NIGERIA

OWHONDAH, SAMUEL NARIOCHUKWU, Ph.D.

Abstract Taking note of a world that is apparently giving audience to its deprived and oppressed women folk, the need for sensitization and empowerment of female teachers towards gender parity in all spheres of life in Nigeria emerged. A theoretical review of related literature was embarked upon to fathom the persistent gender inequalities and oppressive practices against women, and outline efforts, and specific projects/strategies towards curbing the oppressive practices. Based on the facts of the review, the paper recommends unwavering commitment to women education, (including second chance opportunity for those who missed their chance and those who dropped out), membership of NGOs and co-operative societies and advocacy on women empowerment among other imperative actions. Introduction The speedy transportation provided by airline services, the fast and far-reaching information delivery of radio, the amplified dissemination of the video effect of satellite-driven television/internet and the voluntary instant link of GSM telecommunication have combined to compress the world into a global village, thus reducing the cartographic delineation of the various states, nations and countries into imaginary faint lines. Consequently, the socio-cultural uniqueness of Nigeria and other countries of the world are fast disappearing and being steadily neutralized into a single global entity. With this progressive global


23


harmonization of human affairs, changes have consistently been generated and sustained in all spheres of human development by United Nation’s – a voluntary aggregation of well meaning nations of the world. In the Beijing Conferences (UNIFEM and UNIC, 1995:6), some efforts made to neutralize the socio-cultural uniqueness of countries include the United Nation’s Conferences and Summits on Women in Nairobi in 1985, on Children in New York in 1990, on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, on Human Rights in Vienna in 1993, on Population and Development in Cairo in 1994 and on Social Development in Copenhagen in 1995. Besides, an editorial titled “Mainstreaming Gender Approach in Unions” in Awurusa (2004:2) added that Mexico 1975, Nairobi 1985, Beijing 1995 all preached gender justice and women’s right as a human right. All these meetings provided useful platforms for women movements to focus attention on their quest for equality and equity. Mainstreaming gender perspective is necessary in society especially among the female teachers who are privileged by virtue of their profession to sensitize and empower other women and who also ought to belong to current women organizations including the Nigeria Union of Teachers (N.U.T.) because they are the mirrors of society and are concerned [as mothers] about the welfare of the majority of our vulnerable members who are the women. The ultimate goal is to achieve equality, unity, peace, democracy and gender justice. Efforts are made to address the social ills against women as embodied in the United Nations human rights declaration which called for equality between men and women, the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women, the 1979 Nigerian Constitutional Provision on the equal rights and opportunities of all



24


citizens before the law, Better life for Rural Women of Babangida’s Regime, Family Support Programme of Abacha’s Regime, National Policy of the year 2000 and the current NEEDS/SEEDS of Obasanjo’s administration. Statement of the Problem The persistent gender inequalities and oppressive practices against women which deny them the possibility of realizing their potentials, marginalization of women in the family and societal decision making process, such as in early marriage, gender specific roles, right to reproductive health, access to economic resources, responsible parenthood, social security, access to education etc, including other gender issues such as violence against women like battery and rape, travails of widow hood, boy-child vs. girl-child dichotomy leading to preference of male to female children, high rate of maternal mortality, female genital mutilation, denial of right to education and vocation of feminization of poverty, which leads to prostitution and its related hazards. This paper therefore outlines the need to enlighten female teachers, nay women, on the burning issues, and challenge them to take positive actions that will enhance the realization of the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women-a move with positive imperatives for the well-being of all people, irrespective of race, creed and nationality. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is the need to sensitize and empower female teachers in Nigeria towards gender parity. The specific objectives of the investigation are: 1. To outline the persistent gender inequalities and oppressive

practices against women, 2. To highlight a number of efforts made to address the outlined

social ills against women, and

Sensitization and Empowerment of Female Teachers: A Trend Towards Gender Parity in Nigeria., OWHONDA


25


3. To highlight the specific projects/strategies to address the outlined social ills against women.

The Persistent Gender Inequalities and Oppressive Practices against Women 1. Overbearing Interest of Man The world is often described as men’s world. The man is the head of the family. He often sees the women as men’s property married (bought with bride price) and therefore owned. His desires and wishes are laws that cannot be queried but simply complied with. The women’s aspiration therefore must obtain clearance from the man to be sustained. The husband can send the wife packing at will (Nsirim, 2006 & Bosaji, 2005). 2. Early Marriage The under age girl-child is often withdrawn from school in some parts of the country against her will and married out to her fathers choice husband, irrespective of her emotional, physical, psychological and economical immaturity. Child pregnancy, VVF and the attendant complications are possible consequences with harrowing experiences. 3. Gender Specific Roles The girl-child is expected to help her mother draw water, fetch firewood, keep the house clean, helping in the farm where men preside, do the shopping, go to the market to sell the agricultural produce etc. Chabaud (1970) notes that a woman’s pre-occupation, or wishes are to pass on these domestic skills to her daughter. Men are to be served. 4. Right to Reproductive Health The decisions of when to have sex, get pregnant and how many children to bear and how to space them (that is family planning) belong to the man irrespective of the state of the woman’s medical and mental health. Any resistance is punished with sanctions, violence or taking another wife or outright repatriation to her parents.



26


5. Access to Economic Resources The National Policy on Women (2000:12) posits that patriarchy and its related practices constitute major impediments to the full integration of women into the Nigerian economy. As practiced in Nigeria patriarchy gives men ascendancy in inheritance, authority and decision making inside and outside the home. Patriarchy is inheritance through the male with high value on male children, strict adherence to division of labour along gender lines. Land property and the family savings are inherited by males only. 6. Responsible Parenthood This involves being socially and economically stable to many, and raise children responsibly. The practice of child spacing and number limitation are expected to respect the health of the mother and ensure that children are adequately fed, clothed, trained (go to school) and generally cared for. The ceaseless search for the preferred male child often leads to un-bargained number of children who subsequently become potential maids and candidates for trafficking. 7. Access to Education This has improved a lot in the Southern Nigeria. In a not too distant past, the girl-child was considered someone’s property the boy child went to school at the expense of the girl, especially when the parent’s financial muscle was weak. In advanced communities university education was an exclusive preserve for men at a time. Such subjects like Mathematics, Science and Technology were referred to as masculine. Girls were for arts, social sciences and education. On this matter, UNESCO (1981) affirmed that boys are entitled to training that paves the way to occupations connected with production and to jobs with responsibility, whereas girls are confined to courses for service, occupations for family life.



27


Apparently, lamenting the admission of the first set of women admitted into the university, Frazier and Sadker (1973) had reported a university vice chancellor as saying that Men will lose as women advance. We will have community effeminate women and emasculated men. 8. Violence against Women Issues as rape, battery, forceful ejection from matrimonial homes are facts of violence against women. When reported even to the police, such assaults are dismissed as domestic affairs. 9. The Travail of Widowhood At the death of a husband some widows are compelled by custom and tradition to sit on bare floor for weeks in half-node without a bath, compelled to have strange sexual intercourse to sever her bond with the dead and forced to drink the water used in bathing the corpse of the late husband if suspected to have had a hand in the husband’s death. Such suspicion usually arose if the relationship between the woman and the husband was strained shortly before his death. Surviving the strange drink proves her innocence. 10. Other Oppressive Practices against Women These include female mutilation to reduce their sexual urge and prevent them from being wayward. This is a primitive practice which is known to be harmful to the woman’s reproductive health. High rate of maternal mortality due to poor maternity facilities, feminization of poverty which appears to force the girl-child into seductive attire, prostitution and the danger of contracting STDs, STI and HIV/AIDs also expose some girls to the danger of trafficking for forced prostitution abroad (Bosaji, 2005). Efforts towards Curbing the Oppressive Practices A number of efforts have been made to curb the oppressive practices against womanhood 1. UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights The UNICEF in an undated publication on CEDAW noted that the Universal Declaration of Human Rights affirms the principle of the inadmissibility of discrimination and proclaims that all human



28


beings are borne free and equal in dignity and rights and that everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth therein without distinction of any kind including distinction based on sex. Nigeria as a member of the United Nations should also respect and honour its Universal declarations. 2. Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995) The biggest and most successful women conference took place in Beijing China on August 30, 1995. Over 46000 women from 189 countries of the world deliberated and made far-reaching declarations indicating international commitment to the goals of equality, development and peace for all women everywhere. A few out of the 38 documented declarations include: (a) We dedicate ourselves unreservedly to addressing these

constraints and obstacles and thus enhancing further, the advancement and empowerment of women all over the world and agree that this requires urgent action in the spirit of determination, hope, co-operation and solidarity, now and to carry us forward into the next century.

(b) We affirm our commitment to the equal rights and inherent human dignity of women and men and other purposes and principles enshrined in the charter of the United Nations to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other international human rights instruments, in particular, the convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) as well as the Elimination of Violence Against Women [EVAW] and the Declaration of the Rights to Development [DRD]. Nigeria was adequately represented in Beijing Conference and is committed at least in policy to the declaration she was party to the making.

(c) The Provisions of the 1979 Constitution Women empowerment is justifiable. Chapter 11, Section 17, Subsection 2 of the 1979 Nigerian Constitution states that “every citizen shall have equality of rights, obligations and opportunities before the law.” Subsection 3 added that “all



29


citizens without discrimination on any group whatsoever, have the opportunity for securing adequate means` of livelihood as well as adequate opportunity to secure suitable employment.

(d) Better Life for Rural Women This was a pet project of the spouse of President Ibrahim

Babangida, a politico-socio attempt to empower women, an indication that a concerted effort to mobilize women to self-help and sustenance is feasible.

(e) Family Support Programme Like her predecessor, Mrs. Myriam Abacha, wife of President Sanni Abacha stepped out to lend support to ailing families. It was believed to be a form of assistance to the women folk because an ailing family in practical terms is primarily the woman’s burden. She must improvise while the man is away sniggling for the family’s up-keep.

(f) National Policy on Women (2000) This was a powerful government thrust that genuinely showed government commitment to the global trend in women welfare, different in seriousness from previous pet project of government appendages.

Some of the goals of the policy include: i. Raising national awareness of the citizens’ constitutional

rights and on a long term basis, mobilizing and educating the public on human rights in order to remove legal, cultural, religious and other constraints against the attainment of social justice and equity in the society.

ii. Ensuring the elimination of all forms of discrimination among women.

iii. Instituting an effective Gender and Development (GAD) management structure for the co-ordination of all GAD activities in the country.



30


The Ministry of Women Affairs and Youth Development [MWAYD] should coordinate these activities. The policy thus includes: 1. Equity, social order and social well-being; 2. Resource allocation for full participation of women in

economic programmes for improved self image; 3. Economic growth and efficiency through educational and

skill development of women for capacity/ potential utilization;

4. Discouragement of patriarchy through education, enlightenment, egalitarianism and legislation review on gender and enactment of new ones where necessary; and

5. Cultural dynamism, which is, eliminating those aspects of our culture that inhibit the development of positive self-identity of women and their participation in the society.

Specific Projects/Strategies towards Curbing Oppressive Practices against Women NEEDS/SEEDS The National Economic Empowerment Development Strategies (NEEDS) cited in Bosaji (2005) is the most current developmental thrust developed by the Federal Government. Its state counterpart is State Economic Empowerment Development Strategies (SEEDS). Since SEEDS is yet at formulation stage and a translation of Federal Government development thrust at the state level, Anikweze (2004:9) indicated that NEEDS aims at fully integrating women through enhancing their capacity to participate in the economic, social, political and cultural life of the country. The specific projects/strategies to achieve this were outlined as: 1. Ensuring equitable representation of women all over the

country in all aspects of our national life, the affirmative action of proportionate representation of not less than 30% will be pursued, where feasible;



31


2. Domestification of the UN Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW);

3. Pursuing legislation for the abolition of all forms of harmful traditional practices against women;

4. Mainstreaming women concerns and perspectives in all policies and programmes;

5. Promotion of women access to micro finance and all poverty alleviation strategies with a view to reducing feminized poverty;

6. Empowerment of women through sustained advocacy, education and mobilization to reduce women’s vulnerability to HIV/AIDS, STI and other STDS.

7. Establishing scholarship schemes at the secondary and tertiary levels in order to expand educational opportunities for female students where necessary and expanding a programme on non-formal education e.g. Adult and Vocational Education to cater for women beyond formal school age.

Recommended Actions for All Female Teachers Female teachers and indeed all women in Nigeria are urged to: 1. Note the oppressive/discriminatory practices outlined in this

paper and make concerted efforts to update it to a comprehensive compilation of all forms of discrimination against women in the school setting. One needs to be aware and conscious of the discriminations before addressing them. Besides, an adage says that problems properly identified are half solved.

2. Note that all efforts are put in place to address the discriminations and empower women. This will enable female teachers take advantage of such provisions as they concern or benefit them and use them to assist individuals or group that need help within and outside the school setting.



32


3. Generate a list of local, state, national and international NGOS, government organizations and cooperative societies interested and committed to the course of women with a view to approaching them for assistance, support or affiliation.

4. Equip yourself to be a role model in the classroom, school, union [NUT] and society by encouraging young and aged women alike, through words and actions to appreciate the value of education. This could be through formal and informal classroom interactions. Those women who are incapacitated by lack of access to school or by dropping out should be assisted to take the second chance position provided by life long education, adult and non-formal education and distance education programmes. Ignorance is a big set back to all forms of women empowerment.

5. As female teachers aspire to update yourself educationally, socially, economically, spiritually, and politically if need be.

6. Female teachers should form, join or mobilize women advocacy groups to remind government, ministries, parastatals or NGOs that have made policy pronouncements or declaration of intent on women affairs, need and empowerment to live up to expectation. Women affairs in the hand of men may continue to be forgotten or postponed to a more auspicious time, which may never come.

7. Examine and ensure that women are fairly represented in NUT, classroom Teachers Association and other organizations in which one is a member.

8. National Economic Empowerment Development Strategies (NEEDS) is a new and rich women empowerment programme, which female teachers should take advantage of. It should be closely monitored and embraced.

9. The provocative, seductive and sometimes irresponsible fashion of over revealing or flaunting the contour erotic parts of the body along the street may be fancied by many, but is surely loaded with negative implication for



33


the girl-child who knows next to nothing about her reproductive health, the dangers of STDs, STI, HIV/AIDs pandemic and the human trafficking syndicates. Female teachers should be the leading vanguards of these obnoxious practices that are too serious to be ignored.

References Anikweze, C. M. (2004). Educational policies, practices

and strategies for achieving reforms in Nigeria. A Resource Paper Presented at Workshop on Capacity Building Organized by Education Tax Fund at Federal College of Education (Technical) Umunze, Anambra State.

Awurusa, H. (2004). Mainstreaming gender approach in unions (Editorial). Pro women, Jan – Dec.

Bosaji, S. O. (2005). The need to sensitize and empower women in a changing world. Lecture at Nwafor Orizu College of Education Nsugbe, during CTT/NUT In-service Planning Workshop for Teachers Held from July 25 – 29, Anambra State.

Federal Ministry of Women Affairs and Youth Development (2000). National policy on women, Abuja: FMWAYD.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (1979). The Nigerian constitution. Frazier, N. and Sadker, M. (1973). Sexism in school and society,

New York: Harper and Row Publishers. Nsirim, E. U. (2006). Problems and prospects of the education

of the girl-child in Emohua local government area. Unpublished B.Ed Project, RSUST, Port Harcourt. UNESCO (1981). Sex bias in training and the labour force, Paris:

UNESCO UNICEF (Undated). Convention on the elimination of all forms of

discrimination against women. UNIFEM and UNIC (1995). Beijing declaration and platform for

action, Nigeria: UNIFEM and UNIC.



34


TOWARDS ENHANCING NIGERIA’S SPORTS PERFORMANCE: ISSUES AND PROSPECTS.

BY

G.A. DEEMUA Abstract Sports is a strong force which contributes immensely towards maintaining a peaceful co-existence in societies. Nigeria’s awareness is improved toward excellent performance in competitive sports through healthy competitions. Although there has been a growing controversy on the dwindling fortune of Nigeria’s sport performance in contemporary time, particularly, in the context of how to sustain efficiency in administration organization, coaching strategies, motivation of athletes and time utilization series. The paper harnessed to ensure brilliant performance of Nigeria’s athletes in global sports competitions. Such factors include the availability of sports facilities and equipment as a prelude for sustaining optimal performance. The paper highlighted in strong terms the need for adequate funding, motivational strategies for athletes, the competency of sports personnel in administering sports programmes and of course human performance attributes among others. The paper made recommendations that would help to improve the standard of sports in Nigeria, chief among which is good training programs where the athletes will be adequately prepared for the challenges ahead of time. Finally, our coaches should be knowledgeable and skillful so that they will attain the efficiency level of foreign coaches. Introduction Sports arouses the interest and enthusiasm of people all over the globe including Nigerians. It is well known that sports capture the interest of people in almost all countries no matter what their stage of development. According to Morakinyo (2002), sports is a social


35


phenomenon that has grown from its humble beginning of being an entertainment and recreation past-time to becoming a viable and prominent business phenomenon that could no more be ignored in the social, political and economic environment of any nation.

Nigerians are sports loving people who even in early times devoted themselves to such sports as wrestling, hunting, swimming, acrobatic display and boat regattas. The increasing awareness of Nigerians about sports and excellent sports performance at competitions has become a contemporary concern of the present day Government, corporate bodies and individuals alike. As Awosika (2000) said, today there is a new dimension to sports development in Nigeria with emphasis not only on the physical and mental development but also financial encouragement and scholarships from government and philanthropists for individual sports men and women. The general recognition and importance of sports has made it to become a vehicle for promoting rapid sports development in Nigeria. Sports as an important social phenomenon in the world have attracted a lot of personnel, money and time for its development.

Apart from the athletes, and their coaches, some other categories and specialization supportive personnel have emerged. According to Oyebola (1997), dieticians, sports administrators, physiotherapists, doctors specialized in sports medicine and sports physiologists are now important in ensuring that athletes achieve the best possible results in competitions. Sports is a business enterprise which tasks the brains and minds of coaches and sports administrators to harness the human and material resources embedded in sports culture of Nigeria, to make Nigeria great in the sporting world. There is no doubt that sports deal with human beings, and as such the determinants that will help them should be properly implemented in order to succeed. These determinants range from facilities and equipment, incentives and other enabling inputs which will facilitate the achievement of efficiency and excellence in sports.



36


Factors Enhancing Excellent Sport Performance The Coach: The position of a coach as a team handler and trainer is a very crucial one. Coaching is not an all comer job. Coaching should attract competent, qualified and professional personnel (Igboanugo, 1986).

Bucher (1979) listed four qualifications of good coach. First, is the ability to teach fundamentals and strategies of the sport; he or she must be a good teacher. Second, there is also the need to understand the players: how they function at a particular level of development. Thirdly, he or she must understand the sport coached – through knowledge of techniques, rules, strategies, formation. Fourth, the coach has desirable personality and character. Patience, understanding, kindness, honesty, sportsmanship, sense of right or wrong, courage, cheerfulness, affection, and enthusiasm are imperative.

The coach, as a decision maker in the field of play and practice sessions is often seen as a helper who assists in bringing out the talents of athletes to fullest potentials (Eboh, 2002). The coach plays the following roles that revolve around motivating of athletes, creating a conducive atmosphere for participating for all athletes, providing athletes with all necessary and required medical/health facilities, assisting in planning and conducting practice sessions, scouting and recruiting new players into teams, establishing training programmes, conditioning athletes mentally, physically, and emotionally for training and competitions. He is also involved in keeping records of and training and conducting practices, taking care of correspondence on all team matters, updating of coaching skills through clinics and workshops, maintaining good public relations, making arrangement for trips and travelling with team(s) and maintenance of facilities, equipment and supplies.

Some people have the erroneous impression that they have outstanding athletes. Igboanugo (1986) emphasized that exceptional skill in any sport does not necessarily guarantee success in the

Towards Enhancing Nigeria’s Sports Performance: Issues and Prospects. DEEMUA


37


coaching of the sport. The writer supports the position that the best preparation a coach can have is to train in the field of physical education, specializing in coaching a particular sport.

The big questions are whether Nigerian coaches handling various sports are experts and the best candidates available? Are they employed on the basis of expertise and the ability to deliver the goods and not on the basis of quota? Why are we relying so much on foreign coaches for the grooming of our athletes for international competitions?

It is the contention of this paper that Nigeria coaches are proving their mettle in their chosen profession. To satisfy the yearnings of Nigerians towards achieving the desired performance expectations, the sports administrators, at both the national and state sports councils, should set up periodic in-service training courses for coaches so that they will attain the efficiency level of foreign coaches. It is equally important that there must be enough incentives to be able to employ and retain the best hands in coaching profession. Sound Administrative Competence: The term administration is commonly used in government organizations and institutions. Administration involves the activities and processes adopted by a group of individuals toward the attainment of set objectives or policies. It is an attempt at coordinating people, facilities, equipment, supplies and materials towards attaining set objectives. Administration is a means to an end and not an end itself. It is the methods and strategies adopted by individuals toward policy attainment (Bucher, 1979). Traditionally, administration exists in order to carry out the policies that had been developed by the duly constituted policy – forming group, like Sport Management Board. Bucher (1971) posits that when policies are properly selected and developed, they enable each member of the organization to know what duties are to be performed, how best the departments’ goals can be accomplished and the procedure by which accountability can be established and evaluated.



38


Administration can only take place if the following four elements are available (Halpin, 1962):

• Formal organization • Task to be performed. • Workers to perform task • Leaders to show the way

Sports administration involves the coordination of essential elements in an administrative environment for the purpose of ensuring efficiency and effectiveness in the running of a sporting organization so that a set policy could be achieved.

Sports administration entails two main areas of emphasis, namely: institutional/organizational administration and situational/event administration. Institutional or organizational administration involves administrative activities and processes geared towards ensuring successful policy outcome while situational/event administration entails activities and processes geared toward ensuring the success of training and competitive field situations. However, for Sports Administration to succeed, whatever forms of operational policy that is adopted should not negate the broad policy guidelines.

Sports administration is fast becoming a vital part of the overall organization of sports. Bucher (1979) asserts that effective organization starts with good administration. The emphasis should be on employing adequate and qualified persons to organize and administer sports in Nigeria if desirable performance expectations are to be ensured. Competent sports organization and effective administration involve human, material and financial management. Days are gone when any body in any trade or profession can ascend sports platform and perform the job satisfactorily. Ikulayo (1986) affirmed that unless sports administrators are well equipped and knowledgeable enough about the mechanical and technical demands of their callings, they can never perform the job as effectively and efficiently as the real professional at the job. It is the contention of this paper that the resultant effect of the practice of having non-



39


specialists occupying the administrative posts in sports management are evidence of fluctuating performance outputs which have characterized our sporting performance in recent times. Equipment and Facilities: Sports equipment and facilities occupy strategic position in the making and performance of an athlete. There have been numerous studies which results portray the influence of good and appropriate equipment and facilities on participation and performance in sports. Umeasiegbu (1981) states that good sports programmes can only function effectively when they are supported with good and appropriate equipment and facilities.

Other studies, Ajisafe (1974), Anyanwu (1979) and Onyilogwu (1975) emphasized that it would be impossible to achieve satisfactory results from athletes whose training facilities are inadequate or substandard. Standard facilities and equipment are essential pre-requisites for good and impressive performance.

In these days of economic difficulties, programme directors are expected to demonstrate competence in soliciting for funds from other sources like the interested public, fans, alumni associations and philanthropic organizations. To do this successfully requires the ability to identify the present and future financial needs, as well as identifying all available sources of funds. He also needs human relations skills in reaching all potential contributors. The problem we have in Nigeria with regards to procurement and maintenance of the facilities we spend millions of Naira to build/buy is lack of maintenance culture. Omoruan (1996) observed that:

One of the best ways of maintaining sports facilities and equipment is to put them into use. Just as it is important to provide these sport facilities and equipment, it is even more important to maintain them. These can be achieved in these three ways. First, people should use rather than misuse these facilities and equipment. Secondly, those employed to look after them must have the knowledge of



40


what they are to take care of. Thirdly, money should be provided for maintenance. (p. 116-117). It is no gain-saying that due to lack of sporting structures and

equipment, most of our youths migrate overseas where there are abundance of these. That is why for a long time we will continue to depend on foreign-based athletes for the realization of our sports performance expectations. Finance: Perhaps the most important element to achieve effective organization of sports and resultant performance objectives is the availability of finance to support and execute it. Athletes are expensive commodities to maintain. Without money there can be no standard facilities and equipment for training. Since sports is no longer a play thing but a business and an enterprise there is the need of identifying and adequately fund sources, so as to optimize output from input for an effective and productive outlay. Sport development officers and sport managers in developing economies can explore and thus exploit adequately the following fund sources for the purpose of ensuring steady supply of funds for sports development. These are:

• Government • Ticketing • Fund raising campaign • Donation from philanthropic individuals and organizations • Media rights • Endorsements • Transfer fees • Marketing of items and products • Sponsorship • Lottery

Government is the largest spender of funds in the developing world and thus provides some of the funds for sports development. It is not surprising that all through the year, sporting agencies and



41


associations depend on government. According to Jackson (1998) government involvement with both private and non profit sport entities is marketing technique that has been applied in the United States of America and Canada. It means that while government funding exists, other fund sources should be exploited.

However, now that most developing countries which regard sport as a social service are experiencing financial constraints that have necessitated a cut in budget from year to year, it has become difficult for sporting organizations to survive. Therefore, sports development officers and administrators must act fast and look for other sources of revenue. It is therefore seen that adequate provision of finances for effective organization and administration of sport in Nigeria is a must if high performance in this country is to be realized. Human Performance Factors: Human performance factor can be defined as physical, psychological, physiological and motor performance attributes which enable the performer or athlete to execute his skills efficiently, economically and gracefully (Owolabi, 1897; Umeasiegbu, 2002). These factors are built and executed. This is because no athlete can be successful unless he is in line with the basic and refined skills of his sport. In the same way, no athlete can succeed in executing his learned or acquired skills unless he is naturally endowed with or has acquired the performance attributes relevant to his sport.

The identified performance attributes include age, height, body weight, body fat, strength, endurance, flexibility, speed and psychological traits such as motivation and personality (Owolabi 1987). Most of these performance factors in sports have been identified through research studies on habitual performers, and champion athletes in each sport. (Sharp, 1980; Owolabi, 1985; Schwartz, 1973).

