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Acoustics The physics of sound In this article I will be discussing acoustics, what they are and what they involve. Acoustics is the science of sound and sound is something used in everyday life, it is how sound is created and how it travels. Sound is omnidirectional which means it travels in all directions in addition to just staying in one place. Psychoacoustics is how you perceive sound; we perceive sound as pressure fluctuations, which cause our eardrums to vibrate. Sound waves are a wave of compression and rarefaction, by which sound moves across a medium such as air, all sound is vibrations and all vibrations are is movement that is trying to regain its original position. A waveform is a curve showing the shape of a wave at a given time. The energy of sound causes the air particles to ripples of layers of more dense (compression) and less dense (rarefaction) air molecules, with pressures different to the normal air pressure. The compression is where the wavelengths peak and the rarefactions are when the wavelength is at its trough. This is how you get your typical wave shape. Frequency is the amount of full cycles of compression and rarefactions in a
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Page 1: Acoustics Write Up Full

Acoustics    The  physics  of  sound    In  this  article  I  will  be  discussing  acoustics,  what  they  are  and  what  they  involve.    Acoustics  is  the  science  of  sound  and  sound  is  something  used  in  everyday  life,  it  is  how  sound  is  created  and  how  it  travels.  Sound  is  omnidirectional  which  means  it  travels  in  all  directions  in  addition  to  just  staying  in  one  place.  Psychoacoustics  is  how  you  perceive  sound;  we  perceive  sound  as  pressure  fluctuations,  which  cause  our  eardrums  to  vibrate.    Sound  waves  are  a  wave  of  compression  and  rarefaction,  by  which  sound  moves  across  a  medium  such  as  air,  all  sound  is  vibrations  and  all  vibrations  are  is  movement  that  is  trying  to  regain  its  original  position.  

 A  waveform  is  a  curve  showing  the  shape  of  a  wave  at  a  given  time.  The  energy  of  sound  causes  the  air  particles  to  ripples  of  layers  of  more  dense  (compression)  and  less  dense  (rarefaction)  air  molecules,  with  pressures  different  to  the  normal  air  pressure.  The  compression  is  where  the  wavelengths  peak  and  the  rarefactions  are  when  the  wavelength  is  at  its  trough.  This  is  how  you  get  your  typical  wave  shape.      Frequency  is  the  amount  of  full  cycles  of  compression  and  rarefactions  in  a  

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second,  Sound  is  measured  in  Hertz  (Hz)  so  the  kick  drum  in  the  chart  has  a  bottom  depth  of  60-­‐80Hz  and  therefore  will  have  60-­‐80  complete  compressions  and  rarefactions  in  a  second.  

   The  Doppler  effect  is  where  there  is  a  change  in  frequency  and  wavelength. When  an  ambulance  or  police  car  goes  past,  its  siren  is  high-­‐pitched  as  it  comes  towards  you,  and  then  as  it  goes  away  becomes  low  pitched.  When  a  source  moves  towards  an  observer,  the  observed  wavelength  decreases  and  the  frequency  increases.  When  a  source  moves  away  from  an  observer,  the  observed  wavelength  increases  and  the  frequency  decreases.  

     The  amplitude’s  directly  related  to  acoustic  sound  or  is  related  to  the  intensity  of  a  sound.  Also  amplitude  is  more  specifically  the  degree  of  change  positive  or  negative  in  the  wavelength;  high  the  compressions  are  and  how  low  the  rarefactions  are.      

           Decibels  are  the  measurement  of  the  amplitude  in  sound,  they  are  also  relative  to  the  observer  meaning  what  could  be  20db  to  one  person  could  be  50db  to  another.  

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Envelopes  in  general  are  an  important  concept  in  synthesised  music,  because  they  are  used  to  shape  sounds  in  many  ways,  but  the  one  most  often  encountered  is  the  ADSR  envelope.

The  attack  begins  when  the  midi  note  is  received,  you  can  see  in  the  diagram  that  this  pad  begins  inaudible  then  rises  so  this  pad  starts  quite  quickly.  The  decay  phase  defines  how  long  the  note  will  take  to  reach  a  settled  volume  after  hitting  the  attack  peak.  The  volume  is  usually  lower  than  the  attack  peak;  since  notes  in  natural  instruments  tend  to  “stab”  in  then  fade  in  intensity  a  little.  The  sustain  level  is  the  volume  at  which  the  decay  will  finish  and  the  note  will  be  held  at  this  volume  until  the  MIDI  key  is  released  and  the  release  is  the  fade  of  the  note  until  its  silent.    The  speed  of  sound  is  the  distance  travelled  per  unit  of  time  by  a  sound  wave  propagating  through  an  elastic  medium.  The  speed  of  sound  is  344  metres  per  second.      