These factors have been found to vary according to their skill levels, being higher in champion athletes and lower in habitual athletes. However, with specific reference to Nigeria sports, Owolabi



42


(1987) lamented that there is no doubt that little or no attention is paid to training and improving the performance factors in our sports men and women for efficient productivity. Motivation Motivation is defined in various ways by scholars and professionals of various backgrounds. It is the tendency for the direction and selectivity of behaviour to be controlled by its connection to consequences and the tendency of this behavior to persist until a goal is achieved (Alderman, 1974). The persistence of an individual partaking in any act is influenced by possibilities of achieving set goals and targets or accomplishing ambitions or felt needs (Akhioya, 1993). Motivation must be kept up pre and during the period of competition. Both the coach and the learners/athletes need to be motivated. Adeyanju (1975) opines that to enhance performance, it may be necessary to organize pre-competition motivation dur ing the hours before competition. In the process, negative thoughts will be eliminated and positive thinking used and words employed to increase self-confidence. Athletes should be motivated to build athlete confidence on tangible, practical cues to which they can relate and during competition where the coach can directly communicate with them for an all out efforts and supervisor performance (Bompa, 1999).

The sport managers/coaches roles in sport competition is very important because the learners/athletes take direction from him. Although, according to Amuchie (1987), coaching is regarded as a very risky venture that is full of uncertainties. This is because the efficiency of the athletes and the coach is usually measured by their success at the end of the competition. The losing coach stands the risk of losing his job while the victorious coach becomes the darling of the public. Therefore, both the athletes and the coach should be highly motivated. They should be less nervous and adapt coping behaviour and strategies. Coaches should know that the power of the mind is the key element in competition. Meeting the mental demands, the ability to remain focused, maintain emotional control,



43


concentration, sustain his job performance, use psychological principles and skills relating to motivation, goal setting, attention control, feedback, performance profiling, personality and stress coping – techniques (Rushall, 1986). Strategies for Motivating Athletes The importance of motivation in higher level competitions or any field of endeavour can not be overemphasized. The following are strategies for motivating athletes: 1. Knowing each performer 2. Communicating effectively 3. Administrative effectiveness 4. Application of leisure 5. Ensuring that motivational incentive schemes are standardized and athletes educated and informed on the conditions and requirements for application 6. Developing and enhancing leadership 7. Enhancing team friendship 8. Making approved payments as at when due 9. Athletes should be recognized when they perform well Conclusion Nigeria holds the performance expectations of athletes, coaches and administrators in sports scene very high. The federal government of Nigeria has taken the task of controlling and regulating sport expect coaches and technical advisors to be more competent, dedicated and result oriented, while the athletes should train harder and performer better in order to win more laurels at international competitions.

Nigeria in the organizations of sports demands a review of the organizational model of sports. Therefore, to improve sports performance the administrative and technical crews must be proven professionals working together to effect proper organization at all levels.

However, in order to ensure organizational efficiency and effectiveness, the representatives of government must join hands



44


with the interest groups in taking appropriate decisions and actions on matters relating to sports development. Recommendations Based on the above discussion, the following recommendations are made towards improving sports performance: (a) In-serve programmes, seminars and workshops should be organized regularly for coaches, sports managers and administrators to keep abreast of innovations in sports. (b) Adequate funds should be provided to run the sports programme of this country. Sports is capital intensive. Fund is needed to provide sports facilities and equipment, build and maintain infrastructure, provide conducive environment for training and maintaining athletes and their handlers. However, sports philanthropists industrial establishments and co-operate bodies should assist the government in the sponsorship of sports programmes if the desired goal is to be met. (c) Federal government should help build state stadia to international standard and refurbish other existing stadia throughout the federation for effective use by athletes/coaches. Sports facilities and equipment should be properly maintained to meet with what is obtainable in developed countries. This will help coaches and athletes for effective performance. (d) Poorly constituted administrative sports organs and

ineffective organizations are among the major factors that negatively affect sports performance in this country. Sometimes, geographical spread, ethnic affiliations and unwarranted favouritism are brought to bear in appointments into sports management cadres in this nation. For performance to improve significantly, the administrative and technical crews of sports in Nigeria must be proven professionals working together to effect proper organization



45


at various levels. Unless sports administrators are professionals who are well equipped and knowledgeable enough about the mechanical demands of the profession, they can never perform well.

(e) In matters relating to the human performance factors, it is advised that the coach or the trainer must identify the relevant performance factors in his sport and then train them along the skills/factors. A thorough understanding of the performance factors is essential for the result-oriented coach or athlete who aspires to excel at international competitions.

(f) Organizations should develop a well structured motivational package for employees. A well structured motivational package is necessary for job satisfaction and commitment since employees get to know and articulate such welfare programmes before accepting an offer of appointment. References Awosika, B.Y. (2000). Predictors of students’ participation in

limited Resources Recreation in third Generation of two Nigerian Universities. Journal of Nigeria Academic of Sports Administration, Vol. 1 No. 2 pp. 51-57.

Adermen, R.B. (1974). Psychological Behaviour in Sport.

Philadelphian: Saunders. Adeyanju, F.B. (1986). Psychological preparation of athletes with

International Sports engagement. Tips on coping with stress of competition. A paper presented at Sports Psychology Association of Nigeria (SPAN) seminar held at N.I.S. Surulere, Lagos.

Amuchie, F.A. (1986). Preliminary observation on the effective

organization and performance in sports in the Nigerian Universities. Proceedings of Guiness-NUGA’86 sports clinic



46


(Udoh, C.O., Sohi, M., Ajala A. (eds) Ibadan Calverianum Press Bodija.

Anyanwu, S. U. (1979) The strategies for effective organization and

administration of school sport Health and Physical Education and Magazine. U.N.N.: Vol. 3 No. 3.

Bucher, C.A. (1979). Administration of Physical Education and

Athletic Programmes. St Loius. The C.V. Mosby Company. Bucher, V.A (1971). Administration of Health and Physical Education Programme including Athletes (5th Ed) St. Loius: the C.V. Mosby Company. Ikhioya, O.S.A. (2001). Functional strategies for effective sports.

Management Practical. Lagos: Sport & Leisure Consults. International Olympic Committee (1999). Sports Administration

manual. Jackson R (Ed) Lausanne: Mc Dra Printing Limited. Igboanugo, V.C. (1986). Effective organization of sports:

Relationship to performance. Proceedings of Guinness-NUGA 86 Sports clinic. (Udoh, C.A., Sohi, M., Ajala J.A. (ed). Ibadan: Claveriannum press, Bodija.

Omoruan, J.C. (1996). A handbook in Physical Education, Sports and Recreation. Zaria: S.A. Asekome and Co. Owolabi, E.O. (1987). Human Performance factors in achieving

excellence in sports. (Udo, C.O., Sohi, M., Ajala, J.A. (eds) Department of PHE, University of Ibadan Monograph series, No. 2



47


Professionalization of Sport Administration and Management in Nigeria (2002). Issues and challenges. NAPHER-SD

Uchegbu J.N. (1992). Motivational Strategies of Physical and Health

Education teachers and sports participants for maximum productivity in the UBE programme. A paper presented at NAPHER-SD. 35th National Conference, 25th – 28th September, in Port Harcourt in Rivers State.

Umeasiegbu, G.O. (2002) “Towards Achieving Nigeria’s sports

performance expectation in 21st century: Issues and prospects”. In E.O. Ojeme; F.A. Amuchie & O.S.A. Ikhioya (Eds). Professionalization of sports Administration and Management in Nigeria – Issues and Challenges. Lagos: Aduke Ventures.



48


CAUSAL ATTRIBUTIONS OF SUCCESS ON GOAL ATTAINMENT OF PRINCIPALS IN AKWA IBOM STATE

OF NIGERIA

BY STEVE U. BASSEY, Ph. D.

Abstract The study investigated the causal attributions of success on principals’ goal attainment at secondary school level. The population of study was five thousand, six hundred and sixty-sixty teachers while sample size was two hundred and twenty teachers randomly selected from urban and rural secondary schools. A researcher-constructed instrument was used in data collection. The means, standard deviation and repeated measures analysis were employed. Major finding revealed a significant difference in the causal attribution factors (effort, ability, task difficulty and luck). While the most important factors were effort and ability, the least effective were task nature and luck. On the basis of the findings and conclusion, recommendations were made to local education committees and school Boards on need for proper orientation and training of school heads in order to render them achievement and goal-oriented. Introduction It is normal for people, for instance school principals, to seek to explain why and how they succeeded or failed in their endeavours. Such knowledge tends to control expectancies and determines the probability of control. Ukpong (1997, p. 28) argues that if individuals can find out the causes of their success, they may be able to repeat such causes to ensure continuing success. Similarly, failure can be avoided if past causes are known. The school principal would want to know how far or why he has succeeded or failed to succeed in the different roles he performs. When the performance of students


49


in sports or examinations is good, for example, school management might wish to find out the reasons just like when the performance is not commendable they would be keen on tracing the cause(s) so that corrective measures can be adopted. This line of reasoning seems to inform the need for applying attribution principle in investigating the role performance of school administrators. Causal Attributions and Conceptual Analysis

The term attribution refers to the perceived causes of an event, causal assuration made regarding the outcome of an event or performance (Jona, 2000). The principle of attribution holds that the source to which credit or blame is assigned determines the course of action. It seems that attribution theory emphasizes personal perceptions of situational experiences and the consequent causal attributions. It is argued that an individual’s perceptions of the causal failure are determined primarily by variables specific to that situation in which the causal attribution is made (Roptter, 1996).

Weiner (1985, p. 54) identified three dimensions of causality which he argued determine the nature of subsequent performance on a given task. These are locus of causality, control, and stability dimensions. Locus of causality can be internal or external. Some internal causes (e.g. effort) are under the control of the subject while others (e.g. ability) are not. The stability dimension classifies causes either as stable (invariant) or unstable (variant). The tendency to experience pride in achievement or shame in failure is related to the person’s perceived locus of causality for the performance outcomes (Weiner, 1979). The increased pride for individuals who attribute their success to personal ability or effort result in increased achievement motivation and consequently increased success expectancies in future when working on similar tasks (Ukpong,1997). It is believed that success attribution to stable factors of internal locus will produce pride which motivates greater effort investment in subsequent tasks to ensure success and retain the pride (Dweck & Goetz, 1978). On the other hand, attributing success to unstable factors (e.g. luck) discourages effort input since



50


achievement ( as the individual tends to believe ) is not dependent on trying but on chance ( or luck), and luck can sometimes fail. In the same way, when we attribute failure to stable and uncontrollable factor it tends to dry up the motivation to initiate achievement-oriented behaviours. Goal Attainment of Principals The major roles (or goals) that school principals are to perform on a daily basis have been identified by the American Association of School Administrators (Ogbodo, 2002) to be: community relations, personnel administration, financial administration and school plant management. Effective operation of every school towards the realization of its pre-determined objectives depends on the way the listed goals are attained. The success level of a school depends on the achievement motivation of the administrator. Principals differ in their levels of administrative effectiveness. Some are effective in one area while others are more effective in some other areas. It is normal for a principal to know when he is doing well in personnel management function, for instance, as he will experience high staff morale or in curriculum and teaching when students of his school will pass their examination in flying colours while the opposite is the case in neighbouring schools. It is against this backdrop that this study was undertaken to investigate the ways that causal attribution of success influences the goal attainment efforts of principals in Akwa Ibom State. The state public school system has a teacher population of 5,666 distributed into 214 secondary schools (SSEB, 2006). Problem Principals are blamed generally for observed quality degradation of our graduates from the secondary level of education. We now produce secondary school graduates who, besides not possessing any general industrial skills, are essentially illiterate and “innumerate” (Ocho, 2001, p. 12). In line with this observation, this study sought to determine the nature of influence exerted by causal attributions of success on principals’ goal attainment in Akwa Ibom State.

Casual Attributions of Success on Goal Attainment of Principals in Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria, BASSEY


51


Purpose The purpose of the study was to investigate the perceptions of teachers on the causal attributions of their principals’ success on goal attainment efforts in their individual secondary schools. Research Question How does the causal attribution of principals’ success influence their goal attainment effort? Hypothesis There is no significant influence of causal attributions of success on principals’ goal attainment in Akwa Ibom State. Method The descriptive survey design was employed. The population of study was 5,666 public secondary school teachers, while the sample was 220 teachers selected through the use of stratified random sampling to ensure that teachers from rural and urban schools had equal chance of taking part in the study. The researcher prepared a survey instrument titled Causal Attribution and Principals’ Goal Attainment Scale (CAPGAS) which was used for data collection. An expert in measurement and evaluation in a university was used in validating the instrument before its administration. The scale was a modified six-point Likert-type questionnaire with values assigned as follows: VSA = Very Strongly Agreed (6) SU = Strongly Agreed (5) A = Agreed (4) D = Disagreed (3) SD = Strongly Disagreed (2) VSD = Very strongly disagreed (1) Reliability study to ascertain the clarity of questionnaire items yielded a high test-retest score of 0.82. The researcher used school Boards to administer the questionnaire. All the questionnaire copies were correctly completed and promptly returned since school Boards were involved in their administration.



52


Repeated Measures (F-test) analysis was used in data analysis. Hypothesis was tested at .05 level of significance; 1 and 219 degrees of confidence and critical F-value of 3.84. Results Research Question. How does the causal attribution of principals’ success influence their goal attainment efforts? Hypothesis There is no significant influence of causal attributions of success on principals’ goal attainment efforts in Akwa Ibom State. Data analysis was done through the use of Repeated Measures (F-test ) analysis (see Table 1). Table 1: Repeated Measures Analysis of Causal Attributions

of Success on Principals’ Goal Attainment at the Secondary School level.

(N= 200) Variables N x SD Effort 220 25.76 3.28 Ability 220 24.03 2.75 Task Nature 220 22.10 291 Luck 220 20.48 2.41 Source of variation Ss Df Ms F Sig Within + Residual 6262.36 219 28.60 Attribution Factors 469299.64 1 469299.64 16411.81* 0.00 *p<.05; df=1 <219; critical F = 3.84 The independent variable was causal attributions of success, while the dependent variable was principals’ goal attainment in secondary schools. The causal attributions (or variables) compared were ability, effort, nature of task and luck. The level of importance of each case was derived from teachers’ perception of the relative importance of each causal attribution on their principals’ goal attainment efforts. The means (X) and standard deviations (SD) of the variables were computed and presented. In order to generate weighted values, the causal attributions were measured with interval scale of



53


measurement in six-point-level of questionnaire. Repeated Measures analysis (F-test) was then used in comparing the mean scores of the four causal attributions of each respondent. The result of the Repeated Measures (F-test) analysis in Table 1 revealed a significant difference in the relative importance of causal attributions of principals’ success in secondary schools. The relative effectiveness of each causal attribution is reflected in the mean difference (X) as reported (see Table 1): ability (24.03,p.<5) effort (25.76,p<05) nature of task (22.10,p<.05) and luck (20.48,p <.05). The obtained F-value was 16411.81. The value was tested for significance by comparing it with the critical F-value at .05 alpha level with 1 and 219 degree of freedom. The obtained F-test value (16411.81) was greater than the critical F-test value (3.84) hence the result was significant and the null hypothesis was rejected. The significant differences in the relative importance of these causal attributions at the secondary school level suggest, in their order of relative importance, that the most effective cause is effort followed by ability, nature of task and luck, respectively. Discussion Research results from the hypothesis (Table 1) reported a significant difference in the relative importance of the four casual factors, as follows: effort (X = 25.76), ability (X = 24.03); task nature (X = 22.10); and luck (X =20.48). The positive mean values were significant at .05 alpha level, hence the null hypothesis was dropped. This finding corresponds with the research reports of earlier researchers, like Atkin and Maruyama (1979, p.86), Garner (1983), and Umobong (2004, p.56). Further examination of Table 1 revealed that the first attribution factor (effort) resulted in the highest mean difference (X = 25.76) followed closely by ability (X=24.03). Dweck and Goetz (1978) in their findings noted that some school administrators who attributed their previous success to ability or effort commonly persisted and actively pursued more difficult tasks with the hope to succeed while others gave up easily in the face of



54


threats to failure. They concluded that success attribution to stable factors of internal locus tend to produce pride which motivates greater effort investment in subsequent tasks to ensure success and retain the pride. Ukpong (1997, p. 28) argues that of all the causal attributions, the only one completely under the control of the individual is effort. It is within the individual to decide on the amount of effort to expend on a particular task. Studies on high achievers whether in science, mathematics or business reveal that most of those who succeed usually exert enormous effort (Garner 1983). Similarly, at the students’ level, it has been reported that students who attributed their performance to effort generally showed significantly more consistent response pattern than those who attributed their performance to other factors (Umobong, 2004). These students persevered on given tasks because of their belief that the more effort they put into a task, the higher their achievement will be. However, students who attributed their performance to luck, which is an unstable factor, lacked motivation and determination to persist long on given tasks. The report supports the earlier findings by Atkin and Maruyama (1979, p. 86) that examinees who attributed their performance to effort showed consistency in performance significantly higher than those who attributed it to ability, luck and task difficulty. Conclusion and Recommendations The investigator studied causal attributions of success on principals’ goal attainment at the secondary school level. It was concluded, in order of relative effectiveness, that the most important causal attribution factor of principals’ success were: effort, ability, task difficulty and luck. The highest mean differences were recorded by effort and ability; while task difficulty and luck were the least potent. It appears that performance will be optimized when principals accept responsibility for their successes and failures and understand that with effort and persistence they can always achieve more.



55


On the basis of the findings and conclusions, we recommend as follows: 1. Since performance on tasks is optimized when principals

accept responsibility for their success and realize that with effort and persistence they can overcome failure, the Local Education Committees (LECs) and Board should orientate principals on the relationship between their behaviour and task performance.

2. Principals should be encouraged to make external attributions for failures while internalizing attributions for successes, since internal attributions for failures tend to discourage and weaken (or reduce) more efforts.

3. Since more training increases ability on tasks, the LECs and Board should train principals through workshops, seminars, and lectures on modern management techniques.

4. Principals should be motivated so that they would be encouraged to put in more effort, especially where task difficulty is involved.

5. There is the need to enrich and re-design the work role of principals in order to equip them adequately to be achievement and goal-oriented.

References Akwa Ibom State (2006). State Secondary Education Board (SSEB),

Statistics Division, Uyo. Atkin, R. M., & Maruyama, G. M. (1979). Attribution, effect and

college examination performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 72, 86-93.

Dweck, C. S., & Goetz, T. E. (1978). Attribution and helplessness. In J. H. Harvey, W. Icks, & R. R. F. Kidd (Eds) New Directions in Attributions Research. Hilldal, New Jersey: Eilbaum, 79-90.

Garner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligence. New York: Basis Books.



56


Jona, I. (2000). Influence of causal attribution on performance outcome of handicapped athletes in Akwa Ibom State. Journal of Education and Society, 3(2), 23-29.

Ocho, L. O. (2001). Philosophical issues of financing education. In E. J. Maduewesi (Ed.) Financing of Education in Nigeria. The Nigerian Academy of Education Yearbook, 3,1-16

Ogbodo, C. M. (2002). Administrative effectiveness of male and female principals in Akwa Ibom State secondary schools. Journal of Education, 2, (1), 19-24

Roptter, J. B. (1996). Generalized expectations for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80.

Ukpong, E. M. (1997). Students will be better learners: A causal analysis of success and failure: Nigerian Education Journal, 1 (1), 28-32.

Weiner, B. (1979), A theory of motivation for some classroom experiences. Journal of Education Psychology, 71, 3-25.

Weiner, B. (1985). An attribution theory of motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92(4), 548-573.



57


APPENDIX QUESTIONNAIRE ON CAUSAL ATTRIBUTIONS OF SUCCESS ON PRINCIPALS’ GOAL ATTAINMENT IN AKWA IBOM STATE ON NIGERIA. Note: This questionnaire is meant to seek information on the perception of teachers on the causal attribution of success on their principals’ goal attainment effort in their individual secondary schools. Part I : Demography Name of School: …………………………………………………… Gender of teacher: Male: ………………………………………………………. Female: ………………………………………………....... Part II: Please check (√) the statement that best explains your perception of causal attributions of success on your principal’s goal attainment efforts. Very strongly agreed = 6 Strongly agreed = 5 Agreed = 4 Disagreed = 3 Strongly Disagreed = 2 Very strongly disagreed = 1 IN THIS SCHOOL

ABILITY VSA SA A D SA VSD 1 Ability of principal to

hold regular staff meetings ensures teacher involvement in school management.



58


2 Principal’s competence in evaluating instructional programmes helps the school to be more effective.

3 The good performance in football is made possible by the principal’s expertise in co-curricular activities

4 Principal’s aptitude in preparing of good school budget contributes to effective school business management.

5 The healthy school community relationship is due largely to the speech making ability of the principal

(EFFORT) 6 Our excellent

performance in sports is caused by our principal’s exertion

7 The high morale of teachers is promoted by the principal

8 Staff and student discipline is made possible by the efforts of the principal

9 Success of the principal



59


as a good school plant manager comes from his labour.

(LUCK) 10 Students’ terminal

results are always signed and released by the strain of the principal on the closing day.

11 The good performance we have in public examinations is because the school is lucky.

12 Our success in athletics is caused by chance.

13 Additional number of teachers posted here is due to fate.

14 Our achievement at science competitions is determined by fortune.

15 Our principal is able to provide for the welfare of his teachers by accident.

(NATURE OF TASKS) 16 The principal’s

administration is a success because he/she has mastery of human engineering.

17 The principal uses committees to settle some disputes,



60


depending on the type of issue involved.

18 The interest of the principal in teaching accounts for the high quality of instructional supervision available

19 Principal’s personal traits makes him/her a good counselor

20 Our principal is an active change agent because he/she encourages creativity and new ideas.

Casual Attributions of Success on Goal Attainment of Principals in Akwa -Ibom State of Nigeria, BASSEY


61


CONFLICT GENERATION AND MANAGEMENT IN THE NIGERIAN SOCIO-POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT

BY

DAN. I. MEZIEOBI & SAM A. MEZIEOBI, Ph.D. Abstract This paper examined conflict as a social problem which is capable of derailing a nation’s stability and unity if not properly managed and guided. The sources of conflict as a pervasive negative social phenomenon were incisively examined, they include militarization of the society, political domination, religious crisis, cultural diversity, economic deprivation, government inactivity, inflammatory reports, injustices and marginalization, while potent conflict management devices in Nigeria’s socio-political environment such as transparency of government in power, judicious disbursement of national resources, formulation of basic national ideology, effective leadership, political education, amongst others were discussed and conclusion highlighted. Introduction Conflict is a pervasive social phenomenon prevalent in all man’s societies without exception. It is a negative social development tantamount to obstructing nation building, national unity, patriotism as well as national stability. The existence of conflicts portends the non-acceptance or agreement of social values, occasioning unstable accommodation, non-cooperation, destructive criticisms, marginalization, discrimination, ethnic violence and even war at a large scale in a nation. It is instructive that for political stability to be attained there must be conducive followership. Some of the attributes of conducive fellowship are deep political awareness, that is the appreciation of the invaluable nature of freedom and sovereignty, patriotism, adequate sense of nation-hood, habitual obedience to constitutional


62


rules and regulation and a good sense of rights and obligations. The political actions and reactions of the followership should practically manifest Rosseau’s concept of government: the governments are contracts between the followership and the leadership (Obalato, 1999). Conflict in Nigerian societies could be perceived at the villages, communities, local government areas, states and national levels. The destructive aspects of conflict are that it affects unity of purpose of the various human elements of the society constituting a nation. The new trend to conflict in Nigeria is the disregard of the traditional norms of the society by the youth (cultural conflict), cultism, faulty elections and heinous cases of armed robberies are indices of a society enveloped in crime. In addition, the non-collective acceptance and adherence to national objectives, national consensus and the abject neglect of national conference to iron out constitutional defects and ascertain the pressing needs of the various ethnic groups in Nigeria, make the existence of virile Nigerian nation with collective citizens’ will for social intercourse, harmonious existence, convivial interdependence and interactions elusive. This paper tends to expose the sources of conflict, conflict management devices from which conclusions and generalizations can be drawn on conflict generation and management in the Nigerian socio-political environment. Concept Clarification Conflict, conflict management and socio-political environment are notable concepts to be examined in this discourse. Every society not only has prescribed goals but in addition has socially approved means of achieving those goals. When individual is not given access to these, means that deviant behaviour is likely to result (Iyoha, 1997:10). Gleaned from above postulation is that conflict is borne of discord with the levels of human relations and competition and competition for scarce resources in a polity. Conflict undoubtedly is a crucial factor stimulating political and social instability in Nigeria. Megginson et al (1983) in Oyigbo




63


(1997) defined conflict as oppositional behaviour in social relationship. Equally, Oyigbo (1997) contends that conflict is manifest at intra-personal, inter-personal, interdisciplinary, intra-organizational as well as the international arena of human relation, and we add inter-ethnic, regional, social, economic, political and technological. Nigeria is a geo-political entity, the prevalent attitude, beliefs, emotions and values of the society including the citizens and citizens’ relationship with the government of Nigeria. Management of conflicts entails appropriate and purposeful steps to contain and ameliorate the degrees of conflicts in Nigeria as a nation. Sources of conflict Given Nigeria’s plural ethnic composition, there is apparent conflict amongst competing ethnic groups, citizens and the state in their ultimate demands for better social conditions. Some factors that occasion conflict in the Nigerian socio-political environment are delineated as follows: Militarization of the society: The long enduring military rule in the political scene of Nigeria has helped in militarizing the civil society. Nigerians want to use force and violence to settle scores without recourse to conventions, which is a neglect of the principles of natural justice. Okere (1998) in corroboration lends support when he stressed that the military has not lived up to expectation as a corrective regime. Instead, their involvement in governance has accelerated the pace of corruption and social vices. Political domination: Nnoli (1978) opined that African politics is dominated with tribal sentiments and considerations. Politics in Nigeria and the ticket to leadership at the centre has been lopsided. Those Nigerians who are deprived of access to political power by marginalization occasioned by tribal discrimination, politicization, electoral malpractices amongst others will be restrictive in supporting the incumbent government. Iwe (1991:17) added that “leadership in an atmosphere laddened with sectional political interest is not likely to enjoy total support of the citizens of a country”.

Conflict Generation and Management in the Nigerian Socio-Political Environment, MEZIEOBI & MEZIEOBI



64


Religious crisis: Religion has been politicized in Nigeria. The Christians and the Moslems in some sections of the country engaged in fierce violent conflicts, occasioning destruction of lives and valuable properties. One observable thing is that political miscreants use religion to create social chaos in the country. They achieve their way, because of the ignorance level of the masses. The Sharia issue and its application on non Moslems is a burning national issue that has ignited religious conflicts, which claimed lives, property and stability of the Nigerian nation and yet the federal government is inactive in formulating policies to counter the use of religion to threaten national security and economic well-being of many Nigerians. Religious conflict and intolerance have been major disintegrative factor towards nation building. Cultural diversity: The Nigerian society is an aggregation of multiple ethnic groups with divergent cultural values and prejudices, which work against national unity. Ethnicity and tribal discrimination affect, to a large extent socio-political and economic relations in Nigeria. In affirmation, Nnoli (1978) explained that various ethnic groups scramble for political positions as an advantage of accumulating national resources. Invariably, the failure of tribal men to be in government consequently results to neglect in governments’ provision of social amenities and political patronage. Economic Deprivation: Unemployment has social, economic and political consequences. Socially, it increases misery and degradation. It may also give rise to social agitations, turmoil and violence. These would in turn pose a danger to stability of political systems order. Political instabilities may result in slowing down of economic growth as well as weakening of state’s credibility (Nwizu, 1997:61). The socio-economic conditions of most Nigerians are alarming. Unemployment and the increasing rate of inflation without effective functional socio-economic programmes to alleviate poverty, and policies to better the lot of most Nigerians, encourage aggrieved, economically depressed citizens to vent their misfeeling through violence and other unimaginable destructive activities. In addition,



65


the oil wealth is not equitably distributed to cushion the effects of the harsh economic conditions on citizens. There is perceived abject neglect of rural communities and the host oil communities whose environment’s are depleted through oil exploration. This anomaly has been the foundation of the ceaseless Niger-Delta crisis in Nigeria. Another common source of conflict in Nigeria is the pressure over available resources or their near scarcity. Since the seat of government at the centre has large economic, social and political benefits attached, Nigerians employ civilized and uncivilized approaches in order to be placed in power. Those who are unjustifiably denied, resort to conflict as a measure to be reinstated. Chief M.K.O. Abiola’s experience is tenable; NADECO’s relentless criticism of Abacha’s rule of alimony is remarkable. Government inactivity: Those at the corridors of powers lack the political will and initiative to uplift the standard of living of the masses. Most politicians connive in unwanted corruption, nepotism and over-inflation of contracts to the utter neglect of empowering the impoverished Nigerian masses economically. Injustice and marginalization: Most states in Nigeria have little or no federal presence. Appointment, promotion and training in the civil service and other government parastatals lack merit or reflection of federal character. Some states of Nigeria tend to enjoy advantage in the allocation of resources. Against this background, Etumodor (1999) suggests a thorough inspection of leaders in political positions as to curtail their excesses and unfairness. Inflammatory reports: The mass media blow some explosive strategic events and information out of tune. These results in suspicion, hatred, insinuations to inflame rivalry, especially on issues of religion and ethnic bias. Conflict management devices in Nigeria’s socio-political environment Conscious of the fact that no nation or state attains national stability, without collective spirited efforts of the citizens at national



66


development. The following conflict ameliorative devices are delineated: Transparency of government in power: The government in power should be transparent and live above ethnic sentiments and local parochialism. In addition, accountability, necessary checks and balances in the conduct of public affairs, will inspire confidence in the populace, promote patriotism, and accelerate equity, justice and fair play, including potential reliability on government activities, policies and programmes. National political parties’ formulation: Political parties for national stability, peace and progress ought to be embracing, national in outlook, instead of glue to ethnic alignments, which unavoidably promote conflicts. Political activities in Nigeria for worthwhile national stability should grow and be devoid of ethnic sentiments and support. Judicious disbursement of National resources: Government in power should use the national wealth judiciously for the overall national development of all sections of Nigeria, without undue over concentration of social amenities in certain locations of the country. Aggressive rural policy development programmes in Nigeria should be reinvigorated, sustained and given primary focus and attention. Revisit of our cultural values: Njoku (1998) suggests a revisit of our cultural values in Nigeria before British Colonization, which promoted morals and care for the less privileged. The economic empowerment of the many less privileged citizens in Nigeria will make the society a better place to live in. Formulation of basic national ideology: An acceptable political ideology will provide basis for acceptable national values, the adoption of common philosophies will engender collective input towards achieving a virile nation with patriotic political activities guided by sound democratic principles. Attention to be given to national conference: The national conference issue shunned by most governments is ideal for cementing solidarity amongst Nigerians, as it will provide genuine



67


fora for dwelling on national issues geared at strengthening national unity in a multi-national geo-entity as Nigeria, also, the resolution of areas of conflicts in ways most satisfying to large sections of Nigerians will be amicably worked out. Inculcation of the spirit of tolerance amongst Nigerians: Mechanism for conflict resolution on matters bothering on ethnic antagonism should be given high preference by our political leaders. The social integration of ethnic groups in Nigeria is a purposeful means for strengthening nation building. Against the essence of solidarity and convivial social intercourse amongst ethnic groups in Nigeria, Nwankwo (1985:15) said “national consciousness is the bed rock of nationalism”. Effective leadership: Our leaders should be determined, effective, guided by national needs and aspirations, and above all, enthrone dynamism, periodic constitutional reviews and leadership’s faithful implementation of the constitution without bias and favour. Political Education: In view of the persistent prevailing conflicts in the Nigerian socio-political environment, Akude (1991) advocates for political education as a measure of functional citizenship training, which will include knowledge of our political system, citizens awareness of his basic rights, his responsibilities to the state as well as other citizens and understanding of the principles of our political culture. Restraints on explosive publications: Harmonious environment for peaceful social relationship can be projected through mass citizenship education. Outside the educational institutions, the mass media should serve as a vanguard for injecting in the citizenry morals, new attitudes and values for cohesive social living. This is insinuates that the mass media should have restraints on explosive publications that tend to break up the entity. Conclusion Conflict in the political environment of Nigeria, is a despicable social problem. The achievement of national growth and development stands to be achieved through collective national social



68


integration. Leadership and the Nigerian citizens have a collective responsibility in building a stable and virile nation. References Akunde, I. (1991). The Role of Social Studies Education in

Promoting Political Education in Nigeria. Journal of Social Issues 1(1) pg. 20.

Azelemg, J. U. (1996). An Introduction to Management and Public

Finance. Lagos: Oshoke Yakubu Enterprises. Etumudor, M. (1999). Checks and Balance in Government: A

Panacea for good government in Nigeria. In M. O. Ezegbe, & S. C. Owunmwa, (Eds.). Social Sciences and National Development. Owerri: Whyte Publishers.

Ezegbe, M. O. (1994). Social Studies Education and Nation

Building. In G. W. Joof., & H. C. Amadi, (Eds.). Social Studies in Schools. Onitsha: Outrite Publishers.

Iyioha, O. O. (1997). Sociological and Legal Elements of Deviance. Benin: Gaboh Ventures.

Iwe, S. S. N. (1991). Socio-Ethnical Issues in Nigeria. Obosi: Pacific

College Press. Mezieobi, K. A. (1994). Contemporary issues in Social Studies

Education. In G. W. Joof., & H. C. Amadi., (Eds.). Social Studies in Schools. Onitsha: Outrite Publishers.

Mkpa, M. A. (1999). Education and National Development: The

Status, Problems and Prospects in Nigeria. In M. O. Ezegbe, & B. C. Owunwa, (Eds). Social Science and National Development. Owerri: Whyte and Whute Publishers.



69


Njoku, N. L. (1998). Tradition and Culture in African Politics: An Historical Analysis of the Nigeria Cases. In C. E. Emezi,. and C. A. Ndoh,. (Eds). African Politics. Owerri: Achugo Publishers.

Nnoli, O. (1978). Ethnic Politics in Nigeria. Enugu: Fourth

Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd. Nwankwo, A. A. (1985). National Consciousness for Nigeria.

Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd. Nwizu, G. (1997). Major Social Problems in Nigeria and their

Consequences. In A. M. Uzoma, G. Nwizu & D. Njoku (Eds). Reading in Social Sciences: ABSU Fresh Course in Citizenship Education. Uturu: Abia State University.

Obalato, A. (1999). The Role of Followership in the Nigerian

Political Instability. An Unpublished Paper Presented at Conference Organized by SOSTAn at Abia State University Uturu.

Okereke, O. O. (1998). Civilianized Presidents and Militarisation of

Civil Society in Africa. In C. E. Emezi & C. A. Ndoh (Eds). African Politics. Owerri: Achugo Publications.

Oyibo, E. E. (1997). Organizational Theories and Application.

Benin: Osasu Publishers.



70


DEATH, BEREAVEMENT AND CAREGIVING: IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELLING

By

DR. (MRS.) GRACE EGO OMONI &

MRS. SCHOLASTICA U. IJEH Abstract The study was designed to find out the relationship between bereavement and caregiving. Three research hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. A sample of 178 workers consisting of 106 lecturers and 72 administrative staff were used for the study, using stratified random sampling technique. Data were obtained using the Death, Bereavement and Caregiving Inventory (DBCI) and analyzed with the use of Pearson Product Moment Correlation and t-test statistics. The findings revealed that there was a relationship between bereavement and caregiving based on the perception of the subjects. It was then recommended that counsellors should help the bereaved through caregiving strategies. Introduction Death is an inevitable phenomenon in human existence. It is conceived of differently by people, depending on their cultural, religious or idiosyncratic orientation . Its unpredictability and inevitability seem to fascinate and, in the same vein, frighten many individuals. Various assertions have been proffered as to the definition of death. There is a general consensus that death brings to an end the existence of human life. Once a person dies, he or she can no more physically interact with the living. Thus, the stresses, pains, anxieties, worries and pleasures of life cannot be experienced by one certified dead. He or she is separated from all forms of life’s hassles; hence the dead is said to be asleep, at rest or having transited according to cultural belief. The researchers are of the view that the


71


bereaved actually experiences pains, worries, anxieties, purposelessness, shattered world and hopelessness after the death of a loved one. Therefore, his/her predicament should be the concern of caregivers such as counsellors and psychologists. Definition of Death The concept of death is always placed within the perspective of either religion, philosophy or culture. From the theological point of view, Paul in 1 Thessalonians 4:13-16 sees death as a form of sleep. This implies that death is a transition from earth to heaven or hell. In our cultural setting (among the Urhobos and Ukwuanis), it is believed that the dead has gone on a long journey. The implication is that the living could still communicate with the dead; hence the idea of ancestral worship. Philosophically, death is seen as the cessation of the integrated functioning of the human organism. This is in line with Nnabuchi’s definition (1987:24), which says that death is a “permanent seizure of human body as known to have existed at a particular time tract and at a definite place to function and is subsequently buried or cremated or allowed to decompose on itself”. The implication of this is that death brings to an end the existence of life. There are various causes of death. It could be expected after a diagnosis of terminal illness or an unexpected accident or medical condition. It could be clinical or biological. One could also be physically active but socially dead when you are no longer functional in the society. People also believe it is sometimes not natural. Eyetsemitan (2002) asserts that for this reason people consult dead ancestors to find out the cause of a beloved’s death. It is assumed by such adherents that illness and death are from some spiritual elements (witchcraft, offending one’s ancestors or gods) rather than the reason being medical or physical. Bereavement Bereavement is referred to as separation distress. It is an experience that must be treated with great respect. When a



72


relationship is no longer available, the survivor experiences self-devastation. Bereavement refers to the painful experiences of losing a loved one through death. Following the death of a loved one, members of the family are likely to exhibit traumatic dysfunction, especially by those whose integrity were dependent upon the relationship with the deceased. Oxford Dictionary defines bereavement as the state of losing a loved one by death. Bereavement is characterized by grief exhibited in various degrees from one individual to another. Association for the Advancement of Behaviour Therapy (AABT) (1991) asserts that bereavement could be complicated or uncomplicated. Asonibare (1998) identified ten stages of grief – shock, disbelief, searching for emotional release, physical distress, feelings of depression and gloom, sense of guilt, anger and hostility, unwillingness to engage in normal chores, gradual coming around and readjustment. AABT (1991) also identified anger, waves of difficulties, feeling of guilt, numbness, and crippling loss of ability to function. Iliya (1998) identified sorrow, uncertainty, insecurity and fear of who will take care of the children, which is accompanied by self-pity. These identified traumatic dysfunctions exhibited by bereaved people prompted the researchers to undertake this study. Statement of Problem The loss of a loved one is a powerful stressor in life. Those experiencing bereavement exhibit symptoms of anxiety, worry, depression, loneliness and equally undergo physiological changes, which are likely to reduce their bodies’ ability to function positively. Caregivers need to recognize the predicaments of the bereaved. Counsellors can help to guide the bereaved through education and counselling. Thus, the study sought to answer this question: If death is said to be tougher for the bereaved than the dead, what is to be done to help them adjust to normal life?

Death, Bereavement and Caregiving: Implications for coaunseling, OMONI & IJEH


73


Research Hypotheses Three research hypotheses were raised to guide the study: Ho1: There is no significant difference between lecturers and the

administrative staff of College of Education, Agbor on their perception of death and bereavement.

Ho2: There is no significant relationship between bereavement and psychosocial problems experienced by the bereaved.

Ho3: There is no significant relationship between bereavement and caregiving for the bereaved.

Purpose of the Study The study was carried out to determine the relationship between bereavement and caregiving from the perspective of workers of the College of Education, Agbor. It was also aimed at identifying ways of helping the bereaved to adjust to life after losing a loved one. Method The researchers adopted the survey research design, since the study was aimed at having a general assessment of opinions and feelings of the subjects about bereavement. 200 copies of the questionnaire were distributed to the respondents by the researchers but only 178 were properly filled and returned. Research Instrument The instrument was titled ‘Death, Bereavement and Caregiving Inventory’ (DBCI) constructed by the researchers themselves but amended and modified by three lecturers from the Counselling Psychology Department of Delta State University, Abraka and one from College of Education, Agbor. It had an internal consistency of 0.85 at 0.05 level of significance, using the Cronbach Alpha. The instruments had two sections. Section A sought to elicit information on respondents’ personal data based on



74


job status, religion and sex. Section B consists of 25 items, which sought to elicit information on respondents’ perception of death, bereavement and types of caregiving what could be used to help the bereaved. Respondents were asked to respond to each of the items on a modified Likert format of four options ranging from Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree. Data collected were analyzed using Pearson Product Moment Correlation and the t-test statistics. Results The results of the study are presented in the table below: Hypothesis 1:

There is no significant difference between lecturers and the administrative staff of College of Education, Agbor on their perception of death and bereavement. Table 1

Variable

: t-test Analysis of the Perception of Death by Lecturers and Administrative Staff

N X SD df Calculated t-value

Critical t-

value Decision

Lecturers 106

2.9949

.3749 17

6 -0.24 .981 Hypothesis Accepted Administrativ

e Staff 72 2.9962

.3720

The above results show that the calculated t-value of -0.24 is less than the critical t-value of .981 at 0.5 level of significance. Null hypothesis is therefore accepted. The results maintain that there is no significant difference between the perception of lecturers and administrative staff of College of Education, Agbor on beliefs about death and bereavement. Hypothesis 2:

Death, Bereavement and Caregiving: Implications for counseling, OMONI & IJEH


75


There is no significant relationship between bereavement and psychosocial problems experienced by the bereaved. Table 2

Variable

: Correlation Analysis of Bereavement and Psychosocial Problems

N Calculated ‘r’

Critical ‘r’ Decision

Bereavement 178 .471 .000 Hypothesis

rejected Psychosocial Problems 178

The above table shows that the calculated r-value of .471 is greater than the critical r-value of .000 at 0.01 level of significance. The null hypothesis is rejected. Thus, the result indicates that there is a significant relationship between bereavement and psychosocial problems experienced by the bereaved. Hypothesis 3: There is no relationship between bereavement and caregiving of the bereaved. Table 3

Variable

: Correlation Analysis of Bereavement and Caregiving of the Bereaved

N Calculated ‘r’

Critical ‘r’ Decision

Bereavement 178 .429 .000 Hypothesis rejected Caregiving 178

Table 3 shows that the calculated r-value of .429 is higher than the critical r-value of .000 at 0.01 level of significance. There is a significant correlation between bereavement and caregiving for the bereaved. The null hypothesis is therefore rejected. Discussion of Results



76


The first finding shows that there is no significant difference between the perception of lecturers and the administrative staff of College of Education, Agbor about death and bereavement. From our cultural setting, death is seen as a communal concern, a transition, an inescapable occurrence, an event that causes grief and disrupts family life and often celebrated with rituals and rites. Onukwagha (2001) opines that death-denying attitude is observed in how Africans conceptualize death. Hence they believe that death is a transition. The finding also supports the thoughts of Eyetsemitan (2002) that when death occurs, divination as to the cause is sought for from spiritual elements rather than medical or physical reasons. Death is shrouded with funeral rites and rituals as well as suspicion. The second hypothesis indicates that there is a relationship between bereavement and psychosocial problems. The loss of a loved one causes a lot of psychological, social and financial restraint for the bereaved. Asonibare (1998), Okoli (1998) and Eyetsemitan (2002) in their different studies enumerated variables such as shock, guilt, anger, sorrow, worries, anxieties, depression, breakdown in communication among the bereaved, physical distress, loneliness, suspicions, poverty, fear of the future and deprivations as some of the signs and symptoms exhibited by the grievers. Eyetsemitan (2002) asserts that widows have no right to inheritance but could do so through their children while Iliya (1998) asserts that some of the bereaved interviewed spoke of their fears of not having people to care for their children after losing the breadwinner. Again, Okoli (1998) is of the view that confronting the death of a loved one has a shock effect, which requires emotional and physical adjustment. Lastly, the third hypothesis indicates that there is a significant relationship between bereavement and caregiving. The study reveals that the bereaved requires emotional, social, financial, legal and medical support from caregivers. Asonibare (1998), Onukwagha (2001) and Eyetsemitan (2002) express the view that the counsellors have roles to play if the bereaved are to adjust to life



77


after the bitter experiences. Asonibare (1998) talks of faith therapy while Okoli (1998) suggests supportive empathic attention that communicates a sense of objective reality. AABT (1991) encourages talk therapy and removal of reminders of the dead such as photographs. It is opined that friends and relatives should help any bereaved person to adjust by encouraging him/her to talk about feelings and thoughts about the dead. Conclusion Death and bereavement have many dimensions. Death disrupts the griever from carrying out daily activities. Bereavement could be complicated or uncomplicated. While some people return to their normal life rapidly, others never do. Death of a loved one destabilizes the bereaved psychologically, financially and socially. It is generally believed that the dead are either sleeping, resting or transiting so they experience no pains or trauma. The death of a loved one is painful and tough. Hence there is the need for counselling intervention to enable the bereaved adjust to life faster. Counselling Interventions

Based on the findings, the following counselling strategies should be adopted: 1. People should respect the bereaved and give formal grief intervention. 2. Help the bereaved to be less depressed and less anxious using

talk therapy. 3. Use imagery and behavioural counselling, provoking and

safely reviewing thoughts and painful memories. 4. Educate the bereaved to understand how he/she can exercise

his/her rights in court. 5. Provide opportunity for the bereaved to talk about the dead

and the relationship that existed while the loved one was alive.

6. Get the bereaved to engage in creative activities.



78


7. Speak about faith in God into the consciousness of the bereaved.

8. Death education should be included in the school curriculum. 9. Counsellors should make use of assertive skills and

dissemination to help the bereaved. 10. Periodic seminar should be advocated. 11. Social, legal and financial supports should be encouraged

among sympathizers. References Association for Advancement of Behaviour Therapy (1991). New

York. yellowpages.com/…/Association-for-Advancement-of-Behavior-Therapy

Asonibare, J. B. (1998). Death Sting in Grief and Counsellor’s Role

in Caring for the Bereaved. The Counsellor 16(1), 171-176. Death: Definitions, Synonyms and much more from death

Answers.com Ekoja, A. A. & Ekoja, O. C. (1998). Counselling the Nigerian

Widow: A Particular Reference to Idoma Widows in Benue State. The Counsellor 16(1), 21-217.

Eyetsemitan, F. (2002). Cultural Interpretations of Dying and Death

in a Non-Western Society: The Case of Nigeria. In W. J. Loner (ed.) Online Readings in Psychology and Culture (Unit 14, Chapter 1).

Iliya, H. (1998). Facing Death as the Inevitable End. The

Counsellor 16(1), 99-105. Kubler-Ross, E. (1993). Death and Dying. New York: Collier

Books.



79


Nnabuchi, N. (1989). In Defence of Igbo Belief System. Enugu: Life

Path Printing Press. Okoli, C. E. (1998). Counselling Strategies for Coping with

Terminal Illness and Bereavement. The Counsellor 16(1), 1-5.

Omebe, S. E. (1998). Counselling for Death and Dying. The

Counsellor 16(1), 7-11. Onukwagha, G. O. (2007). Many Africans Believe that the Spirit of

the Deceased Remains in the World, Death and Dying in the African Context. http://www.natanie_tuner.com/death/and dying African http://www.answers.com/defunction+of+



http://www.answers.com/defunction+of�

80


ANALYSIS OF RESORUCES MANAGEMENT IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN DELTA STATE, NIGERIA.

BY DR. ENAMIRORO PATRICK OGHUVBU

[email protected]. Abstract: The study analyzed the management of resources in primary schools in Delta state. The instruments used for the study were derived from the Report of the Staff Distribution and on Infrastructure in Sub- committee set- up by the Ministry of Education , Directorate of Primary and Secondary Education in Delta State. Ten local government areas were selected using stratified random sampling from the three districts and all the schools (520 )and the staff (10319) were used for the study. Eight research questions were raised and answered using mean, percentage and chi- square test statistics at 0.05 level of significance. The study revealed a teacher – pupil ratio of (1:22). This is less than the national teacher- pupil ratio (1:44). Eighty one percent of the teachers are with teaching qualification. There is a significant difference in the distribution of teachers and non- teaching staff by qualification in schools among Local Government Areas. There is no significant difference in the teacher- pupil ratio among riverine, rural, semi- urban and urban primary schools. Riverine schools have the highest teacher- pupil ratio 1:78, with 9% of the schools with less than 6 teachers in a school. Facilities are inadequate and not proportionally distributed in schools among the Local Government Areas Keywords: Management , Resources , Riverine , Facilities , Human. Introduction

The State Primary Education Board is in charge of the management of primary education, especially the human resources. The board is in charge of management needs for human resources to be provided and deployed. She is greatly concerned with the planning, monitoring and control to facilitate the achievement of the


mailto:[email protected]�

81


objectives of primary education. This involves the process of achieving the objectives of primary education through efficient use of the resources and the planning, organization, coordination, direction and control of the activities of teaching and non- teaching staff in primary schools. The quality of education depends to a large extent, on the quality of teachers (Ogbodo 1995), the quality of education and learning achievements of students depend heavily on the quality, competence, personality and dedication of teachers . Also number of studies have shown that students’ achievement has a positive relationship with the quality of teachers. The training which a teacher receives, has been proved to be important to students academic success (Idiaghe, 2004:92).The current teachers’ statistics in primary schools in Delta State, showed 17, 529 teachers to 391, 491 pupils resulting into teacher - pupil ratio 1:22. This is quite adequate, even below approved standard of 1:35 teacher- pupil ratio. (Ministry of Education Report, 2007:4). The board may face the following challenges in the effective management of primary schools:

a. Changing mix of the work force- more female (12,654) than male( 4875) teachers in schools, more working mothers.

b. Changing personal values of teachers such as, low moral standard, low motivation, hard economic situation and so on.

c. Lack of appreciation for merit and hard work in schools (Okoh, 1998:28)

Researchers (Oghuvbu,1999;Ogunbowale,1984;Ogunsanju,1983) have identified some management problems in primary schools such as inadequate preparation by teachers, over crowded classrooms, poor facilities for pupils and teachers, lack of instructional supervision, change in curriculum, geographical location of schools and the type of supervising climate in schools and teachers’ experience. The number of primary schools in Nigeria increased from 48,552 with total enrolment of 17,907,008 in 1999 to 59,174 with



82


total enrolment of 25, 765,969 in 2003. Total number of teachers in the 59,174 primary schools is 591,041, resulting in teacher-pupil ratio of 1:44 (Universal Basic Education commission 2004).On the relationship between educational resources and students academic performance, Idiaghe( 2004:141) concluded that teachers’ qualification and adequate facilities were determinants of assessing academic performance of students in secondary schools. Hence the availability or non-availability of facilities in schools affects the academic performance of students in Delta State. This is in agreement with Nwangwu (1997) who believes that teaching materials facilitate teaching and learning activities, which result in effective teaching and improved academic performance. Aihievboloria (2005:10) on staffing ascertained that the school is an essentially human organization, because it has human operatives, clients and products, hence students’ performance has positive relationship with the quality of teachers. The importance of adequate staffing of a school is clearly demonstrated by the way secondary students continue to drift from one school to another in search of school with better -qualified teachers. For efficient educational management, facilities help the school to determine the number of pupils to be accommodated, number of teachers and non-teaching personnel to be employed and the cost determination for the efficient management of the system (Osagie 2001). The school climate is determined by the resources, especially classrooms under which the teachers and pupils operates which influences attitude in teaching and learning. Unconducive classrooms creates stress on teachers and pupils resulting in negative attitude toward school and learning by pupils. Facilities below approved standard could also lead to reduction in quality of teaching and learning in schools resulting to poor pupils academic performance (Uwheraka ,2005:51). The school environment affects academic achievement of pupils. Facilities such as desks, seats, chalkboard, teaching aids, and cupboard are ingredients for effective teaching and learning(Olutola,

Analysis of Resources Management in Primary Schools in Delta State, Nigeria. OGHUVBU


83


2000). In the same vein the Nigeria Education Research Council (1998) emphasized for a good education policy or programmed. To guarantee quality outputs, it must be serviced optimally with appropriate trained and motivated teaching staff, adequately supplied with necessary facilities and equipment.

This study, theoretically employs the frame work of the social systems theory, centered in the school as a social system made up of human and material resources. The human resources are teachers and the non-teaching staff, and facilities include classroom, desks, toilets, offices, books and teaching aids. The idea of a system in this study helps in analyzing the utilization of available resources by the State Primary Education Boards and the achievement of the objectives of primary education in Delta. Statement of the Problem

There is a general perception of a decline in the quality of education in Nigeria, especially at the primary schools. When the first school was established in Badagry-Lagos in 1843, there were no qualified indigene teachers. From 1843 to late 1970’s, number of teachers were inadequate. Hence teacher training institutions were established in different parts of Nigeria. In 1999, the Federal Government mandated the National Teachers Institute to organize training centres to produce Teachers grade two certificate. The Universities and Colleges of Education in Delta State also organize weekend and sandwich programmes to produce professional teachers at different level. From the experience of the researcher, Teacher Training Institutions have awarded certificates to a good number of persons to impart knowledge to pupils in primary schools. It is suprising to observe that in the 21st century, graduates of primary schools cannot be regarded as literates in terms of simple literacy and numeracy. They can not identify road signs, carry out simple measurement as craft men in training.

The products of our primary schools especially rural pupils, are not practically qualified as messengers and domestic servants, even though they are certificated. The percentage dropout at primary



84


school level is also higher especially the rural areas (Oghuvbu ,2008). This unhealthy situation in the state calls to mind certain questions; Are the product of teacher training institutions not properly managed by the state primary education board? Are there facilities in primary schools? Are the available facilities proportionately distributed in primary schools among local government areas in Delta State? Purpose of the Study

The importance of sound, qualitative primary education, as a foundation for brighter secondary and higher education as a tool for scientific, economic, political and technological development is well known. The quality of any nation’s education depends on the quality of her primary education. Inadequate utilization of available human and material resources by education managers could result to poor instructional quality leading to poor foundation in primary education. Hence, it is necessary to investigate and analyse the management of human and material resources in primary schools by the State Primary Education Board in Delta State.