   

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 Phase  is  whenever  2  or  more  waveforms  arrive  at  a  single  location  out  of  phase;  their  signal  levels  can  be  combined  to  make  amplitude  of  levels  at  that  one  point  

in  time.  Whenever  two  waveforms  have  the  same  lengths  and  peak  amplitude  they  will  be  completely  in  phase  the  new  combined  wavelength  will  have  the  same  frequency,  phase  and  shape  but  will  have  double  the  amplitude.  If  two  wavelengths  were  combined  with  complete  opposite  waveforms  then  they  would  cancel  each  other  out.  

 Harmonics  are  notes  made  in  a  special  way,  it’s  a  wave  put  over  the  basic  fundamental  wave  which  gives  us  musical  octaves,  For  example,  since  concert  A  is  440  Hz  (A3),  the  ear  hears  880  Hz  (A4)  as  being  the  next  highest  frequency  that  sounds  most  like  concert  A.  The  next  related  note  above  that  will  be  1760  Hz  (A5).  Therefore,  880  Hz  is  said  to  be  one  octave  above  440  Hz,  and  1760  Hz  is  said  to  be  two  octaves  above  440  Hz,  etc.  harmonics  are  perceived  as  creating  a  sound  that  is  pleasing  to  the  ear,  while  odd  harmonics  will  create  a  dissonant,  harsher  tone  just  sounding  like  noise.      

     The  principles  of  musical  instruments    There  are  many  different  types  of  instruments  all  played  in  different  and  make  unique  sounds  to  that  particular  family  of  instruments.        

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   Wind  instruments  produce  sound  by  the  vibrations  of  air,  typically  by  the  player  blowing  the  instrument,  the  most  commonly  known  wind  instrument  I  would  say  is  the  trumpet.  A  trumpet  is  a  brass  instrument  with  a  powerful  tone  consisting  of  a  long  metal  tube  looped  once  and  ending  in  a  flared  bell  and  three  valves  for  producing  variation  in  pitch.  

   On  a  trumpet  it  is  the  metallic  mouthpiece  that  produces  the  sound.  There  are  various  different  mouthpiece  shapes;  a  mouthpiece  with  a  deep  cup  will  produce  a  mellower  sound,  while  a  mouthpiece  with  a  shallower  cup  will  produce  a  bright,  piercing  sound.  Mouthpieces  are  made  of  brass  or  silver  and  trumpeters  choose  a  mouthpiece  according  to  their  personal  preference.  The  structure  of  the  trumpet  enables  the  note  to  be  lowered  by  one  tone  by  pressing  the  first  valve,  by  a  semitone  by  pressing  the  second  valve,  and  by  one  and  a  half  tones  by  pressing  the  third  valve.    String  instruments  make  sound  with  vibrating  strings,  and  the  pitch  is  modified  by  the  thickness,  tension,  and  length  of  the  string.  String  instruments  can  be  played  in  many  ways,  and  come  in  many  variations.    

The  violin  is  the  smallest  member  of  the  string  family.  Sound  is  produced  by  drawing  the  bow  across  one  of  the  four  strings  or  by  plucking  the  string  with  a  finger; the  bow  uses  horsehair  or  a  synthetic  material  to  vibrate  the  strings  as  it  is  drawn  over  the  instrument. All  string  instruments  produce  sound  in  the  same  manner.  The  main  differences  are  the  sizes  of  the  instruments  and  how  high  or  low  each  instrument  can  sound.  The  parts  of  a  violin  are  usually  made  from  different  types  of  wood,  although  electric  violins  may  not  be  made  of  wood  at  all,  since  their  sound  may  not  be  dependent  on  specific  acoustic  characteristics  of  the  instrument's  construction.  Violins  are  usually  strung  with  Perlon  or  other  synthetic,  or  steel  strings.      

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Percussion  instruments  produce  sound  when  they  are  struck  or  shaken.  Percussion  instruments  are  made  from  many  materials,  but  usually  consist  of  either  a  solid  material  or  a  thin  stretched  material.    

 The  snare  drum  has  a  crisp  untuned  sound  that  is  used  by  the  military  and  in  marching  bands  or  in  the  typical  drum  kit.  Sometimes  called  the  side  drum,  the  snare  drum  has  two  heads  made  of  skin  stretched  over  a  hollow  metal  frame.  The  top  head  is  struck  with  wooden  drumsticks,  which  creates  a  kind  of  rattling  sound.  

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The  xylophone  consists  of  hardwood  bars  in  graduated  sizes  set  on  a  metal  frame,  this  tuned  instrument  is  struck  by  hard  mallets  to  produce  a  bright,  sharp  sound;  The  timbre  is  complex  because  of  the  way  it  is  tuned.  With  the  larger,  

lower  sounding  bars  on  the  left,  the  notes  of  the  xylophone  are  laid  out  much  like  a  piano  keyboard.    Xylophone  has  a  high  sensitivity  and  a  wide  dynamic  range  and  for  a  xylophone  a  typical  frequency  range  is  392  -­‐  2090Hz.  Because  it  has  a  sharp  sound  the  attack  is  fast  and  the  delay  is  fast  leaving  not  much  after  sound.    