This study, therefore analyzed the teacher- pupil ratio in riverine, rural, semi-urban and urban schools, average number of classrooms per school, average number of pupils to a desk and average number of pupils per classroom. It also analyzed the average number of teachers per school according to school location.

Research Questions: The study was designed to provide answers to the following

questions: 1. Is there a significant difference in the teacher pupil ratio in

primary schools among the local government areas in Delta State?

2. Are facilities proportionally distributed in schools according to pupils enrolment, and among local government areas according to number of schools?

3. Is the teacher-pupil ratio in primary schools in Delta State higher than the national ratio?



85


4. Is there a significant difference in the teacher- pupil ratio among riverine, rural, semi-urban and urban primary schools in Delta State?

5. Is there a significant difference in the distribution of teachers by qualifications in schools among the local government areas?

6. Are there primary schools with less than six teachers in the state?

7. Are there teachers without teaching qualification in primary schools in Delta State?

8. Is there a significant difference in the distribution of non-teaching staff by qualifications in schools among the local government areas?

Method and Procedure The design of this study was ex-post facto in nature and followed the descriptive research format. The 17,529 teachers and 2992 non-teaching staff, distributed among the 1,120 primary schools, with a total pupil enrolment of 391,491 constitute the population of the study. A stratified random sampling technique was used to select 10 from the 25 Local Government Areas in the 3 Senatorial Districts in Delta State (See table 1). The pupils, teachers and facilities in the 520 schools in the 10 selected Local Government Area constituted the sample used in this study. Table 1: Study Sample

S/N L.G.A. No. of pry schools.

Pupils Enrolment

No. of Teachers

Teacher-Pupils Ratio

1 Aniocha North 38 13,049 684 1:19 2 Ika North East 61 21,496 1095 1:20 3 Ndokwa West 52 15,232 672 1:23 4 Oshimili South 28 11,555 626 1:18 5 Ethiope West 54 17,532 783 1:22 6 Okpe 40 11,525 568 1:20 7 Ughelli North 88 34,785 1327 1:26 8 Burutu 64 13,169 664 1:20 9 Isoko North 41 21,353 657 1:33



86


10 Warri South 54 20,655 1235 1:17 Total 520 180351 8311 1:22

Source: Statistic Division, Ministry of Education, Asaba (2007). The data used were derived from the report of the staff

distribution and infrastructure sub-committee of the Committee for the Formulation of a Roadmap Toward Improving Standard of Education in Delta State ,Volumes 1 and 11A, December, 2007. Results.

There results of the data analyses are presented according to research questions. Research Question 1: Is there a significant difference in the teacher-pupils ratio in primary schools among the Local Government Areas in Delta State? Table 2: Chi-square Bivariate Table showing the Teacher-Pupil Ratio in Primary Schools among Local Government Area.

L.G.A. Below 1:10

1:10 – 1:15

1:16-1:21

1:22 –1:27

1:28 –1:33

1:34 –1:39

1:40 –1:45

1:46 Above

Total

Aniocha North 2(2) 14(8) 12(9) 8(9) 2(3) -(3) -(2) -(2) 38 Burutu 5(3) 20(13) 10(16) 14(13) 6(5) 3(6) 3(3) 2(3) 63 Ethiope West 1(3) 10(11) 14(13) 14(13) 3(4) 10(5) 3(3) 1(3) 55 Ika North 5(3) 16(13) 19(15) 19(15) -(5) 9(4) 1(3) 1(3) 61 Isoko North -(2) 2(8) 8(10) 8(10) 4(3) 7(5) 5(3) 5(2) 41 Ndokwa West 6(2) 6(11) 11(13) 7(12) 8(4) -(4) 2(3) 2(3) 52 Okpe -(2) 6(8) 14(10) 16(9) 2(3) -(21) 1(2) 1(2) 40 Oshimili South 1(1) 6(6) 12(7) 7(7) 2(2) 2(3) -(2) -(1) 28 Ughelli North 2(4) 9(8) 10(21) 21(21) 11(7) 12(8) 9(5) 14(5) 88 Warri South 2(2) 18(11) 17(13) 13(13) 1(4) 1(5) 1(3) 1(3) 54 Total 24 107 126 123 39 46 28 27 520

From table 2, chi-square calculated value (119.58) is greater than critical value (79.08) at 63 degree of freedom, and 0.05 level of significance. This showed that there is a significant difference in the teacher-pupil ratio in primary schools among the Local Government Areas ,Nigeria. Research Question2: Are facilities proportionally distributed among the Local Government Areas, according to pupils’ enrolment, teachers’ population and number of schools?



87


Table 3: Summary of the Distribution of Facilities among Local Government Areas in Delta State.

L.G.A. Class room

H/M office

Pupil’s Toilet

Teacher Toilet

Pupils Desk

Staff Chairs

Football pitch

No. of schools

Total No. of Teachers

Pupils Enroll.

Teacher pupil ratio

Aver. No. of Pupils per

Class-room

Desk

Aniocha North

360 9 50 23 191 195 26 38 684 13,049 1:20 36 68

Burutu 397 - 22 11 3121 133 26 63 664 13,169 1:20 33 4 Ethiope West 436 - 86 45 3491 338 41 55 783 17,532 1:22 40 5 Ika North 515 18 77 58 1402 316 13 61 1095 21,496 1:20 42 15 Isoko North 375 9 20 20 3118 228 17 41 657 21,353 1:33 57 7 Ndokwa West 206 2 15 14 1030 127 13 52 672 15,232 1:23 76 15 Okpe 287 12 62 20 3558 138 28 40 568 11,525 1:20 40 3 Oshimili South

221 7 26 18 1112 133 1 28 626 11,555 1:18 52 10

Ughelli North 486 28 61 46 5981 599 37 88 1327 34,785 1:26 72 6 Warri South 329 20 - - 3364 366 12 54 12351 20,655 1:17 62 6 Total 360

7 95 419 255 2636

8 2573

214 520 8311 180,351

Average per school

7 0.2 0.8 0.5 5 5 0.41 16 347 1:22

From table 3, there is a serious problem of inadequate facilities in all primary schools in the Local Government Areas. An average of seven classrooms per school (for 280 pupils) revealed a serious problem of overcrowded classrooms in seven schools in Isoko North, Ndokwa West, Oshimili South, Ughelli North and Warri South Local Government Areas. Pupil’s desks are grossly inadequate especially in Anochia North, Ika North, Ndokwa West and Oshimili South. Other Local Government Areas, namely, Burutu, Ethiope West, Isoko North, Okpe, Ughelli North, and Warri South are assisted by NNDC as observed by the researcher. This showed that the facilities are not proportionally distributed in schools among the local government areas. Also there is a serious problem of inadequacy of other facilities in primary schools e.g. Headmaster’s office, toilet facilities and football pitch.

Research Questions 3: Is the teacher-pupil ratio in primary schools in the State higher than the national ratio? The teacher-pupil ratio in primary schools in Delta State is 1:22 which is lower than the national teacher-pupil ratio of 1:44. This is an indication that on the average the primary schools in Delta State are well staffed compared to some other states in Nigeria.



88


Research Question 4: Is there a significant difference in the teacher-pupil ratio among riverrine, rural, semi-urban and urban primary schools in Delta State? Table 4: Chi-square Bivariate Table of Teacher-Pupil Ratio in Primary Schools according to Location.

Location Below 1:10

1:10– 1:15

1:16-1:21

1:22 –1:27

1:2–1:33

1:34 –1:39

1:40 –1:45

1:46- 1:51 Above 1:51

Total

Riverine 4(2.7) 11 (15.5) 15 (18.7) 17 (17) 6 (5.6) 17 (8.7) 4(4.6) 2 (2.4) 1(1.8) 77 Rural 8(6.7) 40 (39) 40 (46.8) 41

(42.7) 14 (14) 19 (22) 14 (11.5) 10 (5.9) 7(4.5) 193

Semi-Urban 2(3.9) 19 (22.8) 26 (27.4) 28 (25) 10 (8.3) 13 (12.8) 9(6.7) 2 (3.5) 4(2.6) 13 Urban 4(4.7) 35 (27.7) 45 (33.2) 29

(30.3) 8 (10) 10 (15.5) 4(8.2) 2 (4.2) 0(3.2) 137

Total 18 105 126 115 38 59 31 16 12 520

From table 4, the calculated chi-square value (19.71) with 24 degree of freedom at 0.05 level of significance is less than chi-square critical value (23.34). This revealed that there is no significant difference in the teacher-pupils ratio among schools in riverine, rural, semi-urban and urban primary schools in Delta State. Research Question 5: Is there a significant difference in the distribution of teachers by qualifications in schools among the Local Government Areas? Table 5: Chi-square Bivariate table of the Distribution of Teachers by Qualification in Schools among the Local Government Areas.

L.G.A. With Teaching Qualifications Without Teaching Qualifications TC II, NECO/SSCE

Total Degree N.C.E. A.C.E.

Aniocha North 2(68) 664(437) 8(51) 10(128) 684 Burutu 42(66) 173(424) 25(49) 2424(124) 664 Ethiope West 51 (78) 398(500) 314(58) 20(146) 783 Ika North 110(109) 864(700) 17(81) 104(204) 1095 Okpe 53 (57) 298(363) 5(42) 221(106) 568 Ndokwa West 75 (67) 403(429) 27(50) 167 (125) 672 OshimiliSouth 106(63) 409(400) 16(46) 95(117) 628 UghelliNorth. 243(133) 658(848) 201(98) 225(247) 1327 IsokoNorth 30(66) 459(420) -(48) 168(122) 28657 Warri South 126 (123) 994(789) -(91) 155 (230) 1235 Total 830 5311 613 1549 8311

From table 5, Chi-square calculated value (1297.2) is greater than critical value (40.11) at 27 degree of freedom, and 0.05 level of



89


significance. This showed that there is a significant difference in the distribution of teachers by qualification in primary schools in Delta State, Nigeria. Research Question 6: Are there primary schools with less than six teachers in the State? From fieldwork, table 1, observed frequency; no school has below 6 teachers in Aniocha North, Ika North East and Okpe Local Government Areas. I.e. 30%of the Local Government Area do not have schools with less than six teachers per school. Riverine communities in 70% Local Government Areas have schools with less than six teachers. Burutu 37% i.e. 5 schools with only one teacher, (7%) with teacher-pupils ratio of 1:78. Ethiope West (6%). Isoko North (7%) with teacher-pupil ratio 1:72, Ndokwa West 15%, Oshimili South (11%) with teacher-pupil ratio 1;50 and Warri South (4%). There are forty-seven (9%) riverine primary schools with less than six teachers each in Delta State. Research Question 7; Are there teachers without teaching qualifications, in primary schools in Delta State? From table 5, 1549 (19%) of the teachers are without teaching qualifications, with 27% of 1549 from Burutu, Ughelli North (15%), Okpe (14%) and Isoko North (11%). 1072 (70%) of the 1549 are Teachers Grade II Certificate holders ,products of the National Teachers Institute, Kaduna. Research Question 8: Is there a significant difference in the distribution of non-teaching staff by qualification in schools among the Local Government Areas? Table 6: Chi-square Bivariate Table showing the Distribution of Non-Teaching Staff by Qualification.

L.G.A. N.C.E TC II SSCE/NECO

/NABTEB

FSLC/Others Total

Aniocha North 6(5.5) 8(14.1) 108(122) 159(139.4) 281 Burutu 2(4.0) 2(12) 81(102) 1502(117) 235 Ethiope West 3(6) 42(15) 131(146) 118(146) 294 Ika North 0(4) 5(11) 80(93) 129(106) 214 Isoko North 0 (2) 7(4) 20 (37) 59(43) 86



90


Ndokwa West 14 (5) 8(14) 126(117) 121 (133) 269 Okpe 1(2) 4(7) 55(55) 68(63) 128 Oshimili South 11(3) 1(8) 98(65) 40(74) 150 Ughelli North 2(5) 26(14) 130(120) 199(137) 277 Warri South 0 (1) 0(4) 41(32) 33 (37) 74 Total 39 103 870 996 2008

. The result in table 6 showed that chi-square calculated value (165) is greater than critical value (40.11) at 27 degree of freedom and 0.05 level of significant difference in the distribution of non-teaching staff in primary schools among Local Government Areas in Delta State, Nigeria. Discussion The results of this study revealed: a significant difference in the teacher-pupil ratio in primary schools, the distribution of teachers by qualifications in primary schools and the distribution of non –teaching staff by qualifications in primary schools among the Local Government Areas in Delta State. School location does not have any influence on the distribution of teachers among schools in Delta State since there is no significant difference in the teacher-pupils ratio among primary schools in riverine, rural, semi-urban and urban primary schools in Delta State. There is a serious problem of inadequate facilities in primary schools especially in the non-oil producing area. The teacher-pupils ratio of 1:22 is lower than the national teacher –pupils’ ratio of 1:44 as revealed in this study. The study also revealed that there are forty-seven (9%) riverine primary schools with less than six teachers each in Delta State. There are also 1549 (19%) teachers without teaching qualification serving mostly in riverine primary schools. These showed that teachers are on the average well managed by the State Primary Education Board through the Local Education Authorities in Delta State especially in urban and semi-urban schools. The study also revealed inadequate management of teachers and facilities in riverine schools when compared to semi-urban and urban schools. These could be the causes of the perceived decline in quality of primary education especially in the riverine and rural areas. These findings are consistent with Ogbodo (1995), Idiagbe (2004),



91


Oghuvbu (1999) and Nwagwu (1997). Also, the existence of schools with less than six teachers, teachers without teaching qualification mostly in riverine schools, overcrowded classrooms as revealed by average of seven classrooms per school in Delta State could hamper effective teaching and pupils’ academic achievement. This findings is consistent with those of Olutola(2000), Uwheraka(2005), and Osagie (2001). The state teacher-pupils ratio of 1:22 is an indication that primary schools are well staffed in Delta State. The variation in the quality of teachers could be as a result of the variation in the Local Government council’s utilization of funds allocated to primary education. Since the local Government also controls primary education in Nigeria, especially the appointment and payment of teachers’ salary especially those without nationally approved teaching qualification. The existence of schools with less than six teachers is an indication of stress among teachers, which could result in inability to complete the curriculum leading to a decline in academic standard. Also, inadequate facilities could result in de-motivation on pupils and teachers, leading to pupils’ dropout, and un-seriousness by teachers, as could be evidenced by lateness and absenteeism among teachers. Conclusion and Recommendation The teacher-pupil ratio of 1:22 in primary schools in Delta State is less than the national teacher-pupils ratio 1:44. Eighty-one percent (81%) of the primary school teachers are with teaching qualifications. There is a significant difference in the teacher-pupils ratio in primary schools distribution of teachers and non-teaching staff by qualification in schools among Local Government Areas. There is no significant difference in teacher-pupil ratio among riverine, rural, semi-urban and urban primary schools. Riverine schools have the greatest abnormal teacher-pupils ratio (1:78), and 90% of the schools with less than six teachers in a school. The non-crude oil producing Local Government Area schools are more in lack of facilities such as; desk with average number of



92


pupils to a desk, varying from 10 to 68 in a Local Government Area. The overall assessment showed that human resources are well utilized by the State Primary Education Board in Delta State. However, schools with less than six teachers, especially those with only one teacher, more teachers should be posted to such schools. Also, riverine and rural schools should be well staffed to reduce dropout rate in such schools. The results of the study revealed that perceived decline in the quality of primary education may not be as result of the quality and quantity of teachers, but could be due to lack of facilities in schools and type of training given to teachers. Government should as a matter of urgency provide facilities in schools. The Ministry of Education and the State Primary Education Board should constantly organize seminars for teachers and carry out effective supervision in schools. These could reduce absenteeism by teachers especially in riverine and rural schools. It could also serve as on- the- job training for ill-trained teachers, especially the products of crash programmes. References Ahievboloria, J. E. V. (2005) A Comparative Study of Manpower

and Physical Facilities in Tertiary Institutions in Delta State. Unpublished M.Ed. Dissertation, Delta State University, Abraka.

Idiagbe, J.E. (2004) Relationship between education facilities, teachers qualifications, school location and academic performance of students in secondary schools in Delta State. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis. Delta State University, Abraka.

Ministry of Education (2007) Report of the Staff Distribution Sub- Committee for the Formulation of a Roadmap towards Improving Standard of Education in Delta State. Nigeria Educational Research Council (1998) National Secondary

Educational Resource Workshop Report on Technical Studies. Lagos: Ministry of Information Division.



93


Nwangwu, N. A. (1997) The Environment of Crisis in Nigerian Educational System. Co-operative Education 33(1) 87-95.

Okoh, A. O. (1998) Personnel and Human Resources Management

in Nigeria. Lagos: Amfitop Books. Oghuvbu, E. P. (1999) Classroom Management Problems in Urban

Primary Schools in Delta State. West African Journal of Educational Research. 2(2) 159-166.

Ogbodo, C.A. (1995) Managing Educational Facilities in Schools. In V. F. Peretomode (Ed.). Introduction to Educational Planning and Supervision. Lagos: Joja Educational Research and Publishers Ltd. Ogunsanju, S. (1983) Educational Supervision: Perspectives and Practices. Ile-Ife: University of Ife Press. Ogunbowale, O. A. (1984) The Relationship between Supervising Climate and Instructional Improvement in Oyo State Secondary Schools. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Ibadan. Olutola, K.S. (2000) Relationship between Educational Facilities and Academic Performance of Students in Anambra State. Journal of Nigeria Educational Research Association. 8(1), 33-38. Osagie R. O. (2001) . Facilities and University development. In N.A.

Nwagwu, E.T. Ehiametalor, M.A. Ogunu & M. Nwadiani (Eds.), Current Issues in Educational Management in Nigeria. National Association of Educational Administrators and Planners Journal (332-342).

Uwheraka, T. (2005) Analysis of Space Dimensions and Physical Facilities in Senior Public Secondary Schools. Unpublished M.Ed. Dissertation, Delta State University, Abraka.



94


KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICE OF LESBIANISM AMONG NIGERIA UNIVERSITY

ATHLETES: IMPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATING THE HIV/AIDS SCOURGE

BY

P.C.E. IRO, Ph.D.,

Abstract Threads of evidence point to the practice of homosexuality by some Nigerians. There are widespread speculations that since sport is a microcosm of society, this practice should permeate sport in that country. In this study, the knowledge and practice of lesbianism among female athletes in Nigerian universities, the incidence, recruitment variables (baits), and the associated behaviours which constitute vehicles of HIV/AIDS transmission were investigated. One hundred female athletes who attended the 2004 All Nigeria University Games (NUGA) were chosen, using the purposive random sampling technique, to constitute the sample for this study, and a self-designed, structured questionnaire was the data-gathering instrument. Results of the present study failed to show that the female athletes practiced lesbian sex. However, 96% of the respondents knew the risky behaviours associated with lesbian relationships which serve as media for HIV/AIDS transmission. Majority of the athletes indicated that some of their colleagues were erroneously thought to be homosexuals because of their masculine physique and use of dress codes which are considered male domain, and dreadlocks. Athletes who shared these characteristics were wrongly classified as lesbians because these attributes were indices of lesbianism in developed countries. There was no significant difference between first-time and non-first-time competitors in NUGA in their perception of the indicators of lesbianism. Generally, people from the various sectors of society, including resource


95


persons, attend university sports meets. Communication-based activities aimed at educating the youths on body adaptations to physical activity, and broad characteristics of athletes should thus be mainstreamed into the programmes of university sports meets in order to correct the erroneous perception of the sexuality of female athletes in Nigeria. Key words: All Nigeria University Games (NUGA), sexuality, psycho-physiological, anti-social behaviour, injectables. Introduction Sport occurs in a social milieu. University sports also serve as avenues for social interactions, devoid of the strict discipline that characterizes the school environment. Additionally, since the sports-men and -women have varying degrees of psycho-physiological endowments and social tendencies, they carry their peculiarities to the competitive situation (Coakley, 1998). The sports setting can thus be adequately qualified as a potpourri or cocktail of some sort. In a sense, it can serve as an avenue for healthy exchanges among the athletes; on the other hand, it may create an opportunity for the acquisition of anti-social behaviours that may have grave health implications. One of such anti-social traits is homosexuality. It is well established that acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a fatal disease mainly contracted from an infected person through sex (Busari, 2004), male circumcision, sharing of unsterilized syringes, female genital mutilation and ear-piercing materials, contact with contaminated blood and/or body fluid in which that from an infected person rubs into the wound of another, and transfusion with infected blood, among other things.

Homosexuality means having sexual relations with someone of the same gender. It is characterized by coital preference for someone of the same sex to whom one is emotionally inclined. Lesbianism on its part denotes a romantic, sexual and emotional affiliation between or among females (Gianoulis, 2002). This is a



96


social problem of the proportion of a taboo in Nigeria, and is therefore repulsive, stigmatized and criminalized in parts of the North, where there are Islamic legal regimes. Just recently, 6 Nigerian girls aged 12 to 17 years were sentenced to and lashed 90 strokes of the cane each, for a shameful and abominable same-sex behaviour (Sapa, 2005). The sharia law adopted in Bornu State of Nigeria in 2002 outlawed same-sex marriages and homosexuality, viewing these practices as very serious offences (BBC News, 2007). This BBC report further pointed out that the penal code of Nigeria classifies lesbianism as illegal. This offers explanation for instant demolition of a theatre where a woman was alleged to have hosted her invitees to her marriage to 4 other women in Nigeria (BBC News, 2007). While the activities reported above indicate abhorrence for same-sex relationships in that country, they also double as pointers to the existence of lesbian practices in Nigeria.

Ironically, all ethnic groups in Nigeria visit silence on issues relating to lesbianism, even where the culture is more permissive (Cesnabmihilo, 2000). As a result of this attitude, sexuality in that country is essentially, built on rumours, speculations, and myths, thereby denying health workers and researchers vital information about sexual orientations that should guide reproductive health advocacy. This attitude conceals vital information which is key in documenting the pervasiveness of homosexuality and facilitating change of risky behaviours associated with the spread of HIV/AIDS in that country.

Research has shown that the AIDS virus is present principally in body secretions or fluids such as the male semen, vaginal secretions, infected blood and blood products. Hence, any act that permits blood, virginal secretion, semen, and/ or body fluid exchange is a potential vehicle for HIV transmission. The foetus can also contract it by means of mother to child transmission (MTCT) via the placenta (UNAIDS, 2004). Research shows that HIV is mainly transmitted through sexual intercourse with an infected person. According to the Federal Ministry of Health - FMOH (2003),

Knowledge and Practice of Lesbianism among Nigeria University Athletes: Implications for Mitigating the HIV/AIDS Scourge, IRO


97


sexual intercourse accounts for approximately 80% of HIV/AIDS infections in Nigeria.

In recent years, the high prevalence of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and incurable acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) has received increased attention in sport because of the growing number of infections, especially amongst popular celebrities and prominent sports persons such as Arthur Ashe (tennis star) and Earvin "Magic" Johnson (basketball star). The disease has reached epidemic proportions in Sub-Saharan Africa. In fact, World Health Organization - WHO (2004; p.1) has revealed that, “Nigeria has one of the highest HIV/AIDS epidemics in the world”, with an adult prevalence rate of 3.6 – 8.0%, and overall prevalence rate of 4.4 out of every one hundred persons. National prevalence data show that the spread has risen rapidly and steadily since 1991. With a population of approximately 130 million people, Nigeria constitutes about 1/5th of the population of Sub-Saharan Africa. These figures show that Nigeria contributes substantially to the HIV/AIDS burden in Sub-Saharan Africa (Okey, 2007). Despite the intense efforts by medical and paramedical personnel and bodies around the world to control the spread of this disease, the number of HIV patients continues to multiply.

HIV/AIDS infection in Nigeria has shown marked gender disparities, with more women being infected than the men (female-male ratio is 1.38: 1). WHO further noted that the most vulnerable group comprised women aged 20 – 24 years. Quite a number of female students in Nigerian Universities fall within this age-range. Furthermore, following a preliminary investigation of same-sex relationships in Nigeria, Cesnabmihilo (2000) identified tertiary institutions in the country as one of the places where homosexuality is practiced. Given this scenario, it would appear that an increasing number of university sports-women would present with this infection in future. The thematic focus of this paper derives from the conviction that the actual performance of this lesbian sex and the associated risky behaviors constitute potential vehicles for



98


HIV/AIDS transmission. A clear understanding of the popularity of this practice, the baits and benefits, and the associated practices that favour the spread of the HIV/AIDS virus will be useful in formulating a comprehensive plan of action aimed at controlling HIV/AIDS in Nigeria.

In this study therefore, the practice of lesbianism among university athletes in Nigeria was investigated in order to guide efforts aimed at controlling HIV/AIDS among students of Nigerian universities. It focused on the pervasiveness of lesbianism, recruitment variables (baits), the indices of lesbianism, associated practices that constitute potential vehicles for HIV/AIDS transmission, with a view to making recommendations for the control of this phenomenon. Research Questions

1. To what extent is lesbianism practiced by Nigeria university athletes.

2. What psycho-sociological and economic benefits lure female athletes in Nigerian universities into lesbian practices?

3. How knowledgeable are female athletes in Nigerian universities about risky behaviours associated with lesbianism by which HIV can be contracted?

4. Why are some female athletes in Nigeria universities perceived to be lesbians?

5. Why are the variables identified in research question 4 considered to be the indicators of lesbianism?

Hypothesis The following hypotheses were formulated and tested in this study: 1. There is no significant difference between first-time and non-

first-time female competitors in NUGA in their perception of



99


the indicators of lesbianism among Nigeria university athletes.

2. Expectation of psycho-sociological and economic benefits is not significantly luring to female athletes in Nigerian universities to engage in lesbian practices.

3. Female athletes in Nigerian Universities do not have significant knowledge of risky behaviours associated with lesbianism by which HIV can be contracted.

4. There is no significant reason why female athletes in Nigerian universities are perceived as lesbians.

Research Design The cross-sectional survey research design which involved questionnaire was adopted in this study. This design was chosen because it provides appropriate methodology for perception and opinion, with respect to human behaviour. Population and Sample The population of this study comprised all the female athletes who competed in the various events of the 2002 NUGA hosted by the University of Port Harcourt. The purposive sampling technique was used to select 100 female athletes who served as the sample in this study. Volunteers were used to replace some female athletes who declined to participate in this study. In all, 5 athletes were replaced, which shows that majority of those sampled initially constituted the sample. Instrumentation The instrument for this study was the self-developed questionnaire. It was self-developed with respect to the research questions formulated to guide the study and face-validated by three researchers in Human Kinetics and Health Education. The questionnaire comprised predominantly closed – ended questions. Some open – ended questions were also included in the questionnaire where there was the need to create room for more individualized responses. The Cronbach alpha (r) statistic



100


was used to estimate the reliability of the instrument, yielding a reliability coefficient of 0.86. Since the theory behind Cronbach alpha coefficient is that the observed score is the sum of true score and error score, the high coefficient obtained indicates that measurement error was minimized. In other words, the relationship between the true score and observed score was strong. Method of Data Analyses The instrument was administered through a team of trained female assistants who also contested in the 2002 NUGA hosted by the University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Frequency counts, percentages and chi-square (χ2) calculated at .05 alpha level were used for data analyses. Results Table 1: Age distribution of respondents

Age range (in years)

No. of respondents Percentage (%)

16 – 20 72 72

21 and above 28 28

Total 100 100

Table 1 shows that majority (72%) of the respondents fell within the age range of 16 to 20 years. Only 28% of the respondents belonged to the age-range, 21 years and above.

Table 2: Extent to which female athletes in Nigerian university practice lesbianism.

Extent

Response No. (%)

High 0(0) Average 0(0) Low 0(0) Not at all 100(100) Total 100(100)



101


Table 2 shows the distribution of responses on the extent to which female athletes in Nigerian universities practiced lesbianism. The scores indicate that female athletes in Nigeria universities did not engage in lesbian practices at all.

Table 3: Reasons why female athletes in Nigerian university practiced lesbianism. Reasons

Responses No. (%)

To avoid pregnancy 0(0) Financial gains 0(0) Sense of belonging 0(0) Intimate social relationships

0(0)

Revolt against societal norms

0(0)

Lesbian by nature 0(0) None of the above 100(100) Total 100(100)

Table 3 shows the distribution of responses on the variables which serve as baits or incentives to lure people into lesbian relationships. None of the reasons stated, attracted the female university athletes sampled into lesbian relationships. All respondents indicated “none of the above” as their preferred option. This agrees with their responses reported in table 2, which indicate that the female Nigerian university athletes studied were not lesbians. Thus, Table 3 reinforces the responses in Table 2 which show that female athletes in Nigerian universities did not engage in lesbianism.

Table 4: Knowledge of risky behaviours associated with lesbian sex that favour HIV transmission.



102


Risky behaviour Response No. (%)

Use of sex tools (e.g. dildos) 26(26) Genital manipulation with fingers 25(25) Use of alcohol/psycho-stimulants 12(12) Sharing of needles/injections 37(37) Total 100(100)

The questionnaire items in Table 4 sought information on the knowledge of female Nigerian university athletes with respect to some lesbian practices that expose the practitioners to HIV infection. The responses show that sharing of needles (37%), use of sex tools (e.g. dildos) (26%), manipulation with fingers (25%), and use of alcohol/ psycho-stimulants, in that order, favour HIV transmission.

Table 5: Reasons for perceiving some female university athletes in Nigeria as lesbians. Reason

Response No. (%)

Actual involvement in lesbian sex

0(0)

They are self-professed lesbians

0(0)

Use of dreadlocks 50(50) Masculine physique 31(31) Use of men’s dress code 15(15) Do not know 4(4) Total 100(100)

From the responses reported in Table 5, 3 reasons informed the perception of some female university athletes as lesbians. These are as follows: use of dreadlocks (50%), possession of masculine



103


physique (31%), and use of men’s dress code (15%), in that order. However, 4% did not know the indicators of lesbianism. This shows that the classification of some female university athletes in Nigerian universities as lesbians is neither based on self-declaration as a lesbian nor actual involvement in lesbian sex. It is rather based on certain physical features and dressing characteristics of the female athletes which portray them as lesbians.

Table 6: Why the use of dreadlocks, men’s dress code, and masculine physique were viewed as indicators of lesbianism. Reason

Response No. (%)

They are the indicators of lesbianism in Nigeria 0(0) They are known lesbian codes in Nigerian universities

0(0)

They are the indicators of lesbianism in developed countries

96(96)

Do not know 4(4) Total 100(100) Table 6 highlights the rationale for which the factors reported in Table 5 (that is, use of dreadlocks, men’s dress code, and masculine body build) were viewed as indices of involvement in lesbianism. Table 6 shows that these are the identification marks adopted by lesbians in the developed countries. However, only four percent of those studied did not know that the reasons for which these variables were viewed as indicators of lesbianism. Hypothesis Testing Hypothesis one: There is no significant difference between first-time and non-first-time female competitors in NUGA in their perception of the indicators of lesbianism.



104


Table 7: χ2 Summary table for hypothesis one. Variable First-Timer Non- First-Timer χ2 Critical χ2 Calculated Df Remark Actual involvement 0 0

Self-professed 0 0 Use of dreadlocks 14 39 9.49 3.41 4 NS Masculine physique 10 22 Use of men’s dress 1 14

Not significant; P ˂ .05; df = 4. To test the hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference between first-time and non-first-time female competitors in NUGA in their perception of the indicators of lesbianism, the data collected were subjected to χ2 analysis. The calculated value obtained was less than the critical value at .05 alpha level. Based on this, the null hypothesis was accepted, indicating that there is no significant difference between the two groups of Nigerian university athletes studied in their perception of the indices of lesbianism. Hypotheses two The female athletes in Nigerian universities will not have significant knowledge of risky behaviours associated with lesbian sex that favour HIV transmission. Table 2: Chi-square summary Table for knowledge of risky behaviours associated with lesbian sex that favor HIV transmission.

ITEMS PR NR TOTAL Observed freq. (o) 96 4 100 Expected freq. (e) 50 50 100

o - e 46 -46 (o – e)² 2116 2116

(o – e)²/e 42.32 42.32 χ² 84.64 df 1

Critical value 3.84



105


From Table shows a calculated Chi-square (χ²) value of 84.64, df = 1 and critical value of 3.84 at .05 alpha level. The calculated χ² value is greater than the critical χ² value of 3.84, indicating a significant result, p< .05. The null hypothesis was therefore rejected, which signifies glaring evidence that Nigerian universities female athletes had significant knowledge of risky behaviours associated with lesbian sex that favour HIV transmission. Hypothesis three Perception of the use of dreadlocks, men’s dress code and masculine physique as indicators of lesbianism among Nigerian university female athletes will not be significantly based on indices of lesbianism in developed countries.

ITEMS PR NR TOTAL Observed freq. (o) 96 4 100 Expected freq. (e) 50 50 100

o - e 46 -46 (o – e)² 2116 2116

(o – e)²/e 42.32 42.32 χ² 84.64 df 1

Critical value 3.84 Discussion The results show that none (0%) of the female university athletes in Nigerian universities reported current or previous engagement in lesbian sex. Similarly, none (0%) of them checked any bait as what is used to lure university athletes into lesbianism. Ninety-six (96%) percent of them knew the risky behaviours associated with lesbianism which serve as vehicles for HIV transmission. In response to the question, “what evidence lead people to classify some female Nigeria University athletes as lesbians”? , they identified masculine body build (20%), dressing mainly in men’s clothes (38%), and wearing of dread lucks (42%) as the major reasons. On why these factors were seen as signifying involvement in lesbian sex, 96% indicated that these factors were the indicators of lesbianism in developed countries.



106


The speculation that some female athletes in Nigerian universities may be lesbians was not supported by the findings of this research. This contradicts the results obtained with respect to American women in 2002 and publicized in 2005, which reported that 11% of women in that country aged 15 to 44 years had engaged in lesbian sex (Mosher, Chandra, & Jones, 2005).

In Nigeria, homosexuality is considered a vice and is therefore viewed with revulsion and disdain. It may be thought that since the present study sampled the same female athletes whose sexuality was called to question, they may have falsely maintained the obvious, visible and preferred heterosexual identity in their responses in order to effectively mask their true sexual orientation (Cesnabmihilo, 2000), while divesting themselves of the contempt associated with lesbians and lesbianism in Nigeria. A parallel position is that because the institution of sports is reflective of the outer society, and should help to perpetuate practices that support the values of society while resisting the affirmation of negative conducts, the Nigerian university female athletes should show respectful compliance to society. It was therefore not surprising that no bait could entice them into lesbianism in the present study.

Transmutation from boy to man is viewed in some quarters as not the result of a natural sequence of development. In America for instance, sport was created as a device to help boys metamorphose into men; hence, sports participation by women was considered an invasion of a men’s territory (Hargreaves, 1994). Thus, athletically competent women threaten perceived distinctions regarding physicality between men and women, justifying female athletic competency on the basis of the sports woman being mannish. Hence in the view of Hoffman (2005), sports participation calls the woman’s sexuality to question. This position is further supported by the result of a survey conducted in America in 1994 which revealed that female sports administrators, coaches, and athletes in that country were agitated that others may perceive them as lesbians because of their involvement in sport (De Jong, 2005). The concern



107


expressed by women in sport in America is closely-related to the finding in the present study on the perceived indicators of lesbianism among female athletes in Nigerian universities. Here, masculine physique was one of the perceived indices; the other two indicators being; use of dreadlocks and men’s dresses. Viewing female university athletes in Nigeria as lesbians is therefore, not based on actual participation in lesbian relationships. It is rather because they appear to challenge stereotypical physique and expected conduct for the women in society, a phenomenon called homophobia (McDermott, 1996; & Coakley, 1998). It is for this reason that sport is sometimes defined as a cultural and social practice wherein societal construction of maleness and feminity features prominently.

The use of sex tools (such as dildos) and tactile manipulation in lesbian sex may cause injury, which constitutes a possible hazard for HIV transmission. Grown nails can injure the female external genitalia, leading to body fluid exchanges, and contact with blood and other blood products. Under the frenzy of ecstatic sexual stimulation, such operations can become rough and aggressive, especially, when it is undertaken under the influence of alcohol or psycho-stimulants. In the process, abrasion can be inflicted which favours bleeding, body fluid exchange, and possible HIV infection (Fahey, Insel & Roth, 1999) if one or both partners is/are infected with the virus.

The use of injectable drugs is associated with homosexuality (Vox, 2008). Because of the intimacy that characterizes sexual relationships and the strong passion it engenders, there is the possibility of sharing needles. In the words of Fahey et. al. (1999):

Needles used to inject drugs (including heroin, cocaine, and anabolic steroids) are routinely contaminated by the blood of the user. If needles are shared, small amounts of one person’s blood are



108


directly injected into another person’s bloodstream (p.340).

This, points to the fact that HIV can be contracted through intravenous as well as intravenous injections. Implications for Mitigating the HIV/AIDS Scourge The United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force (2002) recognizes “knowledge, life skills, the provision of a safe and supportive environment and access to services” as the 4 pillars for effective HIV/AIDS programming. Sport possesses these cardinal characteristics and should serve as a veritable tool for lessening the spread and severity of HIV/AIDS, as outlined below:

1. It is well established that the group most vulnerable to HIV/AIDS comprises women and young persons, mostly girls. Sport holds a strong appeal for youths and virtually all university athletes are young people. Coaches and sports organizers can tap in on the opportunities presented by sport to mitigate HIV/AIDS threat for two key reasons: first, the special relationship coaches maintain with the athlete; and secondly, the strong convening power of sports meets. The coach usually maintains an uncommon trusting relationship with the athlete he/she mentors. This confidential relationship places the coach in a vantage position to discuss and explain personal issues, especially sex, in a manner that effectively teaches the pitfalls of lesbianism, mechanisms of HIV transmission, prevention and care of the HIV-positive patients to the young athlete. By so doing, the athlete is armed to protect self from contacting the virus, limiting the spread, and/ or reducing the viral load if the athlete is already HIV-positive.

2. Sports participation enables the skilled female athlete to become more physically fit. In addition, athletic success inspires confidence, a sense of independence (Hargreaves, 1994; & McDermott, 1996), and inculcates respect for the



109


body. These attributes encourage self preservation and delayed involvement in coitus. The natural corollary is that sports participation could help in delaying sexual intercourse until marriage.

3. Akinsanmi, Ogungbenro and Oloyede (2004) once opined that a country can use sport to emphasize its ethical values. The safe and supportive environment of sport reinforces its strong convening power as an excellent arena for educating young people on healthy sexual relationships, HIV/AIDS awareness and intervention programmmes. The fun implicit in sport and its ability to attract people from diverse backgrounds (spectators, officials, sports enthusiasts, philanthropists, researchers, the media, and investors, among others) present an excellent opportunity to openly address most of the questions relating to sexuality, sexual health and HIV/AIDS, to a large spectrum of the population. This opportunity is of special significance in assisting less privileged groups through linkages with structures, organizations and people who may be of assistance, and provides chances for self expression and enjoyment through play.

4. Sport focuses on the human body. Sports participation enables young people to better understand their bodies and capabilities, cultivates respect for their bodies and those of others, and equips them to respond positively to the many challenges they encounter, including the HIV/AIDS threat.

Conclusion Although Nigerian university female athletes are not lesbians, they are quite knowledgeable in the risky behaviours associated with lesbian sex by which HIV/AIDS can be contracted by the practitioners. The mannish physique of some female athletes, the dreadlocks some of them wear, and use of dress codes that are



110


perceived as male domain generate the false impression that some of the female athletes are lesbians. This way of thinking appears to be grounded in age-old, traditionally defined codes of aesthetics and role expectations, since female athleticism appears to contradict dominant definitions of feminity in the society. This notion, reminiscent of old ways of thinking about the feminine gender, threatens the formation of an adequate image of the female athlete in Nigeria. Without spirited support for female sports, and popular acceptance of the athletic woman for what she is, female sports may suffer severe setback in future. Because sport attracts massive participation, holds special appeal for the youths and creates rare confidential relationships between coaches and their athletes, it presents uncommon opportunities with great potentials as a veritable arena for sexuality education, HIV/AIDS prevention, and control. Recommendations Based on the finding, the following recommendations were made:

1. The sports arenas attract a reasonable number of youths. These are veritable venues for sex education of young people and dissemination of information about HIV/AIDS and the vulnerability of lesbians to this scourge, using their peers. Those aiding and abetting lesbianism in sports camps should be apprehended and penalized. Student groups should be encouraged to constitute themselves into the vanguard for such sexual practices. The implication is that all athletes assume some responsibility for their own safety. This is informed by the author’s conviction that HIV prevention is participatory - where individuals make conscious efforts for self-protection and preservation.

2. Each participating university should be assigned specific sub-themes on lesbianism and HIV/AIDS to deal with by the NUGA Council. Each university team should be allowed to choose and adopt an appropriate method (dramatization, recitation, mini –debate e.t.c,) ……This may be incorporated



111


into the opening or closing ceremonies of the games as a way of driving home the points.

3. Since universities in Nigeria have defined dress codes for their students, this may be broadened to form ethical codes for university games. It should be spelt out in such a manner as to eliminate such dress codes, hair dos and styles that falsely insinuate the existence of lesbian relationships among female athletes in Nigerian universities.

References Akinsanmi, T., Ogugbenro, B., Oloyede, R.O. (2004). Sport: An

effective tool for national integration and cohesion. In Igbanugo, V.C. (Ed.). Multi-disciplinary approach to human kinetics and health education. Ibadan: Codat Publications.

BBC News (2007). Nigeria “lesbian wedding denied”. Saturday, 28th

April, 17:22 GMT 18:22 UK. http://new.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/Africa/6603853.stm

Cesnabmihilo, D.N.A. (2000). A preliminary survey of homosexuality in Nigeria.

. Retrieved on 8th May, 2008.

Busari, A.O. (2004). Peer-led AIDS prevention programme and print

media intervention strategy in disseminating information about HIV/AIDS among some selected secondary school students in Ibadan. In Igbanugo, V.C. (Ed). Multi-disciplinary approach to human kinetics and health education. Ibadan: Codat Publications.

http://www.iwhc.org/docUploads/HomosexualityinNigeria.pdf. Retrieved on 8th May, 2008.

Coakley, J.J. (1998). Sport in society. Issues & contemporary

practice. New York: McGraw-Hill. De Jong, A. (2005). Female athletes face lesbian stereotypes. Daily

Bruin. April 13. Los Angeles: University of California.



http://www.iwhc.org/docUploads/HomosexualityinNigeria.pdf�

112


FMOH(2003). National HIV/AIDS and reproductive health survey.

Abuja: FMOH. Gianoulis, T. (2002). Lesbianism. St. James encyclopaedia of

popular cultures. Gale group. P. 1-2. Hargreaves, J. (1994). Sporting females: Critical issues in the history

and sociology of women’s sport. London: Routledge. Hoffman, T. (2005). What Does It Mean to Be Gay In Sports?

Canada Newswire Ltd. June 20. McDermott, L. (1996).Toward a feminist understanding of

physicality within the context of women’s physically active and sporting lives. Sociology of sports Journal 13, 1: 12-30.

Mosher, W.D., Chandra, A., & Jones, J. (2005). Sexual behaviour

and selected health measures: Men and women 15 – 44 years of age, United States, 2002. U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, National Centre for Health Statistics, Maryland.

http:// www.ncbi.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16250464.

Sapa, D.P.A. (2005). Lashing for teen lesbianism in Nigeria. 24th November.

Retrieved on 29th May, 2008.

Okey, C.M. (2007). Aids Epidemic and challenges to health care

delivery. Rivers State Action Committee on Aids.

http://www.mask.org.za/article.php?cat=nigeria&id=458. UNAIDS (2004) Epidemiology fact sheet, Nigeria update.

www.who.int/gloval/atlas/PD.F factory.



http://www.ncbi.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16250464�

http://www.mask.org.za/article.php?cat=nigeria&id=458�

http://www.who.int/gloval/atlas/PD.F�

113


United States Inter-Ethnic Agency for (2002). World Health Organization (2004). July. Summary country profile

HIV/AIDS treatment scale-up (NIGERIA). Vox, D. (2008). Battling the addiction in the gay community.

Equality Forum. April 28 – May 4. Philadelphia.



114


ASSESSMENT OF WORKING CONDITIONS OF BUSINESS STUDIES TEACHERS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN

DELTA STATE

BY

OKORO, JAMES (Ph.D.)

Abstract The working conditions of Business Studies teachers seem to have been neglected in the recent time. There are complaints of unsatisfactory teaching climate experienced by the teachers. Based on the above, the study assessed the working conditions of Business Studies teachers in secondary schools in Delta State. A research question and two hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. A 40 item questionnaire was designed to elicit responses from 158 Business Studies teachers from 63 out of 177 Secondary schools offering Business Studies. The findings were that salary is not attractive, inadequate facilities, excess workload, students do not buy relevant text books and do not do their assignments regularly. Recommendations were made to provide more facilities, attractive salary, in-service training and workshops for teachers, and that students should be highly disciplined. Introduction The 6-3-3-4 system of education which started in the country in 1982 gave birth to Business Studies as one of the prevocational subjects taught as part of the junior secondary schools curriculum. Other prevocational subjects are Introductory Technology, Wood Work, Metal work, Agricultural Science and Home Economics. Business Studies is taught as an Integrated subject which has five major components, namely: Bookkeeping, Commerce, Office practice, Shorthand and Typewriting. It is a skill expository and discovery subject that helps the students to explore those saleable


115


skills that can be used in the future to be self employed and self reliant. The subject helps students to stand on their own, economically (Okoro & Iyeke, 2004). It offers every individual the opportunities to develop those skills, abilities and understanding that enable them handle competently their own business affairs. At secondary level, the sub-subjects can stand alone – Bookkeeping, Commerce, Economics, Shorthand and Typewriting. Students can enroll for these subjects at National Examinations Commission (NECO), West African Examinations Council (WAEC) and National Business and Technical Examination Board (NABTEB) as single subjects. The National curriculum for junior secondary schools states the following as the goals of business studies education: 1. To enable the student to acquire the basic knowledge of

business studies, 2. To develop the basic skills in office occupation, 3. To prepare students for further training in business studies, 4. To provide orientation and basic skills with which to start a life

of work for those who may not undergo further training, 5. To provide basic skills for personal use in future, 6. To relate the knowledge and skills to the national economy

(Esene, 1997). Business studies can not be divorced from business education. Azuka, Nwosu, Kanu and Agomuo (2006) define Business Education as a programme of studies, which aims at creating awareness in business occupations, preparing youths for work in business occupation, preparing people to become better citizens and consumers of goods, services and preparing business teachers. Business education therefore prepares the youths for vocations and also furnishes them with relevant information concerning their lives both as citizens and as individuals. Oliseh (2008) pointed out that Business Education develops citizens on certain skills, attitudes and abilities that are relevant to securing jobs in the business world, and it gives them insight into general business and acquaints them with



116


general business information that will make them efficient and rational purchasers and consumers of business products (goods and services). In the same vein, Haynes and Jackson (1997) define Business education as that area of professional preparation for a career in Business education, teaching business subjects and also with business information important for every citizen and consumer in order that he/she may better understand his/her business and economic surroundings. Business studies teachers are those teachers that have undergone training in Business Education programmes and have acquired some knowledge, skills, abilities and competencies in the subject, who are employed to teach the pedagogy of the subject. Teachers of this subject must have undergone courses in Accounting, Economics, Commerce, Management, Shorthand, Typewriting Computer Appreciation/Application, Office Practice Procedure, Business Law, to mention but a few. Presently, teachers’ salaries are equivalent with their counterparts’ in the civil service. Meanwhile, teachers spend much time talking and teaching the students. Secondary school teachers are currently agitating for a new salary structure for their professional members-the Teachers Salary Structure (TSS) which had resulted to Nigerian Union of Teachers’ strike in June 2008 (Guardian 14th June, 2008). Unity Schools also embarked on indefinite strike 7th January, 2009. These have attested to the fact that the working condition and welfare of Nigerian teachers seem to have been neglected. The working conditions refer to those stimulating factors that enhance teaching and learning in schools, teachers’ remuneration, classrooms, laboratories, students attitudes, school libraries and so on. In the same vein, Abraham (2004) observes that successive governments in Nigeria have been unfair and insincere to Nigerians, especially the younger ones who they call ‘leaders of tomorrow’. Government at all levels always present beautiful proposals to revitalize the education industry. When the heavy budgets are approved, nothing positive seems to be happening to better the lots of the schools. Abraham (2004) further

Assessment of Working Conditions of Business Studies Teachers in Secondary Schools in Delta State, OKORO


117


observes that a visit to secondary schools today reveals that teaching and learning have become most uninteresting. The aids and facilities that made teaching less tortuous and learning easy and interesting are no longer there. Laboratories are extinct, dilapidated buildings, overcrowded classrooms are characteristics of most public secondary schools (Abraham, 2004). Abolade (2004) also observes that under the compulsory nine-year schooling within the UBE programme, transition from primary to junior secondary school, the first challenge of the programme is the numerous number of students the teachers are to cope with, up-to-date data are inadequate, overcrowded classrooms, non-availability of laboratories, inadequate technical workshops and equipment, inadequate staff offices and library books. Contributing on the prevailing situation in secondary schools, Anyaduba in Amaewhule (2004) reveals that most public secondary schools lack vocational and technical teachers who are the major actors of 6-3-3-4 system of education for the teaching of prevocational subjects. Okoro (2008) reports that business education teachers have excess workload due to inadequate teachers in that field. The above stated working conditions of Nigerian teachers in secondary schools call for urgent attention and redress to ensure the survival of the system. There is need to apply the concept of motivation which Staw (1983) in Peretomode (1991) defines as a proponent state that energizes and guides behaviour. It is rarely measured directly, but is inferred from changes in behaviour or even attitudes. To be motivated means to be moved to do something. It varies from individual to individual and could be made to see that a high level of motivation is achieved when events follow a response, which tend to increase the frequency of that responses. Such forces are also commonly referred to as reinforcement. Business studies teachers are the central actors for the successful implementation of the Business Studies curriculum in the present structure of secondary schools. Hence, the teachers need conducive working conditions for successful teaching of Business studies. The theoretical framework



118


of this research is based on Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (1964) which is a process theory of motivation which has emphasized that individuals have preference for various outcomes (goals); individuals have expectancies about the likehood that an action on their part will lead to intended behaviour; individual have instrumentalities and the action a person chooses to take is determined by the expectancies and the preferences that person has. The theory is significant to business studies because the teachers are also human beings that are expectant of favourable working conditions in their jobs, good outcomes that will enable them put in more efforts, and value for their preferences. As the teacher satisfies the needs of the educational system, (the nomothetic dimension), the personal needs of the teachers are relevant also (the idiographic dimension) (Okorie, 1992). The secondary school teachers are expected to teach the subjects to enable the students acquire the relevant skills, knowledge, attitudes and dexterities for self employment and self-reliant. Also, working tools, instructional facilities, salary and goods offices are highly needed by the teachers to carry out these assigned tasks.

Statement of the Problem Business studies teachers in secondary schools seem to have poor working conditions. As a result, teachers seem not to be dedicated to their assigned duties since the instructional facilities and conditions prevalent cannot promote effective teaching and learning. Teachers feel powerless to create positive learning experience and outcomes for the students to improve their own situations. The conditions of service available to teachers, can go a long way to reducing their commitments which can cause teachers to be less successful in teaching. This can have negative effect on the students academic performance in business studies examinations. Research Question The following research question was formulated to guide the study:



119


How are the working conditions of business studies teachers in secondary schools? Hypotheses The following hypotheses were formulated to guide the study: 1. There is no significant difference between male and female

teachers’ perception of the assessment of the working conditions of business studies teachers in secondary schools.

2. There is no significant difference between urban schools teachers and rural schools teachers’ perception of the assessment of working conditions of business studies teachers in secondary schools.

Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to assess the working conditions of Business studies teachers in public secondary schools in Delta State. Specifically, the objectives include:

- Assessing the remunerations of business studies teachers. - Assessing the condition of staff offices - Assessing the instructional facilities - Assessing the teachers to students ratio - Assessing the level of commitment of students to classes.

Scope of the Study This study assessed the working conditions of Business studies teachers in public secondary schools in Delta State. Method The design of the study was a descriptive survey which assessed the working conditions of Business studies teachers. The population consisted of all Business studies teachers in the 326 public junior secondary schools in Delta State. One hundred and fifty-eight (158) Business studies teachers were selected through random sampling technique from the 63 (36%) out of 177 identified junior secondary schools offering Business Studies. A 40-item questionnaire was the instrument used for data collection. It had two sections. Section A had 4 items of demographic variables while



120


section B had 34 items derived from the research question. The questionnaire was structured on a modified 4 points Likert scale of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD). The test-retest method was used to determine the reliability of the instrument. The questionnaire was administered to 56 Business Studies teachers in 16 secondary schools which were not part of the study. After an interval of two weeks, the same set of questionnaire was administered to the same set of respondents to determine the reliability of the instrument. The data collected were further subjected to Pearson Product moment correlation to determine its reliability. A reliability coefficient of 0.79 was established. The data collected were analyed using means and standard deviations. In discussing the questionnaire items, the mean scores which fell below 2.5 were rejected responses while the mean scores above 2.5 were accepted responses. The z-test statistic was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance.