 A  guitar  a  musical  instrument  that  is  held  against  the  front  of  your  body  and  that  has  usually  six  strings  which  are  played  with  your  fingers  or  with  a  pick.  

   A  guitar  has  a  large  dynamic  range  however  the  classical  guitar  has  a  greater  dynamic  range  than  the  steel  string  guitar  and  the  frequency  range  of  a  guitar  is  82-­‐1397Hz.  The  envelope  of  a  guitar  is  a  very  quick  attack,  not  as  fast  as  the  attack  but  a  fairly  quick  delay,  a  long  sustain  and  a  long  release.  

 The  piano  is  a  musical  instrument  with  a  manual  keyboard  actuating  hammers  that  strike  wire  strings,  producing  sounds  that  may  be  softened  or  sustained  by  means  of  pedals.  It  has  a  large  dynamic  range  and  the  largest  frequency  range  between  28-­‐3951Hz.  The  envelope  of  a  piano  is  a  sharp  fast  attack,  a  short  delay,  and  a  long  gradual  sustain  and  a  fairly  fast  and  sharp  release.      

 

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 The  mechanisms  of  human  hearing      

 Hearing  is  the  process  by  which  humans  use  their  ears  to  detect  and  perceive  sounds.  Ears  are  important  for  hearing  and  for  controlling  a  sense  of  position  and  balance.  Each  ear  is  divided  into  three  sections:  The  outer  ear,  the  middle  ear  and  the  inner  ear.    

The  outer  ear  consists  of  an  auricle,  auditory  canal  eardrum  outer  layer.  The  

auricle  is  Cartilage  covered  by  skin  placed  on  opposite  sides  of  the  head,  the  Auditory  canal  is  also  called  the  ear  canal  and  the  eardrum  outer  layer  is  also  called  the  tympanic  membrane. The  outer  part  of  the  ear  collects  sound.  Sound  travels  through  the  auricle  and  the  auditory  canal,  a  short  tube  that  

ends  at  the  eardrum.    The  middle  ear  includes  an  eardrum,  cavity  which  is  also  called  the  tympanic  cavity,  ossicles  which  are  3  tiny  bones  that  are  attached-­‐  malleus  is  the  long  handle  attached  to  the  eardrum,  incus  is  the  bridge  bone  between  the  malleus  and  the  stapes  and  stapes  which  is  the  footplate;  the  smallest  bone  in  the  body.  sound  entering  the  outer  ear  travels  through  the  middle  ear  and  causes  the  eardrum  and  ossicles  in  the  middle  ear  to  vibrate.  As  it  travels,  it  amplifies  and  changes  from  air  to  liquid.    The  inner  ear  includes  an  oval  window  which  connects  the  middle  ear  with  the  inner  ear,  semi-­‐circular  ducts  that  are  filled  with  fluid;  attached  to  cochlea  and  nerves;  and  send  information  on  balance  and  head  position  to  the  brain.  The  cochlea  is  a  spiral  shaped  organ  of  hearing;  it  transforms  sound  into  signals  that  get  sent  to  the  brain.    The  range  of  human  hearing  is  generally  considered  to  be  20  Hz  to  20  kHz  (decreasing  to  16  kHz  with  age),  but  it  is  far  more  sensitive  to  sounds  between  1  kHz  and  4  kHz.  120  dB  is  the  pain  threshold  and  define  the  audible  sound  

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frequency  range  as  ending  at  about  20,000  Hz  where  the  threshold  of  hearing  and  the  threshold  of  pain  meet.  Psychoacoustics  is  essentially  the  study  of  the  perception  of  sound.  This  includes  how  we  listen,  our  psychological  responses,  and  the  physiological  impact  of  music  and  sound  on  the  human  nervous  system.    The  haas  Effect  is  a  Psychoacoustic  Effect  where  our  ears  determine  the  position  of  a  sound  based  on  which  ear  perceives  it  first  and  its  successive  reflections  that  will  give  us  the  perception  what  direction  the  sound  is  coming  from  and  how  far  away  it  is.        The  cocktail  party  effect  refers  to  the  ability  of  people  to  focus  on  a  single  talker  or  conversation  in  a  noisy  environment.  For  example,  if  you  are  talking  to  a  friend  at  a  noisy  party,  you  are  able  to  listen  and  understand  what  they  are  talking  about  and  ignore  what  other  people  nearby  are  saying.    Masking  can  be  If  someone  listens  to  a  soft  and  a  loud  sound  at  the  same  time,  he  or  she  may  not  hear  the  soft  sound.  The  soft  sound  is  masked  by  the  loud  sound.  The  loud  sound  has  a  greater  masking  effect  if  the  soft  sound  lies  within  the  same  frequency  range,  but  masking  also  occurs  when  the  soft  sound  is  outside  the  frequency  range  of  the  loud  sound.    Masking  Beats    The  reason  of  the  health  and  safety  Noise  Regulations  is  to  ensure  that  workers'  hearing  is  protected  from  very  loud  noise  at  their  place  of  work,  which  could  cause  them  to  lose  their  hearing  or  to  suffer  from  tinnitus,  which  is  when  you  have  permanent  ringing  in  the  ears.  The  law  is  if  the  workplace  has  a  daily  or  weekly  average  exposure  to  85  dB  then  there  must  be  hearing  protection  and  hearing  protection  zones,  also  workers  must  now  be  provided  with  information  and  training  if  the  workplace  is  80  dB  and  the  limit  is  87  dB.  