Data Analysis Research Question: How are the working conditions of Business Studies teachers in secondary schools? Table I: Opinions of Business Studies Teachers’ Perception of the Working Conditions of Business Studies Teachers

S/N Item description X SD Rmk 1. My salary is paid regularly 2.46 0.74 Rejected 2 My salary is attractive 2.34 0.77 Rejected 3 I receive over time allowance 2.41 0.70 Rejected 4 My salary is commensurate with the duties I carried out 2.40 0.68 Rejected 5 I receive bonuses during Christmas 2.43 0.77 Rejected 6 My school authority gives me money to enable me attend

workshops 2.30 0.66 Rejected

7 My school authorities sponsors me financially to attend seminars

2.36 0.71 Rejected

8 I have opportunity for study leave 2.45 0.73 Rejected 9 I enjoy study leave with pay 2.26 0.74 Rejected 10 I have adequate office space 2.30 0.72 Rejected 11 My office has fan 2.46 0.68 Rejected 12 My office has air conditioner 2.06 0.78 Rejected 13 My office has lighting facilities 2.24 0.66 Rejected 14 My office is adequately furnished 2.31 0.57 Rejected



121


15 My classrooms have adequate chairs 2.37 0.65 Rejected 16 My classroom is ventilated 2.68 0.76 Accepted 17 My classroom is regularly maintained 2.47 0.74 Rejected 18 My classroom has fans 2.16 0.78 Rejected 19 I have shorthand laboratory for practical work 2.11 0.62 Rejected 20 My shorthand laboratory is equipped with instructional

facilities 2.30 0.07 Rejected

21 I have typing pool for practical work 2.21 0.72 Rejected 22 I have adequate typewriters for practical work 2.26 0.78 Rejected 23 I have relevant textbooks for the subject 2.66 0.73 Accepted 24 My students buy all relevant textbooks 2.34 0.28 Rejected 25 My students do assignment regularly 2.36 0.72 Rejected 26 My students return their assignments for marking 2.38 0.67 Rejected 27 My students always respect me 2.41 0.76 Rejected 28 My students cause problem to me 2.46 0.71 Rejected 29 My community involves me in making major decisions that

affects the school 2.76 0.69 Accepted

30 My community is hostile to me 2.27 0.78 Rejected 31 My community helps to provide some teaching facilities to

help the school 2.26 0.80 Rejected

32 I have excess workload 2.76 0.71 Accepted 33 My classrooms are overcrowded 2.61 0.78 Accepted 34 The business studies content is wide 2.73 078 Accepted 35 I can teach all aspects of business studies 2.38 0.70 Rejected

The data presented and analysed above clearly indicate that business studies teachers are faced with myriads of problems. This can negatively affect effective teaching and learning of business studies. Most of the positive responses are rejected while few are accepted. This means that there are unsatisfactory working conditions as perceived by the teachers. Ho1: There is no significant difference between male and female teachers’ perceptions of the assessment of the working conditions of Business studies teachers in secondary schools. Table 1: Means and SD of male and female teachers perception of working conditions of business studies. Variable categor

X SD N Df Level of sig.

z-cal.

z-crit.

Decision

Rmk



122


y Male teachers

2.31

0.92

87

156

0.05

0.94

1.96

Ns

Accept Female

teacher 2.42

1.01

71

The mean and SD of male teachers are 2.431 and 0.92 respectively, while the means and SD of female teachers are 2.42 and 1.01 respectively. Since the calculated Z-score of 0.94 is less than 1.96 at 0.05 level of significance, the hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference between male teachers and female working conditions of business studies teachers is therefore retained as stated. H02: There is no significant difference between urban school teachers and rural schools teachers perception of the assessment of working conditions of business studies teachers in secondary schools. Table 2: Opinions of Urban schools and rural school teachers perception of the assessment of working condition of business studies teachers in secondary schools.

Variable category

X SD N Df Lev. Of sig

z-cal z-cri Dec Rmk

Urban school teachers

2.43

0.72

92

156

0.05

0.83

1.960

Ns

Accept

Rural Schools teachers

2.40 0.67 66

The mean and SD of urban school teacher are 2.43 and 0.72 respectively, while the mean scores for rural schools teachers are 2.40 and 0.67 respectively. The calculated z score was 0.83 less than 1.96 at 0.05 level of significance. The hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference between urban schools and rural



123


school teachers perception of the working conditions of business studies in secondary schools is therefore upheld.

Discussion of Findings The working conditions of Business studies teachers are important issue which needs urgent attention and redress to facilitate effective teaching and learning of business studies in the present Universal Basic Education programme. The study reveals that teachers’ salaries are not paid regularly and not attractive. There is no overtime allowance, salary not commensurate with the job carried out by teachers, absence of Christmas bonus to teachers, teachers not sponsored financially to attend workshops and seminars, absence of study leave with pay. No fans and air conditioners provided for the teachers, offices, inadequate offices, offices have no lightening facilities, classrooms are overcrowded. This study was in consonance with Abraham (2004) and Abolade (2003) which reports on the dilapidating nature of secondary school system. Classrooms, offices are inadequate, shortages of physical facilities to enhance learning. Inadequate typewriters, shorthand studies, and typing pool for practical work.

Amaewhule (2004) and Okoro (2008) earlier pointed out of inadequate instructional facilities for business education programmes in Nigerian educational system. This study further reveals that students do not buy business studies textbooks, students do not do assignment regularly and return to teachers for marking. Teachers are involved by the community in making major decisions. The Business Studies course content is wide, classrooms are overcrowded and teachers have excess workload. Okoro (2008) had earlier reported of inadequate teachers in Business education which could result to excess workload.

Conclusion Business education teachers are very relevant in Nigerian educational system since they are employed to teach the relevant



124


areas in the content to enable the students acquire the relevant skills, knowledge, and interest required for effective functioning in the world of work. The teachers have to be motivated by creating conducive working conditions to enable them teach effectively. Recommendations The following recommendations are made for the study.

1. Business studies teachers should be given adequate teaching facilities to enable them teach their practical work.

2. Business studies teachers should be given in service training with pay to encourage the teachers develop themselves are keep abreast with innovations in the area.

3. More teachers should be employed to avoid excess workload this also has implications for productivity.

4. Students in business studies should buy the relevant textbooks of the subjects.

5. The students to their assignment regularly, since most subjects in the area are practical oriented.

6. The community should assist in the provision of facilities for secondary schools in their localities.

References

Abolade, J.O. (2003). In Eheazu, B.A. & Ivowi, U.M.O. Minimum

Standards Accountability in primary and Secondary Education. The Nigerian Academy in Education Proceedings of the 18th Annual Congress held at University of Port Harcourt, 10th – 15th November, 2003.

Abraham, N.M. (2004). Secondary School Education: Any way

forward? Seminar paper presented at a one day workshop organized for principals and teachers at Erema Civic Centre, Ogba-Egbema-Ndoni Local Government Area; May 12th.



125


Amaewhule, W.A. (2004). Standards in Business Education. Journal of Business Education. 4(2), 28-36.

Esene, R.A. (1997). Methods of Teaching Vocational Business

Subjects. Agbor: Royal Pace publication. Haynes, B.R. & Jackson, J.P. (1997). A History of Business

Education in the United States of America. Monograph 25. Cincinnati: South Western publishing Company.

Okorie, N.C. (1992). Educational Administration Theory: and

Practice. Owerri. Totan Publishers. Okoro, J. (2008). Assessment of Resources for Training Prospective

Business education teachers at Colleges of Education. unpublished Master’s Degree thesis, University of Benin, Benin City.

Oliseh, J.A. (2008). Secondary School Business Education teachers: reaction towards the reforms of promoting gender equality and women empowerment through business education. Association of Business Educators of Nigeria- Book of Readings. 1(8) 258-265.

Peretomode, V. F. (1991). Educational Administration: Applied concepts and theoretical perspectives for students and practioners. Lagos: Joja publishers.

Vroom, F. (1964 ). Motivating people at work. Boston: McGraw-Hill Publishers.



126


RETIREMENT AND RETIREMENT COUNSELLING: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

BY

PROF. JOHN BISI ASONIBARE

&

DR. ABDULRAZAQ OLAYINKA ONIYE

Abstract Retirement is a significant change in an individual’s lifestyle and, as any change, comes with element of emotion (Marceaus, 1998). The perception people have of retirement is a function of their understanding of what it connotes. Retirement is not only an employment job related concept, rather it is one concept with several psychosocial connotations. From a vocational point of view, it is an indicator of the concluding stage of the occupational cycle at which certain material; vocational and experiential achievements are expected of the retiree (Oniye, 2001). It is important to note from the onset that “among the various categories of workers in our labour force in Nigeria, the workers approaching retirement and the retired should be our great concern (Alutu, 1999). Broadly speaking the workers in the labour force of this country could be grouped into two main groups, namely, private employees working in companies, firms or workers of business enterprises, and workers in the public sector i.e. civil-servants employed by local, state or federal governments. This presentation addressed the concept of retirement and retirement counselling, for these categories of workers with particular reference to issue and challenges inherent in retirement for all and sundry.


127


The concept of Retirement Retirement as a concept has both old and new definitions. The old definition of retirement was when a worker couldn’t do something anymore. He or she is laid off. However, the new definition of retirement is when a worker does not have to do something anymore. The concept of retirement that we associated with leisure, travel, family activities, hobbies, and educational pursuits is a modern idea. The role of “retiree” and the stage of “retirement” we identify with today is a socially constructed concept that was created as a result of the passage of Social Security Act in 1935 (in America). According to Prize (2000), with the creation of social security, a financial incentive or pension was made available to older workers to encourage them retire from the workforce and to enable younger workers take their place; thus stimulating economic growth and progress. Retirement generally implies the terminal cessation, relaxation or change over of financially remunerative employment. It is a life stage because it is a period of economic inactivity or a change over in one’s economic activity, socially/legally prescribed for workers in later life. Retirement is a phenomenon characterized by separation of the worker from paid employment, which has the characteristic of an occupation or a career over a period of time. It is essentially, a period of adjustment (Oniye, 2001). Historically, retirement was a stage of life few individuals lived long enough to experience or enjoy. According to Prince (2000), in the early 20th century, the average life expectancy was 47 years. As a result, most people worked until they became tool sick to continue. However, because the advanced medical knowledge and resources we enjoy today were not yet available, a majority of people died quickly of acute illness. It was discovered that before now the overall time spent in retirement was only 7% of adulthood or about 3 years. In the early 21st century, 25% of one’s adulthood



128


can be spent in retirement. This is because the average life expectancy in 2002 was 76 years, thus those retiring at age 65, on average, can expect to spend 18 to 20 years in the role of retires. For instance, if an academic staff in a Nigerian university retires at 60, he is expected to stay alive for another 20 to 25 years on the average. The implication is that adequate plan must be made by such an individual for the post retirement life stage or period. Types Of Retirement In the opinion of Akinade (1993), retirement is a final stage of life when one leaves an occupation which one had been involved in for a considerable length of one’s working life. Retirement in the opinion of experts is an inevitable stage of ageing where the individual gradually disengages from the main stream of active work/social life and is eventually replaced by a younger person in most cases.

In her own submission, Alutu (1999) noted that there are three main types of retirement, namely voluntary, compulsory and forced retirement. Alutu explained that voluntary retirement occurs when the employee decides on his own to retire from service before the attainment of the stipulated retiring age or years of service. Compulsory retirement occurs when the employee had to retire because he has attained the maximum age of retirement or years of service. Forced retirement on the other hand, occurs when the employee is not consulted before he is made to withdraw from service with or without benefits (e.g. retrenchment, rationalization of workforce etc of civil-servants in the employment of Kwara State civil service in 1993/94 and 1995 respectively) (Nigerian Union of Pensioners, 2003).

Similarly, Awoniyi (1997) submitted that retirement can be categorized into two classes viz: voluntary and involuntary retirement. Retirement is regarded as voluntary if the employee freely and personally decides on it before the attainment of the mandatory retirement age (60 years of age or 35 years of working experience here in Nigeria) (Oniye, 2001). It is however involuntary,

Retirement and Retirement Counseling, ASONIBARE & ONIYE


129


if the decision is forced on the employee, either on attainment of mandatory retirement age or due to other reasons like mass retrenchment of workers, proven case of ill health, negligence of duty etc.

The implication of these typologies is that the average employee is likely to be retired either when he is ready or before he is ready for retirement. The import of this awareness is that the typical employee must properly prepare for this eventuality; bearing in mind that 25% of his adulthood is likely to be spent in retirement. The focus of this write up is to sensitize all prospective retirees about the need to understand the complexities involved in retirement and the imperative of preparing adequately for this period. Sources Of Retirement Stress And Problems Fear or anxiety about retirement is one constant companion of most employees right from first day of their engagement in the private or public service (Oniye, 2001). Instead of fear and anxiety, the typical retiree or prospective retirees should start from day one to have a focus on their post retirement life plan and life style. This is crucial especially when the view expressed by Elezua (1998) is considered that “the moment retirement comes knocking on the door (of an employee) it enters with challenges and expectations. Okorodudu (1998) therefore opined that because of the attendant stress that accompanies these challenges and expectations, retirement is believed to be fraught with a number of problems for the average employee in a country like Nigeria, with unstable economy. Retirement as posited by Oniye (2001) is a complex process demanding serious planning. This he noted is possibly because of the fact that, the experience each has in the course of this phenomenon is to a large extent individualistic in nature. Suffice to say therefore that retirees (especially those who failed to prepare adequately for retirement) are bound to face certain problems in retirement for a number of reasons. Some of these reasons and accompanying problems include:



130


(i) Lack of understanding; (ii) Financial problems; (iii) Social stigma and (iv) Health constraints (Oniye, 2001). According to the Nigeria Union of Pensioners, Kwara State Branch, the constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, sections 180 and 216 state in subsection 3 and 4 that: 1. “Pensions shall be reviewed every five years or together with any

federal civil service salary reviews, whichever is earlier”. 2. “Pensions is respect of any service in the public service of the

federation shall not be taxed”. (Constitution of Federal Republic of Nigeria,1999).

The union noted with dismay that in spite of Federal Government issuance of three circulars between 1999 and 2003 for 150%, 30% and 142% on pension increase respectively, the Kwara State Government tends to implement the policy on pension by setting up of two pension board:

(i) Kwara State Pensions Board and (ii) Kwara State Local Government Staff Pensions Board.

However, not withstanding the setting up of these, pensioners in Kwara State as at July, 2003, were still confronted with the following problems: 1. Lack of proper placement of monthly pensioners retrenched in

1995. 2. Non settlement of outstanding state harmonized pension arrears

for the period January 1st, 2001 to March 31st 2003 (27 months). 3. Non implementation of 150% arrears, of pension increase for the

period of January 2001 to March 31st 2003; 30% pension increase since January 2000, and 142% pension increase with effect from 1st May, 2000 to July, 2003 respectively.

4. Wrong computation of pension and gratuities paid to retirees of 1st September to 31st December, 1998.

In America, it has been noted that in 1965, 57% of the US population over age 55 was in workforce. Today the number is only 38%. Americans who are in the age bracket of 30-49 have



131


accumulated only one-third of what they will need to retire. Today’s retirees must prepare for a retirement that could last much longer than their parents’. This is because life expectancy for women will rise to 81.2 years in 2020 from 65.7 years in 1940. For men it will increase to 75.3 from 61.4.(Prince,2000). It has also been discovered that one in every four retirees uses their retirement savings for something other than to fund his/her retirement, such as the purchase of a home or to fund a child’s education. Approximately 90% of people who leave a job don’t roll their special (401(K)) distribution into another retirement account. Funny enough, only half of American workers are covered by a pension plan (Barbara, 1999). Retirement is associated with financial stress. Financial stress is complicated and it should be noted that:

- People at all income levels experience it. - Financial stress is not the same for everyone. - Within the families, the major source of financial stress is

how to spend what you have; not how much or how little that amount is.

- Having a stable income helps to minimize financial stress. - Financial stress is so prevalent today because job insecurity is

rampant at all levels in many professions. - Having more money is not an automatic cure for financial

stress. It may just create a different form of it. - Unfortunately, financial stress is built into the America

culture, same way it is built into Nigeria’s. As a nation, we have grown up believing that having more is better than having less (The Aging issue Team, 1990).

Concept Of Retirement Counselling Retirement counseling is the process of providing prospective retirees with factual information needed to make a pleasant transition from world of work into the world of less rigorous occupational schedules – retirement. The concept includes a review of all insurance policies, management of personal income during retirement, explanation of the retirement process, general



132


information about social security, Medicare coverage and acquisition of life skills needed for optional adjustment to retirement roles. Retirement, like any other life process has phases or stages. In the opinion of Omoresemi (1987) three major stages of retirement are identifiable viz: preparation stage (36-45 years), period of immediate retirement (46-55years), and real retirement stage (56-65years). It is crucial for all prospective retirees to understand the features associated with these stages, albeit briefly. According to Adeloye (1999), the preparation stage is characterized by the need to educate all the children, acquire a piece of land and start building a house, having a life insurance policy and recognizing the fact of ageing. At the pre-retirement stage, the individual undergoes physical and psychological changes like wrinkles on the face and skin, growth of grey hair, and familiarization with retirement regulations and procedures. Finally at the real retirement stage, the individual is expected to have completed all necessary arrangement on retirement and can now decide on what to do with life, setting up a small business or enjoying leisure. Retirement counseling is also interested in sensitizing prospective retirees and retired people about issues bothering on the effect/stressors or problems of retirement. For example, in the study carried out among some Nigerian retirees, Omoresemi (1987) discovered that retirement affects the income, residence, family structure or relationship between members of the family as well as the economic viability of retirees. It must be stated however that those who retire voluntarily or those who have prepared adequately for retirement tend to experience a more stable mental health than those who are compulsorily retired (Adeloye, 1999). Similarly, Oniye (2001) enumerated four major problems associated with retirement. In his study of retired civil servants in Kwara State, he found that the problems most commonly reported by the retirees are lack of adequate understanding of the process before retirement; social stigma of being tagged a retiree, financial and health constraints. Alutu (1999) reported however that while 80% of



133


her research sample acknowledge being aware of retirement, a staggering 54% of the same sample reported that adequate preparation was not made before retirement. The implication is that after retirement, the retiree might experience feelings of guilt, anger, denial, fatigue or a blurred future and so should be assisted to cope with his new experience (Adeloye, 1999). In Nigeria, there is the tendency for people to over emphasize issues like financial assistance at the expense of more equally important emotional aspect of retirement .The focus of retirement counseling at this stage or period is to assist the retiree (especially if he is the head of the family and thus the principal victim) and all family members who are equally victims to gain insight into their feeling concerning retirement so that they can explore alternative ways that could help to enhance their emotional stability. The retirement counselor would seek to ensure reasonable management of issues like accommodation, feeding, children’s school fees (for those who are still raising a family close to retirement or during retirement, which of course is not advisable), and maintenance of the family property e.g. vehicles or taking care of aged parents. The counseling services to be provided cut across both the pre-retirement and post-retirement stages. For example, during the pre-retirement stage the focus would be to assist workers plan well ahead of retirement. At this stage workers are exposed to necessary information that will enhance happy post-retirement life. This ideally is expected to be organized by professional counselor(s) in form of workshops, seminars, sensitization symposia to be handled by specially selected resource persons in the field of education, business, law, health, estate management and vocational skills training. However, at the post retirement stage, emphasis could be laid on group and individual counseling sessions depending on the peculiar nature of retiree’s problems. Where need be, religious psychological counseling could also be introduced especially with



134


the assistance of Imams and church pastors to introduce a spiritual dimension into the management of retirement stress. All these could be accomplished through services like:

- Information service: Supplying of valid and reliable information on various issues related to retirement, like retirement policies, when and how to retire, how to merge services before retirement, how gratuity and pension are computed or and what to do after retirement.

- Vocation service: Assisting retirees to explore career alternatives and develop leisure interest in which they can utilize their knowledge and skills so that they can be gainfully employed.

- Planning, placement and follow up service: Assisting the retirees plan their lives realistically and effectively. Planning herein connotes taking cognizance of retiree’s abilities, interests, value system, personality disposition, aptitude and so on. The appropriate planning and placement must however be accompanied with periodic follow-up to ascertain the effectiveness or otherwise of the planning and placement.

- Referral service: Sending of special cases to specialists for appropriate treatment; like dentists to ascertain healthiness of aging person’s teeth, medical doctors to check blood pressure or psychiatrists to proffer therapeutic insights.

Retirement Planning And Strategies It has been discovered that daily our society is getting more complex both by its structure and operational challenges. Thus, it is known that many powerful societal forces are making retirement planning more important than ever. For instance, issues like longer life expectancies, fewer or decreasing retirement benefits, the trend towards multiple jobs-even careers, changes and rising healthcare costs, increasing job insecurity, among others. All these make planning for retirement more critical now than ever before. The baseline of our retirement counseling is that regardless of your age, where you work or your life situation, you should start



135


planning now for your retirement. Even if your establishment has a very handsome retirement package like full monthly salary for a professor emeritus, remember those funds may not be enough to maintain your lifestyle after retirement. However, if you start planning now, you can take steps toward the retirement income you want. The retirement planning advocated herein involves identifying your wants and needs, developing a plan to achieve them, acting on your plan and continually reviewing and revising your plan as you approach retirement. In order to start meaningfully, start by defining your goals. In a more practically way your retirement planning demand that you ask yourself the following questions:

1. At what age do I plan to retire? 2. Will I start a new part-time career during retirement, or never

work again? 3. How long do I think I will need my money to last? 4. How much money will it take to support my household? 5. What type of life style do I hope to lead after retirement? 6. Where will I live when I retire?

Sequel to reasonable handling of this goal setting aspect of retirement planning, you will answer questions like these:

1. What provisions do I need to make to take care of my healthcare needs during retirement years?

2. How much money do I need to save to meet my goals? 3. How should I invest my money to maximize my retirement

saving? 4. How will my assets, liabilities, expenses and savings change

during retirement? Remember, the sooner you started to save and plan for your

retirement years, the more prepared you will be. As a matter of fact, early planning means that just a small investment each year given reasonable profit margin could create a portfolio large enough to meet your needs later in life (Solutions Colony 1998-2003).



136


You would invest for early retirement. Consider this story “Jerry Mcmahan, retired a week before his 51st birthday. According to him “what enabled me to retire early was both my pension plan and the performance of my personal portfolio”. He was a division comptroller and director of financial analysis”. The experience helped him structure his portfolio. How? At 37 Mcmahan applied his financial planning skills to his personal retirement goals, devising an investment strategy to acquire a certain sum of money in 20 years to fund his retirement. However, he hit the target five years early. Thus his first major activity when he retired was to study and pass the exams to get the certified financial planner designation. While doing that, he joined SCORE where he spends one to three afternoons a week offering his expertise to people starting business or those having problems with existing businesses. In summary, today Mcmahan is a successful retired employee of Rockwell but actively engaged member of SCORE crop of volunteers and he makes several hundred trades a year. He is happy in retirement.

In order to ensure a successful transition into retirement some retirement tips are suggested for consideration:

1. Persevere and remain optimistic – No matter how difficult the circumstances, have confidence that the basic values you stand for will sustain you, and don’t give up on yourself.

2. Make sure you have a reason to retire, a list of things you want to do other than work.

3. Before retiring, decide how you’re going to spend the eight hours or more you used to devote to work. Retirement is another vocation you have to prepare for.

4. Buy enough shares in stock market or companies to tie down reasonable fund for retirement income.

5. Don’t allow forced retirement to throw you off-balance. You could anticipate it even if it will never happen, because it doesn’t have to be devastating. Instead you still have control over what comes next.



137


6. Pension benefits are inadequate for most retirement lifestyles. You may have to supplement your income by working. If so, try to find something that you truly enjoy doing. Remember that while retirement laws suggest leaving work by 65, nothing says you couldn’t work longer if you feel like and capable.

7. If you want to do volunteer works to fill your time then find an activity you enjoy. If you don’t, it will be boring.

8. Be careful to choose a retirement residence where most of your specialists like geriatric doctors, lawyers, therapists etc could be located easily, (Adapted from SCORE, 1999). Furthermore, when thinking about early retirement, whether

it’s your idea or your employer’s, try to consider the following tips: (i) Health insurance availability (ii) income (iii)

retirement saving (iv) part-time employment (v) early retirement impact on the exercise of stock options and similar benefits. (vi) your family situation e.g. are you still sponsoring children in school, yet to build your own house etc (vii) the impact of early retirement on pension and gratuity. Conclusion In Nigeria, the apathy towards retirement has bred a lot of socio-economic and psychological problems not only to the retirees, dependents and friends but to the society in general. The focus of this discourse is to enlighten all prospective retirees about issues and challenges associated with retirement especially in a country with unstable economy like ours. The imperativeness of getting pre and post-retirement counseling is emphasized because all prospective retirees need to be reminded about the rationale behind saving and preparing for the eventual rainy and idle days (of retirement). The stance of this write up is that for all workers, their youthful exuberance should be occupied with foresight and goals, which have to be rigorously and vigorously pursued (Elezua, 1998). Retirees who have not gone through a detailed goal setting process are much more likely to struggle I the early periods of



138


retirement as they try to deal with feelings. Such struggles can have serious health and financial implications. The four periods of retirement are the honeymoon period, the period of disenchantment, the reorientation period and the stability period. If retirement planning has only addressed the financials, then the second and the third will present major problems for the retiree. On the other hand, if life style planning has also been done, the retiree will slip quickly and almost effortlessly into the stability period. Recommendations Not everyone has the luxury of retiring according to a long-term plan. When people are forced into early retirement they may suffer loss of self-esteem and subsequent depression. Therefore, family and friends should be more loving, caring and encouraging to the retiree to give them sense of affection and belonging. Similarly, there should be regular contact with the retiree by friends, family members, religious group members and past colleagues. The policy makers should put in place post-retirement packages capable of making lives of retirees comfortable. This is especially crucial in the area of social and medical care, bearing in mind that poor health and need for health care are other major problems of retirees. Similarly, all workers must in preparation for their eventual retirement, be mindful of their style of life and kind of friends they keep. The mind should be focused on how, where and when to build or buy a house, train the children and ensure a stable standard of living for the family. Reference Adeloye, J.T. (1999). Retirement: its psychology, management and

counseling techniques. The Counsellor 17(1)98-104. Akinade, E. A. (1993). Towards satisfactory, retirement, a socio-

psychological approach. Lagos: Kala Okanlawown service Ltd.



139


Alutu, A. N. G. (1995). Planning for retirement.. Workshop paper presented at Micheal Imoudu Institute for Labour studies, Ilorin.

Elezua, C.C. (1998). Counseling for retirement.. The Counselor.

16(1), 6-10. Kelves, B. (1999). Coping with retirement. SCORE http.// www.

aicpa. Org/pubs/jofa/dec 1999/html/.index. Nigerian Union of Pensioners (2003). Paper presented by the Kwara

state branch of the union to the Kwara State House of Assembly Committee on pensioners on Tuesday, 22nd July, 2003.

Okorodudu, I.R. (1998). Counseling for retirement in an unstable

Nigerian economy. The Counselor. 16(1), 88-96. Oniye, O.A. (1999). Sex difference in problems of retired civil

servants and the roles of counseling in the rehabilitation of retirees. The Counselor. 17(1) 160-165.

Oniye, O.A., (2001). Problem associated with retirement and

implications for productive adult life. Nigeria Journal of Gender and Development.. 2 (1) 55-64.

Omoresemi, D. (1987) Retirement, a real transition. Kano: Abbos

Education Service Publications. Price, C.A. (2000). Facts about retirement http: //www. Solutions

Colony. Com/advertweb/router.asp? Zurl =Msn.com.Retrieved 6th October,2003.



140


EFFECTS OF BIBLIOTHERAPY AND STORY TELLING COUNSELLING TECHNIQUES ON PRIMARY SCHOOL

TEACHERS’ PERCEPTION OF RETIREMENT

BY

DR. (MRS.) GRACE EGO OMONI Abstract The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of bibliotherapy and storytelling counselling techniques on primary school teachers perceptions of retirement. One research question and one null hypothesis were formulated to guide the study. A sample of 60 (40 experimental and 20 control) primary school teachers in Ukwuani Local Government Area of Delta State were drawn using purposive sampling technique. The non-equivalent pre-test/post-test control group quasi-experimental design was used. After the participants (experimental groups) had undergone training using bibliotherapy and storytelling counselling techniques, it was found that the subjects’ perception of retirement changed positively. Based on the above findings, it was recommended that teachers should be periodically exposed to pre-retirement counselling using both techniques identified. Introduction Retirement is an event which many people dread because of stories of emotional instability, loss of self esteem, motivation and financial inadequacy attached to it. Furthermore, many of these outcomes of retirement mentioned have led to separation of families, abandonment of spouse, juvenile delinquencies, pensioners’


141


restiveness and outright demise of many retirees without claiming their gratuities and pensions. Retirement is a major transition in the world of work, yet many people are ill-prepared for it. The researcher became conscious of and concerned about retirement as a result of how retirees are being treated. Such negative treatment include delay in the payments of entitlements. Some of them are thrown out of government quarters without alternative accommodation. It has also been observed that adults in the world of work are given little or no attention in Nigeria’s guidance and counselling practice. The prospective retiree who is still on the job needs to be acquainted with what lies ahead after retirement. He or she needs Pre-Retirement counselling.

Retirement Retirement is a concept which has been variously defined. Generally, it is seen as a major role transition – a turning point in adult development and a shift from middle years to old age. Oraegbunam (1988:34) defines it as “an official and formal ending of a work life”. Ogunbameru and Adesina (2000:1) assert that retirement is:

a situation in which an individual who has been working for a period of time voluntarily gives up his job or is forced to give up his job after serving for at least an officially defined number of years which qualify him or her for a pension or gratuity(p.1).

One who experiences retirement has the right to economic supports, job; has autonomy in managing his or her time and resources. He or she has the responsibility of avoiding full-time jobs (Rainey, 2000). Ogunbameru and Adesina (2000) also defined retirement as ‘rest’. This is drawn from how it is called in the three major ethnic groups in Nigeria – (Yoruba – ‘Ifehinti’, Igbo – ‘Ezumike-nka’ and Hausa – ‘Gama-aiki’). Shea (1999) Weckerle and Shultz (1999) claim that retirement is embracing a new meaning because older workers are



142


transiting from their former career to a second one. Retirement is no longer a sudden withdrawal from work life, but a multi-phased transition with workers moving out slowly into full time leisure. This new dimension coupled with the negative perceptions attached to retirement call for pre-retirement counselling.

Retirement Counselling Retirement counselling according to Okorodudu (1998:89) is “every professional assistance given to midlife career workers by a counsellor to facilitate his pre-retirement preparation as it affects his personality and home responsibility”. Counselling is used to assist individuals with retirement problems to resolve their conflicts in relation to financial, physical, psychological, and social situations. Retirement counselling include Pre and Post retirement counselling. This study focused on Pre-retirement counselling. Okpede (1998) asserts that the desirability of counselling service for workers’ retirement preparation is a necessity to create awareness and conscientization of the prospective retiree about retirement. Relevant training of on-the-job teachers is a prerequisite to a comfortable retirement. Akinade (1993) assets that pre-retirement counselling serves to bring about proper planning in relation to budgets, health, social and emotional welfare of the retiree of the several types of pre-retirement counselling, storytelling and bibliotherapy were used in this study. Storytelling In Africa, storytelling is a popular means of entertainment of inculcating morals and perpetuating the culture. National Story Telling Membership Association (1997) defines storytelling as the art of using language, vocalization and or physical movement and gesture to reveal a specific life experience to an audience. Sullivan and Pipe (2000) opine that using a properly told story can be a very effective learning experience for perspective retirees in companies. Gearings (1999) asserts that professional footballers were helped to

Effects of Bibliotherapy and Story Telling Counselling Techniques on Primary School Teachers’ Perception of Retirement, OMONI


143


shape their identities after listening to stories of life experiences by retired footballers and how they have coped with life challenges.

Bibliotherapy Pardeck and Pardeck (1989) define bibliotherapy as a technique for structuring interaction between a facilitator and a participants based on mutual sharing of literature. Iwuama (1999) says it is the use of books to assist children, adolescents and adults to handle their emotional problems but it goes beyond mere reading. Addederholdt and Eller (1989) see bibliotherapy as a tool for helping people deal with their problems through reading novels or stories about characters who possess similar problems. The fact that workers are ill-prepared for retirement based on reports in the printed and electronic media, coupled with the present policy by the federal/state government on retirement and pension scheme, the need for Retirement pre-counselling for primary school teachers cannot be overemphasized. Statement of Problem In this era of unemployment, social instability, heightened youth restiveness and the uncertainty of job security, it might be pertinent to focus attention on retirement education. It is expedient for on-the-job workers such as primary school teachers to be assisted in preparing and planning for a positive and worthwhile retirement life. The individual’s perception of retirement has been shown to be related to social stability, health, finance and leisure satisfaction. Therefore, this paper addressed this problem: Will primary school teachers’ perception of retirement be influenced if assisted with bibliotherapy and storytelling counselling techniques? Research Question



144


Is there any difference in pre-test and post-test mean score of the two experimental groups on primary school teachers perception of retirement? Ho1: There is no significant difference between the effect of storytelling and bibliotherapy counselling techniques on the subjects’ perception of retirement. Purpose of the Study The study was aimed at determining the effects of bibliotherapy and storytelling on selected primary school teachers’ perception of retirement.

Method The study adopted a quasi-experimental design since it is interested in the cause-effect of the techniques on teachers’ perception of retirement. To allow for comparism, control and manipulation of variables, the non-equivalent control group pre-test design, groups was utilized. Groups were selected in relation to characteristics considered to be important antecedents of the outcomes sought for by the programme. Sixty subjects were drawn through purpose sampling technique. This sample consists of three groups – two experimental and one control group of 20 each. The pre-test scores were used for a basis for equivalence. The treatment programme consists of six sessions of 1½ hours each spread over six weeks with one session per week. The control group had no treatment.

Research Instrument The study instrument is a structured questionnaire titled “Teachers’ Perception of Retirement Iventory’ (TEPORI) developed by the researcher and given to four lecturers of Counselling Psychology



145


Department of Delta State University, Abraka who helped in the modification. The internal consistency of the instrument was established using Cronbach alpha. The value obtained was 0.88 at 0.05 level of significance. The questionnaire had two sections which sought to elicit information about respondents’ biodata and their perception of retirement. This second section had 50 items based on a four point likert scale format of: strongly agree (SA); Agree (A) Disagree (D), and strongly disagree (SD) – (SA) = 4; (A) = 3; (D) = 2 and (SD) = 1 for positive statements and reverse for negative statements. The t-test and mean scores were used for data analysis.

Result Research Question: Is there any difference in pre-test and post-test mean score of the two experimental groups on the primary school teachers’ perception of retirement.

Table 1: Pre-test and Post-test Mean Scores of the two Experimental Groups

Variables N ẍ for Pre-test

ẍ for Post-test

Grand mean score between Pre-test and

Post-test Storytelling 20 127.75 158.25 30.50 Bibliotherapy 20 132.00 144.25 12.25 Control group 20 130.00 133.25 3.00

Table 1 indicates the pre-test and the post-test mean scores for the two experimental groups. The post-test mean scores for storytelling and bibliotherapy of 158.25 and 144.25 respectively are higher than their pre-test means of 127.75 (ST) and 132.00 (BT). The result shows that there was no effect of the treatment on the subjects in their perception of retirement. The gain means scores of 30.50 for storytelling and 12.25 for bibliotherapy proves that there is a difference.



146


Ho1: There is no significant difference between the effect of storytelling counselling technique and bibliotherapy on the subjects perception of Retirement. Table 2: The Post-test Analysis Comparism of the two Treatment Groups and

Perception of Retirement Variable N ẍ SD Calculated

t-value Critical t-value

Decision

Storytelling 20 158.25 6.29 5.45 2.021 Reject Bibliotherapy 20 144.25 7.93

Table 2 shows the mean scores of the two experimental groups. Comparing the two experimental group scores, it is observed that storytelling had a greater effect than bibliotherapy. The t-calculated value of 5.45 is greater than the t-critical (2.021) at 0.05 level of significance, so the null hypothesis is rejected. Discussion The major findings of this study are that storytelling and bibliotherapy are very effective counselling techniques for training would-be-retirees (Primary School Teachers) on retirement. There was a difference in the impact of ST and BT on the perception of teachers. The findings revealed that the two counselling techniques were superior to the control conditions as indicated on table 1. This is in line with the view of Stalling (1988) and Gearing (1999), Sullivan and Piper (2003) who found storytelling to be an appropriate technique for changing people’s perception of retirement. The result is also in line with the assertion Adderholdt and Eller (1989) and Ekwe (2001) who posit that bibliotherapy is a tool used for helping people develop positive perception of retirement. Ekwe (2001) found in his study that bibliotherapy positively affected secondary school teachers attitude towards retirement. The present study has extended his finding using



147


storytelling and bibliotherapy. It found that storytelling had greater effect on the subjects. The researcher attributed this difference to the poor reading culture exhibited by the trainee teachers during the six weeks treatment. Conclusion This study has demonstrated that poor perception of retirement can be diagnosed and treated using storytelling and bibliotherapy to bring about positive adjustment. The fact that some primary school teachers have poor conception of retirement has implication for psychologists and counsellors. This empirical work shows that a solution to maladjustment during retirement and all the accompanied poor perception of it can be avoided through retirement counselling using storytelling and bibliotherapy. Recommendations The following recommendations are made based on the findings: 1. Workers, especially primary school teachers should be

assisted by providing them with pre-retirement counselling programmes using bibliotherapy and storytelling counselling techniques.

2. Periodic workshops, seminars and lectures should be organized for teachers on the prospects and advantages of retirement.

3. A counselling unit should be established by the Nigerian Society of Educational Psychologists and Counselling Association of Nigeria to coordinate retirement Pre/Post counselling using storytelling and bibliotherapy.

References Adderholdt-Elliot, M. & Eller, S. H. (1989). Counselling Students

who are Crifted through Bibliotherapy, Teaching Exceptional Children; 22(1)26-31.



148


Akinade, E. A. (1993). Towards Satisfactory Retirement: A Socio-

Psychological Approache, Mushin Kola Okanlawin Service Ltd.

Akinboye, J. O. (1998). Happy Retirement, Ibadan. Dot Kamarun (Nigerian) Ltd.

Ekwe, A. O. (2001). “The Effects of Instructional Group

Counselling and Bibliotherapy on Secondary School Teachers’ toward Retirement.” Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt.

Gearing, B. (1999). Narratives of Identity Among Former

Footballers in the United Kingdom (Abstract) in Journal of Aging Studies, 13, 43-58.

Natural Storytelling Membership Association (NSMA) (1997). What

is the Definition of Storytelling? Htpp://www.elderberry.net/roos/st/defn/htm

Ogunbameru, O. A. & Adesina, W. (2000). Retirement and Pension

Administration Ibadan: Pat-Mag Press. Okorodudu, R. I. (1998). “Counselling for Retirement in an

Unstable Economy,” The Counsellor, 16(1) 88-96. Okpede, E.O.D. (1998). Counselling in government Setting, Jos:

Mono Expression Ltd. Oraegbunam, N. (1998). “The Self-Concept and Adjustment of

Retired Public Servants in Onitsha Urban Anambra State.” The Counsellor, 16(1) 34-48.



149


Omoni, G. E. (2005). “Effects of Storytelling and Bibliotherapy Counselling Techniques on Primary School Teachers’ Perception of Retirement.” Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Delta State University, Abraka.

Pardeck, J. T. & Pardeck, J. A. (1989). Bibliotherapy: A tool for

Helping Pre-School Children feel with emotional problems in Early Child Development and Care, 47, 107-129.

Rainey, M. (2002). What are Peoples Attitude Towards Retirement

Age. http://www.w2.p.ilakron.edu/marainey/390. Stallings, F. (1988). The Web of Silence: “Storytelling’s Power to

Hypnotize,” The National Storytelling Journal, 19(1). Shea, G. F. (1991). Managing Older Employees, San Francisco:

Jossey-Bass. Sullivan, J. & Piper, B. (2003). Retirement Education through

Storytelling: Illinois: Author Anderson Inc.



http://www.w2.p.ilakron.edu/marainey/390�

150


UNIVERSITY AUTONOMY AND QUALITY EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

BY

PROF. NNABUO, P.O.M; AFANGIDEH, S.T. & KPEE, G.G Abstract Today, the Nigerian university system is living on borrowed times, as they are shadows of what obtained three decades ago. Presently, problems like decaying infrastructure, enrolment explosion, cultism, examination malpractices, poor funding, labour unrests, bureaucratic and professional conflicts, academic and non-academic dichotomy, struggles for autonomy, sex abuse, apart from the external influences of the material nature of the larger society have bedeviled the system. These excruciating conditions spell doom for the university system, apart from the far-reaching implications they have for effective institutional and academic administration and the quality of education provided to the clients of the school system. Experts, educators and other stakeholders believe that complete autonomy for universities is a strong index for minimizing or eradicating the intractable problems of the system and enhance quality educational this paper therefore examines the implications of autonomy as an index for achieving functional quality higher education for clients of the university system. Recommendations have been made for complete autonomy in funding, admission, curricula offerings and staff recruitment. Introduction Today, the Nigerian University system seems to be living on borrowed times. This may be explained in the fact that the system is by far different from what obtained three decades ago, and when assessed from the angle of the requirements of forces of globalization which have set the standards for universities (Worldwide) to attain before their products can be rated as


151


international scholars. The above picture on the Nigerian university system is not a deliberate attempt to castigate and destroy the image of the system. A visit to one of our numerous public universities and an examination of the issues on ground will exonerate the scholars from such perceived biases. Nigerian universities are now shadows of the themselves as their image deteriorates as days go by. The system is ridiculed because of such problems like dilapidated infrastructure, enrolment explosion (Enaohwo, 1990), the menace of cultism (Nwideeduh, 2003), examination malpractice, poor funding (Nnabuo, 1997) frequent and intractable labour unrest, internal infighting between bureaucrats and professional on one hand, and academic and non-academic staff on the other over administrative supremacy and pay parity respectively, the struggle for institutional and individual autonomy (Archibong & Bassey, 2006), incidences of sex abuse, hooliganism, students’ excessive involvement in social activities at the expense of academic activities apart from the ever-present influence of the material nature of the larger society which have practically introduced materialism and corruption into the Nigeria university system as evidenced in the material life style of students and bourgeorlsie inclinations of academic and non-academic personnel. The above conditions apart from being indices of disgrace and national shame, spell doom for the system and also have far-reaching implications for university administrators, lecturers, students, non-academic personnel (the major actors on campuses), the government, donor agencies and other stakeholders in the system. They also call to question whether the by – products from the system can measure up with their counterparts from universities in other nations of the world apart from the question of effectiveness of the university system which Nnabuo, Adebamiji and Afangideh (2007) see as the extent to which an organization is able to achieve the purpose of its existence or in the alternative go into extinction.



152


Since, no organization will willingly want to go into extinction, universities have made efforts to correct the ills using strategies, some of which are proactive, administrative, academic, philosophical and conceptual, but the conditions persist in the ‘ivory towers’ One of the reasons normally advanced to buttress the inability of universities to surmount these hydra-headed problems is that they lack firm control of the themselves and their products arising from the external pressures and influences on the system from government, parents, students themselves, non-governmental organizations, donor agencies and other stakeholders who continue to interfere in the internal workings of the system. This implies that there is the absence of what is technically referred to as autonomy in higher education parlance. Based on the above revelations, scholars, organizations, students, university administrators and other stakeholders in the Nigerian university system have suggested that universities can only overcome or surmount some of their hydra-headed problems of academic and administrative dimensions if they are given the autonomy or freedom to run their affairs (Okeke 2002; Ossat, 2007; Ekpo, 1991; Agih & Egumu, 2007; Nwafor, 1999). Particularly, Ossat (2007) is a strong advocate for autonomy as a vehicle for achieving quality of higher education in Nigeria. Also, Ekpo (1991) maintains that educational institutions, particularly universities, insist that they can only function effectively when they are autonomous, under the umbrella of academic freedom. The Concept of Autonomy The concept of autonomy describes one of the basic needs of human beings – independence with nominal sub-ordination. Ekpo (1991) explains that this need becomes more pronounced when human beings form organizations for the advancement of collective goals. One of the organizations is the educational institutions of which the universities form one of its sub-systems.

University Autonomy and Quality Education in Nigeria, NNABUO; AGANGIDEH & KPEE


153


For Agih and Egumuh (2007) autonomy means giving the universities the opportunity to take their own decisions. University autonomy may be viewed from the two perspectives. These are institutional and individual autonomy. While institutional autonomy refers to the relative freedom of the university to conduct its own affairs free from outside interference from the state, the market, donors or other stake-holders (Fourie, 2004), Individual autonomy otherwise referred to as academic freedom has to do with members of the academic community, namely, scholars, teachers and students pursuing their scholarly activities in respect of ethical rules, international standards and without outside pressures. Further conceptualizations on the concept of autonomy are beyond the scope of this study. But let it be known that the stud pre-occupied itself with the implications of autonomy for quality education. Quality Education Quality education is what every body desires from the university system. Okeke (2007) present the following conceptualizations on the concept of quality education:

Striving for higher quality is a strategy to achieve institutional mission. High quality demands the highest goals. Within the context, quality refers to the level of efficiency with which field amounts of material inputs are organized and managed to raise students’ achievement. Standard provides references points for quality of goals and encompasses culture based on set values and belief that members share. In wider perspective, quality of education of relates to purpose (relevance), potentiality (significance), productivity (efficiency) standards (the products) defined



154


goals (to be achieved) culture of academic excellence and effectiveness.

Okeke,s conceptualization on quality and quality education is therefore an open criterion to judge the efficacy of an educational system. Autonomy and Funding of Universities One of the key areas of universities’ life for which autonomy is desired is that of funding. Presently, Nigerian’s public universities are funded by either the state or Federal Government depending on ownership. In Sate universities, students pay tuition fees and ‘other charges’ are paid by undergraduates students in Federal universities. Federal and State Governments pay staff (academic and non-academic), provide infrastructural and instructional facilities, and take all financial decisions concerning the universities who are supposed to be autonomous in matters concerning financial decisions. In total disagreement with the trend Nnabuo (1997) suggests that the government should give the education industry the autonomy to raise fund while maintaining standard apart from ensuring self sustenance. As Nnabuo enunciates, protective measures as they apply today frustrate alternative strategies for attracting revenue into educational institutions and encourage extortion of money from students in many ways. When universities are given financial autonomy, they will be able to do most of what they do effectively to ensure the continuance of effective teaching and learning, research and development, community service and other incidental functions which the universities perform. Ossa (2007) reports that advocates of total autonomy maintain that there should be full autonomy over the sources of funds, actual provision of funds and the control left entirely in the hands of individual universities. When this is granted individual universities will charge fees commensurate with the amount of education required by students at every level of education. Such funds will then be directed at the rehabilitation of decaying infrastructure facilities, provision of



155


instructional resources, adequate remuneration of employees since a healthy workforce in education guarantees quality education, and as noted by the Federal Government of Nigeria (2004), no nation can rise above the quality of its teachers if quality education must be provided (emphasis ours). Autonomy and Admission of Students Another area which Nigerian universities desire complete autonomy is the question of admission. Apart from the fact that the issue of admission into Nigerian Universities is hunted by some socio-political underpinnings like federal character, catchment area, educationally disadvantaged states and other social pressures, admission is still by merit. This may be explained in the fact that merit is considered first before other indices. Where indices are mentioned above are given serious consideration in universities’ admissions, then the quality of inputs cannot be guaranteed. Advocates of complete autonomy like Usanga and Bassey (2006), Kpee (2002) believe that if universities are given the freedom to select their students through an internally set examination procedures, all forces and pressures, be they social or political that import and institutionalize quackery, forgery and mediocrity into the ivory towers will be expunged and disregarded and by so doing, institutionalize the merit system. This may be explained in the fact that goof quality inputs suggest good quality products at the end of the finishing line. When the universities admit their candidates, they will be able to control the number that are admitted based on the infrastructural facilities, and instructional resources and teaching personnel available in their schools. When the number of students admitted approximates the level of infrastructure facilities, instructional facilities and the teaching force available, there is the tendency that conducive environment will be provided, and that teaching and learning will be effective. All these contribute to enhancing the quality of education provided by universities.



156


Autonomy and Curricula offerings in Higher Education One other area which universities the world over desire autonomy is in the area of curricula offerings. In pursuance of the above, The Scholar (2002:30) reporting the position of the Lima Declaration on Academic Freedom and Autonomy of Institutions of Higher Education state inter alia;

All institutions of higher education shall address themselves to the contemporary problems of society. To this end, the curricula of these institutions as well as their activities shall respond to the needs of the society at large. Institutions of higher education should be critical of conditions of political repression and violation of human rights within their own society.

If the above index of autonomy must be feasible in Nigerian universities, then most of the things which are operational in the system must cease. Today, university curricula, course offerings and syllabus are designed by the National Universities Commission (NUC) who controls and regulates the Universities on behalf of their major financier (the Federal and State Governments). The position of the present crop of scholars is that, universities should be given the right to design what to teach and by implication who to teach and for what. When this is achieved, university scholars who are experts in their various fields will carefully select the content of the school curricular and that which must be a reflection of the present societal realities. Instances where the National Universities Commission (an agency of the Government) designs what to teach spells doom for the system and its products since the contents will reflect the thinking of the elites who bastardized Nigeria’s political and economic life. University teachers and scholars are experts in their various fields, when given he autonomy to select content, for which students



157


should be made to participate, there is the tendency that they will be guided by the forces of reason and to the advantaged position of the down-trodden. The society cannot be a better one when tailored towards extravagance, it is only an independent and or autonomous curricular and course offering that can guarantee an egalitarian society. It is only when the state and other stakeholders in the education system reduce the amount of pressure they exert on the university system that we can think of quality in education. Autonomy and Recruitment of University Personnel Another strong index of autonomy which can be manipulated to achieve good quality university education is the issue of staff recruitment. Proponents of complete autonomy for universities advocate that individual universities should recruit their staff (academic and non-academic) without external interferences. Actually, universities have partially assumed this position since lecturers and some officials are appointed by the Appointments and Promotions Committee (A&PC) of the individual universities (Nwafor, 1999). This index of autonomy is seen to be partial, since the appointment of key officials of the universities like the Chancellor, Pro-chancellor, Vice-Chancellor and Registrar, are done by the Federal Government. Even in the appointment of the other categories of academic and non academic personnel, external forces and pressures to impress on university councils to appoint mediocre, apart from forces of nepotism and favoritism. The Nigerian university system cannot achieve quality education in the face of these interventions, as the quality of officials determines the quality of output expected. Conclusion University autonomy connotes freedom for the universities and their members to operate without external influences. Such indices of autonomy include funding, admission, curricular offerings and recruitment of personnel. These have been critically appraised in



158


the light of which recommendations are made with belief that if religiously and sincerely implemented, they will guarantee quality university education for Nigerians. Recommendations In the light of the revelations in this paper, the following recommendations are offered: 1. Universities should be given the freedom to source for funds

and ensure independent use of funds sourced and those given them as subventions.

2. Individual universities should be to set entrance examinations for new entrants into their schools so as to reduce the number of mediocre who come into the system through political considerations.

3. Universities deserve full autonomy to design what to teach, who to teach and for what purpose in line the yearnings and aspirations of the society.

4. Universities should be allowed to hire all categories of staff. References Agih, A & Egumuh, A. (2007). Emerging issues on sustainable

institutional autonomy and academic freedom in Nigerian Universities. Journal of Education and Developmental Studies. 4(1), 26-34.

Archibong, J.A. & Bassey, U.U. (2006). A critical appraisal of autonomy and external controls in Nigerian University. In J.B. Babalola, A.O. Ay eni, S.O. Adediji, A.A. Suleiman & M.O. Arikeriyo (Eds). Educational management: Thoughts and practices (536-546). Ibadan. Codat.

Ekpo, O.E. (1991). Autonomy: Its Implications for Classroom

practices. Journal of Education. 1(1) 24-29.



159


Enaohwo, J.O. (1990). Economics of education and the planning challenge. New Delhi: Anmol.

Federal Government of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education. Abuja: NERDC.

Fourie, M. (2004). Autonomy and Accountability: Keeping the balance in South African higher education. (www.google.com)

Kpee, G.G. (2007). Strengthening and enhancing quality of secondary education in Nigeria: The public examination and constraints perspective. Trends in Educational Studies. 2(1), 102-107.

Nnabuo, P.O.M. (1997) Strategies for improved education funding in Nigeria. In A.N. Ndu, L.O., Ocho & B.S. Okeke (Eds.) Dynamics of educational administration and management. The Nigerian perspective. Onitsha: Meks.

Nnabuo, P.O.M. Adebamiji A.M. & Afangideh, S.T. (2007). Rules, regulation and career orientations as factors of primary school effectiveness in Akwa Ibom State. Trends in Educational Studies. 2(2), 1-10.

Nwideeduh, S.B. (2003). Trends in the management of universities

in Nigeria. Owerri: Springfield.

Okeke, B.S. (2002). Politics of Education: The Nigerian Experience. Awka: Doone.

Ossat, S.D. (2007). Autonomy and quality of higher education in Nigeria. Trends in Educational Studies. 2(2), 42-50.

The Scholar (2002). The Lima Declaration of Academic Freedom

and Autonomy of institutions of higher education. Ibadan: Academic Staff Union of Universities.



http://www.google.com/�

160


EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: A COHERENT PHILOSOPHY

FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION?

BY PROF. E.B. AWOTUA-EFEBO

& BARIBOR VIKOO; PH.D.