   

 

   

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 Fletcher  and  Munson  using  headphones  in1933  first  measured  equal-­‐loudness  contours.  In  their  study,  listeners  were  presented  with  pure  tones  at  over  10  dB  increments  in  stimulus  intensity  and  at  various  frequencies.  The  listener  was  also  presented  with  a  reference  tone  at  1000  Hz  For  each  frequency  and  intensity  and  the  reference  tone  was  adjusted  until  it  was  perceived  to  be  of  the  same  loudness  as  the  test  tone.      Masking  is  where  one  sound  is  over  powered  by  a  sound  that  is  louder,  for  instance  if  you  are  talking  to  someone  and  a  truck  drives  past  you  may  not  be  able  to  hear  the  person  that  is  talking  to  you  even  though  they  are  closer  to  you  than  the  tuck.  

There  is  different  ways  to  protect  our  hearing  when  exposed  to  loud  sounds;  you  can  wear  earplugs,  which  are  inserted  to  block  the  ear  canal.  They  may  be  foam  or  pre-­‐moulded  ones.  You  can  also  use  Semi-­‐insert  earplugs,  which  consist  of  two  earplugs  held  over  the  ends  of  the  ear  canal  by  a  rigid  headband.  And  finally  you  can  wear  Earmuffs,  which  often  consist  of  sound-­‐attenuating  material,  and  soft  ear  cushions  that  fit  around  the  ear  and  hard  outer  cups.  A  headband  holds  them  together.      

 If  you  are  working  in  a  studio  At  the  end  of  a  recording  session,  return  the  studio  to  its  original  condition,  disconnecting  all  microphones  and  extra  patch  bay  cables,  turning  down  all  faders,  turning  off  all  phantom  power  on  preamps,  and  properly  wrapping  and  storing  cables.  You  should  treat  the  studio  and  equipment  with  care  and  consideration  for  others.  Also  most  definitely  No  drinks,  No  food,  alcohol,  or  tobacco  may  be  used  in  the  studio  facilities.    

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The acoustic characteristics of spaces      

Like  any  wave,  a  sound  wave  doesn't  just  stop  when  it  reaches  the  end  of  the  medium  or  when  it  encounters  an  obstacle  in  its  path.  a  sound  wave  will  undergo  certain  behaviours  when  it  encounters  the  end  of  the  medium  or  an  

obstacle.  Possible  behaviors  include  reflection  off  the  obstacle,  diffraction  around  the  obstacle,  and  transmission  (accompanied  by  refraction)  into  the  obstacle  or  new  medium.      Reflection  of  sound  waves  off  of  surfaces  can  lead  to  one  of  two  phenomena  -­‐  an  echo  or  a  reverberation.  A  reverberation  often  occurs  in  a  small  room  and  Smooth  walls  have  a  tendency  to  direct  sound  waves  in  a  specific  direction.    Diffraction  involves  a  change  in  direction  of  waves  as  they  pass  through  an  opening  or  around  a  barrier  in  their  path,  and  Diffraction  of  sound  waves  is  commonly  observed;  we  notice  sound  diffracting  around  corners  or  through  door  openings,  allowing  us  to  hear  others  who  are  speaking  to  us  from  adjacent  rooms.    Refraction  of  waves  involves  a  change  in  the  direction  of  waves  as  they  pass  from  one  medium  to  another.  Refraction,  or  bending  of  the  path  of  the  waves,  is  accompanied  by  a  change  in  speed  and  wavelength  of  the  waves.    Sound  proofing  is  almost  essential  in  a  music  studio  if  you  want  noise  escaping  the  room  as  little  as  possible,  walls,  ceilings  and  sometimes  floors  will  need  sound  proofing  and  this  can  be  done  using  sponge.  The  materials  in  the  sound  proof  room  absorb  the  sound  so  the  sound  doesn’t  get  out  the  room.    

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