Abstract In recent years there has been a growing consensus that environmental education should be oriented around the idea of ‘sustainable development’. This paper examines some of the ambiguities and tensions that exist within this notion and suggests that its considerable attractions may be outweighed by its lack of clarity with regard to a range of fundamental values and principles which motivate environmental concern. It is argued that our relationship with nature is a central element of our sense of identity and that whereas sustainable development is highly problematical when taken as a statement of policy, sustainability conceived of as a frame of mind have positive and wide-reaching educational implications. Issues concerning the kinds of knowledge and approaches to teaching that should characterize environmental education are raised.

Introduction In recent years much of the discussion of environmental action and education has taken ‘sustainable development’ as a key guiding notion. The growing consensus that has settled around the usefulness of this notion has been reflected in a number of influential reports such as those of the ‘Brundtland Commission – Our Common Future’ (Brundtland Commission, 1988) and the Rio Earth Summit’s Agenda 21 (UNCED, 1992). But how helpful is it to orientate


161


discussion around this notion and how adequate a conception of environmental education does it offer? A large part of the appeal of ‘sustainable development’’ is that ostensibly it brings into harmony two politically attractive but potentially conflicting notions: (i) the idea of sustaining that which is valued, but which is currently endangered through depletion, pollution and so forth; (ii) the idea of accommodating ongoing human aspirations to develop, i.e in some sense to have more or better. The later has particular force in a situation where large parts of the global population are regarded as suffering from ‘underdevelopment’ and where it therefore seems both unjust and unrealistic to expect them to remain so. But the seductiveness of seeming to marry these two highly desired goals has been matched by a suspicion that ‘sustainable development’ might involve a certain semantic sleight to hand. In this paper, we will attempt to outline, and then begin to negotiate, some of the serious tensions and problems which are in danger of vitiating the notion and consequently any environmental education policy which rests upon it. We will do this firstly by looking at some significant ambiguities and thinly masked, but highly problematic, value judgements inherent in the notion of ‘sustainability’ itself. The we will examine some problems that arise in combining the idea of sustainability with ideas of ‘development’. Finally, we will attempt to sketch a way forward from these problems and to explore some of the issues that are raised for environmental education. Sustainability Notwithstanding their pivotal role in the discussion of environmental issues, the terms ‘sustainable’ and ‘sustainability’ seem frequently to be used as if their meaning were self-evident and somehow value neutral, almost as thought they simply reflected a desire to preserve some readily identifiable underlying natural state of equilibrium. However, of course this is far from being the case. To begin with,



162


there can be divergence over what is to be sustained. For example, for some the focus has been on sustainable economic growth, for others it has been the ‘balance of nature’ or an eco-system. For others again, it has been a culture (for example the ability of a community to create a way of life which is an expression of its values and aspirations’ (Vandeburg, 1995) or human needs (for example ‘to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (Brundtland Commission, 1987). Each of these clearly gives a different meaning to ‘sustainability’ and very different sets of policy implications, and there is no prima facie reason for supposing that they need be compatible with each other. Indeed, it has been pointed out by Rist (1997) that trading on such ambiguities has enabled the rhetoric of some policy makers to give the impression that they wish to do one thing (such as sustain natural ecosystems) while in fact attempting something quite different (such as sustain conditions for continued economic growth). Similarly, there seems sometimes to be a too easy assimilation of ecological sustainability with sustaining democratic culture. However, not all find this plausible. For example, according to Ophuls (1977:3) “liberal democracy as we know it … is doomed by ecological scarcity; we need a completely new political philosophy and set of institutions”. This view arises from the claim that there are certain fundamental ‘ecological imperatives’, which derive from the fact that nature, as a closed system, cannot sustain endless economic growth. In addition, it is often allied to the claim that nature has intrinsic value, giving it priority over things that only have contingent, instrumental value. The resulting ‘imperatives’ have been taken to include, for example, by Porritt (1984:216-217) low consumption, local production for local need and labour-intensive production. And for Ophuls there is one key question to ask of social policy: ‘Is the way we organize communal life and rule ourselves compatible with ecological imperatives and other natural

Educational for Sustainable Development: A Coherent Philosophy for Environmental Education, EFEBP & VIKOO


163


laws”. For ‘… how we run our lives will be increasingly determined by ecological imperatives”. (1977:7-8). Clearly this presents a serious challenge to any comfortable alliance between democracy and ecological sustainability, for if there are such ecological imperatives deriving from the laws of nature, then clearly certain policies are proscribed. They are in effect not only removed from the area of democratic debate, but set the parameters within which democratic debate can be allowed to function. Furthermore, insofar as such enframing is broad in scope, it is tantamount to defining a conception of the good life to which citizens need to be brought to conform and thus both run counter to the assumption of democracy of valuing diversity of view and hold the danger of peripheralising democracy as a contingent value, instrumental to achieving the public acceptance of these imperatives. There is, then, a basic value conflict between the authoritarianism implicit in ecological imperatives and democratic procedures (Saward, 1995). The educational impact of this conflict will be explored when we examine approaches to environmental education in the final section. But perhaps the most significant general feature to arise from a discussion of sustainability at this point is the recognition of the value position inherent in the views of all who use the term. Not everything can be sustained and as soon as one clarifies what is to be sustained (and at what level and over what spatial and temporal scales), one is involved in a selection which reflects a particular value/cultural position. In its broadest sense, this brings us up against one of the great axes of debate in the area of environmental ethics: the issue of anthropocentrism as against biocentrism – should be given priority to, measure policy in terms of, the satisfaction of (long-term) human needs or the needs of the biosphere (of which human beings are but one small part)? At one level generalized talk of ‘sustainability’ only cloaks the tension between anthropocentric and biocentric attitudes; it does nothing to resolve them. Yet at another level the term is generally used in a way which tacitly



164


decides the issue, for notwithstanding the expression of concern for natural systems, its use is generally inherently anthropocentric in assuming the desirability of sustaining those natural systems which are conducive to human flourishing (however that is defined). But should we simply accept this as a given? A number of writers have championed the worth and ‘rights’ of non-human aspects of nature, either setting human needs strictly on a par with the needs of all other members of the ‘great community of life’. (Taylor, 1986 in Bonnett, 1997), or subordinating them to the well-being of the biosphere (Foremen, in Attwood, 19994: 228 – 229). Finally, there is a set of theory epistemological problems raised by the idea of sustainability. Put briefly, it has been claimed that even so-called stable system remain predictable for relatively short periods of time and the significance of contingency in any scheme of evolution, and the evolution of human-environment relationships in particular. For example, what was there to predict that it would be Europe and not India or China that would develop into modern industrialisms? (Simmons, 1995), makes far-reaching prediction a hazardous business. However, often it is precisely far-reaching effects (social, biological, climatic, etc) that are of such importance in environmental matters – to wit, the cases of nuclear power and genetically modified crops – and this general problems is only exacerbated by the extreme complexity of the systems relevant to environmental sustainability and the highly imperfect state of our current knowledge of them. It is not, of course, that we are not entitled to have quite high degrees of confidence in our knowledge of some highly significant aspects of the environment (such as the ability of certain food chains to concentrate certain toxins or to maintain a certain population). The problem is that one of the great virtues of talk of sustainable policies is that it invites us to take a holistic rather than an atomistic view of consequences, so essential when dealing with a system of organic interrelationships. But now, if we cannot predict the consequences of actions in these terms, how can we decide what is truly sustainable?



165


This raises further questions: just what kind of knowledge will best illuminate and equip us to deal with issues of sustainability? For example, is it best conceived in terms of aspects of science and geography, as is the current policy in the National Curriculum of Nigeria? Where does this leave the moral, social, economic, aesthetic and spiritual dimensions of the issues which any adequate understanding of our relationship with our environment involve? In any case, should we simply assume that traditional subject domains are the appropriate vehicles for pursuing environmental issues when historically many of their central motives were shaped in a cultural milieu preoccupied with subordinating and exploiting nature? For example, Merchant (1992, Ch.2) discusses how the gendering of nature as feminine seemed to legitimize an aggressive and invasive stance taken by modern empirical science at its inception. Such considerations suggest that we cannot simply assume that the tacit values operative in traditional subject domains themselves will facilitate the holistic, and therefore, interdisciplinary nature of sustainability issues. Clearly , there is a need to acknowledge such problems and to work them through carefully if we are to achieve a coherent interpretation of ‘sustainability’ and its educational implications. This is certainly no less the case for the idea of sustainable development, to which we now turn. Sustainable Development As previously noted, the addition of the idea of development to sustainability seems to provide a political ‘dream ticket’ in the area of environmental policy making. However, a number of writers have suggested that sustainable development has several problematical features and inexorably reinforces a questionnaire anthropocentric stance. For example, Mitchum (1997) suggests that its underlying motive is escape from scarcity and that this later is defined by the modern (Western) world as the economy of subsistence. Yet it may turn out that the economy of subsistence and self-reliance is the only truly sustainable way of life! He also makes the point that



166


sustainable development involves a subtle addition to management, looking upon the world as ‘a spaceship in need of an operating manual’. For some, such an attitude is highly problematical in continuing to express the kind of arrogant instrumentation towards nature that has been a prime contributor to present problems (Falaye, 2007). Again, Shiva (1992) suggests that in the Western mind ‘development’ can hardly escape connotations derived from the market economy and immediately has read into it economic development in the sense of economic growth. Combining it with sustainability thus holds the danger of transmuting the fundamental motive to conserve into one of finding substitutes (e.g. in terms of energy and materials) which continues to express and feed the underlying motive for material growth and consumption. Indeed, from another perspective, this invites the view that if artificial recreations of nature (may be ‘plastic trees’, virtual worlds) can provide for human needs, satisfaction and happiness more cost-efficiently than nature itself, why should we bother to preserve the real thing? (Krieger, 1973; Maser, 1988) Shiva argues that from the perspective of the market economy, sustainable development will inevitably be measured by, and therefore come to mean, the maximization of profits and capital accumulation. To the extent that this occurs, it will override and denude the economies of nature and of people. For Shiva, true sustainability requires that development is not separated from conservation and requires that markets and production processes are reshaped on the logic of nature’s returns. It requires a recognition that it is nature’s economy that is primary, not the logic of profits. Yet there are others who are more sanguine about the prospect of marrying sustainability to development. For example, Attwood (1994:223-233) has argued that developmentalism and environmentalism, properly understood, can be mutually supporting. If we see development as a moving away from ‘underdevelopment’, which in turn is:



167


… a condition of society where several of the following factors reinforce one another; malnutrition, high infant mortality, low levels of literacy, relatively high morbidity among the young and middle-aged, poor medical facilities, poor educational facilities, low levels of income per head and low levels of productivity per head …

then we can see that not only does justice require such development where it is possible, but that so does environmentalism. For, according to Attwood, it is underdevelopment in the above terms that is an underlying cause of population growth and of ecological problems. Furthermore, the attitude of mind that sanctions the injustice of exploitation and oppression, whether it be towards other humans or nature, is essentially the same and is thus the common enemy of both developmentalism and environmentalism (see also Katz, 1997). While there are aspects of these arguments which require a good deal more supporting empirical evidence, the notion of the significance of an underlying frame of mind which is highlighted in all three of the accounts to which we have referred is one which we believe rewards further consideration and to which we will therefore return. Notwithstanding this, it is clear that the notion of sustainable development requires careful explication, and ultimately stipulative definition, if its use is not to invite confusion and perhaps betrayal of the motives it was intended to express. Even then, depending on these as yet unknown realities of, for example, population growth and the sustaining power of ecosystems, its coherence may turn out to be chimerical. The great danger is that it simply becomes a term of political convenience used to mask and/or legitimate vested interests. Sustainability as a Frame of Mind In the previous two sections we have sketched a number of political semantic, ethical and epistemological difficulties which arise from



168


taking the notion of sustainable development as a statement of policy. Before exploring a positive response to these we would like to consider what we believe to be the shortcomings of a view that is not infrequently offered as a contribution to practical issues of sustainability and confronting environmental problems, namely the example provided by certain indigenous cultures. While there is no space to develop the argument here, we suggest that there is a limited point in industrial cultures looking to non-industrial cultures for indications of practical solutions to their environmental problems. For example, Smithson (1997) observes that the benevolent image of some native cultures is somewhat tarnished when we learn that their talk was not matched by their practice. More importantly, he points out that the chief reasons why they lived in a more ‘sustainable’ way with the environment were: (i) a very low population density; (ii) a very low level of technological development. It seems reasonable to suppose that if either of these factors had reached anything like the current levels in Western society, some of the attitudes and practices of these cultures (such as some forms of shifting agriculture) would have had catastrophic consequences for the environment. We think this point is instructive in a number of ways. Firstly, it illustrates the pretty obvious but sometimes insufficiently recognized point that the conditions to which such cultures were attuned, and in term of which their practicals were in some cases sustainable, were very different from the conditions which face us. This itself is a stark illustration of the sense in which environmental problems and sustainable solutions are historically, geographically and culturally local. Secondly, while it is undoubtedly beneficial to have one’s conceptions of possible responses to the environment broadened by an awareness of the possibilities expressed in practices and rhetoric of other cultures, it remains necessary for Western society (and indeed any other) to produce its own solutions, for no other society has precisely its capacities, faces its problems for no other same



169


possibilities for ‘internal’ insight into them. The point has been well made by, for example, Cooper (1992), that one’s primary understanding of the environment derives from one’s ongoing involvement in one’s own life world, and by implication by Oakeshott (1962), that attempts to simply import the principles and formal procedures of one culture into another are doomed to failure. Thus, ultimately we must look to our own cultural resources and possibilities of innovation which grow out of them in order to understand the way forward, for they represent the only authentic horizon of intelligibility for such an endeavour. Thirdly, by implication, we have a further reminder that central to environmental issues is the manner of our consciousness of them – that we need to conceive of sustainability not simply as a policy designed to achieve a certain state of affairs, but as an attitude of mind, a way of relating to nature/the environment. The importance of an honest appraisal of our underlying motives towards nature grows in proportion to our ever-increasing power to implement them. Policy stands in need of constant revision in the light of new evidence and extended power. This can only be properly directed if we work from a right frame of mind in terms of basic values, motives and attitudes towards nature. It seems that such considerations, set alongside the difficulties of prediction of environmental consequences previously discussed, suggest that we should give attention to developing sustainability as an attitude of mind as contrasted with a policy aimed at achieving a certain state of affairs. To be sure, consequences, and what we can realistically know of them, are highly important, but so too is the ‘internal’ quality of the action itself. Arguably, it is a right relationship to nature which should be an ultimate goal of environmental education, for it is this that gives our felt experience of nature and thus fundamentally conditions our quality of life in this respect. In this sense, proper environmental awareness parallels morality in that it is not essentially about calculating consequences



170


in terms of criteria external to this relationship, such as how to maintain economic growth, energy supply or even biodiversity and extant ecosystems, but about identifying the qualities of a flourishing, mutually sustaining relationship in its lived day-to-day occurrence. What counts as ‘mutual flourishing’ and what unique responsibilities humans have to nature are highly contentious issues, but they are ones that cannot be ducked if we are to properly found an environmental ethic. In the same way that the plausibility of utilitarianism as a basis for social action depends upon some underlying, and in some sense intuitive, understanding of human welfare that by far outruns what any ‘happiness calculus’ can encompass, so it is with any notion of a ‘sustainability calculus’. They are both in danger of operating at an essentially instrumental level and with too simplistic (i.e materialistic) a sense of what is of ultimate or intrinsic motive into the fields they inform – which, as previously mentioned, may itself be part of the problem and therefore needs to be made visible rather than insinuated as part of a tacit background for analysis and decision making which sets it up as though it were the solution. There is a need, then, to establish a proper balance between a potentially overweening concern for consequences and the felt qualities of a lived relationship with the environment, which in turn requires a re-interpretation of consequences which reflects a proper, i.e. rich, understanding of human flourishing. The qualities of such a relationship will now be explored in the context of education. Sustainability and Environmental Education How can we fill out the idea of sustainability as a frame of mind and how should this affect the way that we view environmental education? Perhaps the first thing to note is that sustainability as a frame of mind puts the focus on our everyday way of relating to things, including our everyday practices. This has to be the level at which



171


any genuine transformation of consciousness occurs. It requires, therefore, a re-evaluation of the motives and values that pervade daily living from the perspective of what is mutually sustaining and with the prospect of deciding actions which may involve radical change from current practices. At this point we run up against a previously foreshadowed ethical and pedagogical problem: can we assume, as some writers in the field seem to, that: (i) a mutually sustaining relationship will incorporate democratic values, (ii) that teaching environmental education issues should reflect democratic values by being procedurally neutral? We will take the latter issue first. Elliott (1999) Breiting and Mogensen (1999), in their oppose the notion of teachers promoting environmentalist attitudes amongst the young, preferring a more democratic teaching approach that encourages them to exercise their own critical faculties and to make up their own minds in a rational manner on the issues. In the case of teaching straightforwardly controversial issues, it might be hard to argue with this view if we wish to avoid the charge of indoctrination, and even in non-controversial areas it may be argued that the approach remains preferable because it encourages greater personal engagement by learners and ultimately a deeper and fuller understanding of the issues. Such points are not, we think, to be lightly dismissed. However, certain reservations need to be expressed in the context of environmental education. These are of two main kinds. The first refers to the place of rationality in the development of understanding and the second refers to the political climate in which environmental education is conducted in modern times. Put concisely, can education afford to be procedurally neutral when so many other powerful influences in society certainly are not? In such circumstances, are we justified in an assumption that ‘pure’ rationality will: (i) prevail; (ii) provide the truth; (iii) support the democratic values its proponents favour; (iv) support sustainability of the desired sort?



172


This set of reservations opens very large issues and we can do little more in the space available here than indicate some of them. At the heart of the matter is the question of the adequacy of rationality alone to resolve issues in an area as complex, subtle and multidimensional (e.g. in terms of involving ethical, aesthetic and spiritual sentiments) as environmental concern, not least from the perspective of the motives and values embedded in modern rationality self, which may prejudice its stand on these issues and may themselves have been causes of the problems that now have to be addressed by environmental education. The central point here is that rationality itself is not neutral; it expresses certain aspirations towards the world, notably to classify, explain, predict, evaluate and, as far as modern rationality is concerned, increasingly to control and exploit it (Heidegger, 1977). Arguably, it is the growing ascendancy of such motives and our increasing power to implement them that has led to our current environmental predicament. This suggests that sustainability as a frame of mind may well require a rather different orientation which is less aggressive and more celebratory. Its aspiration will be attunement; a sensing of harmony and discord in terms of a more intuitive acquaintanceship with nature/the environment and our responsibilities towards it. And its central qualities will be receptiveness and a genuine responsiveness which is open to, and engaged with, the many-sidedness of things themselves in the way that, for example, great art and literature can be. Thus, such an attitude of mind would not seek to create a distance from things suitable for the operation of calculative rational scrutiny and assessment, but rather would seek a more direct, felt involvement. It would be essentially ‘poetic’ (see Bonnett, 1994, Ch. 11), its non-manipulative spirit being nicely expressed by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides in his description of true thinking as a native ‘letting-lie-before-us and a taking-to-heart’. In turn, this view of sustainability clearly invites a perspective on what would count as development, personal or



173


cultural, which relocates the economic into a subservient position and suggests that the kind of knowledge required by environmental education will not be exclusively, or even predominantly, scientific (whose own rationalistic motives have been questioned). To say this is not to deny the value of pupils exploring the effects of human activity on the environment and the causal connections within it, studying closed ecosystems in ‘Gaia bottles’ (Tomkins, 1995) and becoming aware of the complexity, diversity and vulnerability of nature. Rather, it is to invite a relocation and integration of such studies into a broader and more open poetic milieu that is pervaded by a basic sympathy with nature as that which ultimately sustains us both in material and psychological terms. There is an important sense in which nature does not simply exist ‘out there’ as an external object for our separate perceiving subjectivity, but that our relationship with it (how we reveal it to ourselves) is a primal conditioner of our experience as a whole and is constitutive of our own identity, our sense of place and purpose in the greater scheme of things. We exist in our relationship to nature (Bonnett, 1997). With regard to the issue of assimilating sustainability and democratic values, large questions are again raised. As previously discussed, it is clear that at least some have not found it natural to make this assimilation, instead wishing to assert the well-being of the biosphere above that of any particular species such as human beings or any individual’s rights and so earning themselves the epithet ‘eco-fascists’ from their critics. On the other hand, some seek to insinuate democratic values into sustainability by claiming that “the environment’ includes the social environment and that democratic values such as freedom, equality, justice, respect for persons and rational discussion should be viewed as ecological conditions for sustaining societies which promote the well-being of their members. Clearly, ‘ecological’ is here being used in a very anthropocentric sense and this leads us to revisit the dichotomy with biocentrism in search of a resolution. This may not be immediately forthcoming. But perhaps, there is some mileage in drawing a



174


distinction within anthropocentrism between what we might term ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ versions. The strong version holds that human beings are not only the source of value in that only entities functioning at their level of consciousness can confer or recognize values, but that they are also the only bearers of intrinsic value. This immediately entails that domination of non-bearers of intrinsic value. The weak version accepts the first claims, but not the second. It suggests that it is perfectly intelligible, and, for example, much closer to some aspects of our experience of nature, to allow that an essential part of human awareness is its capacity to recognize the intrinsic value of the ‘other’, indeed to be capable of a deep respect for things non-human and that are not perceived as primarily serving human purposes and, indeed, on occasion precisely because of this. We might think here of the feeling of respect evoked by a tropical rainforest mahogany or, for that matter, a ciliate protozoan in a drop of pond water viewed through a microscope, not to mention a mountain or a galaxy or things of deep religious significance. This, again, is to reassert the significance of a more poetic dimension to human awareness and has clear implications for viewing the whole curriculum as a potential vehicle for environmental education. Sustainability as an attitude of mind seeks awareness of as many facets and significances of nature as possible. Given this interpretation of human flourishing, it must remain an open question as to whether democratic values are either necessary or sufficient to its realization. In practice they may well be both, but there remains an important sense in which they need to be viewed less as definitive of the quality of human flourishing and more as instrumental to and facilitators of its achievement. They may well expedite richer engagement by more individuals with their environment in a full sense, but the rationalistic elements which incline everything to be subject to public articulation, explanation and evaluation, etc., may also detract from this. Further, the market orientation which is arguably embedded in liberal democratic views



175


(Achterberg, 1995) may elevate a strong calculative element. These are all issues that need to be carefully thought through in the context of the implicit values to be conveyed through the procedures and goals of environmental education. Yet it seems clear that the development of sustainability as a frame of mind would seem to involve commitment to a certain basic environmental ethic which, while falling short of a set of ecological imperatives, it seems fair to assume will need to be instilled into the young (in just the same, way that a human ethic is) if it is to take root in a society where its short-term consequences are likely to be politically and economically uncongenial and where so many vested interests are countervailing. Pollution and depletion are symptoms, not causes. It is prevailing values and social/economic/political arrangements that give rise to them. If we are to enable pupils to address the causes of environmental problems rather than the symptoms, we must engage them in those kinds of enquiry which reveal the dominant underlying motives that are in play in society. Ultimately, this may lead to a need to reveal and examine motives which are inherent in our most fundamental ways of thinking about ourselves and the world, a metaphysical investigation. That this will be discomforting seems unavoidable, but it is likely to be more productive in the long term than proceeding on the basis of easy assumptions about the coherence of sustainable development and its suitability as a pivot for environmental education. Finally, the development of sustainability conceived as a frame of mind highlights the importance of those aspects of education which are not part of the normal taught curriculum. Many relevant attitudes and values will be expressed in the ethos and daily practices of the school, in the literature that it directs pupils to, in the versions of life that it holds up as being successful and the status it accords to different activities and relationships.



176


These will need to be carefully evaluated from the perspective of sustainability if damaging inconsistency of message and pupil cynicism are to be avoided. References Achterberg, W. (1995). Can liberal democracy survive the

environmental crisis? Sustainability, liberal neutrality and overlapping consensus. In A. Dobson & P. Lucardie (Eds). The Politics of Nature. London: Routledge.

Attwood, R. (1994). Environmental Philosophy: Principles and

prospects. Aldershot: Avebury. Bonnett, M. (1994). Children’s Thinking: Promoting understanding

in the primary school. London: Cassell. Bonnett, M. (1997). Environmental education and beyond. Journal

of Philosophy of Education, 31, 249-266. Breiting, S. & Mogensen, F. (1999). Action competence and

environmental education. Cambridge Journal of Education, 29(3), 349-535.

Brundtland Commission (1987). Our common Future. Milton

Keynes: Open University Press. Cooper, D. (1992). The idea of environment. In D. Cooper & J.

Palmer (Eds). The Environment in Question. London: Routledge.

Elliott, J. (1999). Sustainable Society and Environmental Education:

Future Perspectives and demands for the educational system. Cambridge Journal of Education, 29(3), 325-340.



177


Falaye, F.V. (2007). Influence of environmental club on knowledge, attitudes and practices of selected undergraduates: Implications for environmental education. Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA), 16(1), 115-125.

Heidegger, M. (1977). The Question Concerning Technology (trans.

W. Lovitt) New York: Harper Colophon. Kate, E. (1997). Nature’s presence: reflection on healing and

domination. In A. Light & J. Smith (Eds). Space, Place, and Environmental Ethics. Lanham: Rowman Littlefield.

Krieger, M. (1973). What’s wrong with plastic trees? Science, 179,

446-455. Maser, C. (1988). The Redesigned Forest. San Pedro: R. & E. Miles. Merchant, C. (1992). Radical Ecology. New York: Routledge. Mitchum, C. (1997). The sustainability question, in: R. Gottieb (Ed.)

The Ecological Community. London: Routledge. Oakeshott, M. (1962).Rationalism in Politics. London: Methuen. Ophuls, W. (1977). Ecology and the Politics of Scarcity. San

Francisco: W.H. Freeman. Porritt, J. (1984). Seeing Green. Oxford, Blackwell. Rist, G. (1997). The History of Development. London: Zed Books. Saward, M. (1995). Green democracy? In A. Dobson & P. Lucardie

(Eds). The Politics of Nature. London: Routledge.



178


Shiva, V. (19992). Recovering the real meaning of sustainability. In D. Cooper & J. Palmer (Eds). The Environment in Question. London: Routledge.

Simoons, I.G. (1995). Nature, Culture and history. In D. Cooper & J.

Palmer (Eds). Just Environments. London: Routledge. Smithson, I. (1997). Native Americans and the desire for

environmental harmony: Challenging a stereotype. In P. Thompson (Ed). Environmental Education for the 21st Century. New York: Peter. Lang.

Taylor, P. (1986). Respect for Nature: a theory of environmental

ethics. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Tomkins, S. (1995). Science for the earth starts at school. In T.

Wakeford & M. Walters (Eds). Science for the Earth. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.

UNCED (1992). Agenda 21. New York: UNCED. Vanderberg, W.H. (1995). Can a technical civilization sustain human

life? Bulletin of Science, Technology and Society, 15, 2-3.



African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies Volume 5 No 2 September 2008 Articles eJournal

Documents

university of nigeria

health education

university of benin

university of ibadan

university of calabar

social science education

university of cape coast

etuk university of uyo