ABSTRACT Title of Thesis: EXAMINING TEMPERAMENT: APPROACH AND AVOIDANCE Kathleen Gifford, Master of Arts, 2012 Directed By: Professor Hedwig Teglasi, Department of Counseling and Personnel Services This was a mixed methods examination of the approach and avoidance dimensions of temperament. These dimensions were measured through parent examples given on the Structured Temperament Interview (STI). Parents were interviewed by a research assistant and were asked to give both quantitative and qualitative examples of their child’s behaviors representing the different distinct dimensions of temperament. A principal components analysis was conducted to help select factors and items to be examined in the qualitative study. Three main factors emerged from the principal components analysis: Prefers Familiar / Routine; Sociability; and Risk Seeking Approach / Short Sighted Approach / Risky. The two items with the highest factor loadings on each of the three factors were chosen for further exploration in the qualitative analysis. The emphasis of this study was on quantifying and classifying the parent examples for the six main items chosen through the principal components analysis.
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ABSTRACT Thesis: EXAMINING TEMPERAMENT: APPROACH AND AVOIDANCE
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ABSTRACT
Title of Thesis: EXAMINING TEMPERAMENT: APPROACH
AND AVOIDANCE Kathleen Gifford, Master of Arts, 2012 Directed By: Professor Hedwig Teglasi, Department of
Counseling and Personnel Services
This was a mixed methods examination of the approach and avoidance dimensions of
temperament. These dimensions were measured through parent examples given on the
Structured Temperament Interview (STI). Parents were interviewed by a research
assistant and were asked to give both quantitative and qualitative examples of their
child’s behaviors representing the different distinct dimensions of temperament. A
principal components analysis was conducted to help select factors and items to be
examined in the qualitative study. Three main factors emerged from the principal
Table of Contents Table of Contents.......................................................................................................... iiList of Tables ............................................................................................................... iiiChapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 2: Overview of the Literature……………………………………………….14 Chapter 3: Research Methods ..................................................................................... 37Chapter 4: Results ....................................................................................................... 42Chapter 5: Discussion ................................................................................................ 60Appendices.................................................................................................................. 75References................................................................................................................. 110
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List of Tables
List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………iii Table 1: Definitions of Temperament………………………………………………..14 Table 2: Historical Roots of Temperament…………………………………………..16 Table 3: Gender of Student Participants……………………………………………..42 Table 4: Ethnicity of Student Participants…………………………………………...42 Table 5: ‘Other’ Ethnicity Breakdown………………………………………………43 Table 6: Education Level of Parents…………………………………………………43 Table 7: Tests of Assumption of STI………………………………………………...44 Table 8: Qualitative Factors and Items………………………………………………45 Table 9: Frequencies for Item 68…………………………………………………….46 Table 10: Frequencies for Item 61…………………………………………………...46 Table 11: Frequencies for Item 74…………………………………………………...47 Table 12: Frequencies for Item 76…………………………………………………...47 Table 13: Frequencies for Item 63…………………………………………………...47 Table 14: Frequencies for Item 71…………………………………………………...48 Tables 15-33: Coding Themes……………………………………………………….49 Appendix Tables 34-39………………………………………………………………76
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Temperament
The concept of temperament has its roots in the thought and writing of ancient
Greek philosophers and physicians. In the 4th century B.C., Hippocrates developed a
theory of the humors to help explain health and illness. Later, in the 2nd century A.D.,
Galen added to the existing theory with psychological interpretations. The ancient
Greeks’ main contribution to the foundation of temperament research was that individual
differences in behavior could be explained by physiology. Over time, temperament
researchers expanded their thinking to include an exploration of the link between
temperament and emotions. For example, Wilhelm Wundt conducted laboratory studies
to explore the relationship between temperamental disposition and the expression of
emotions. In the 1960’s, Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess developed one of the most
popular theories of temperament. Thomas and Chess conceptualized temperament as a
behavioral style. Most researchers of temperament agree that idiosyncrasies exist as a
result of biological underpinnings (Strelau, 1998).
The first empirical studies on temperament began in the 20th century when
researchers started moving away from theoretical research and towards empirical studies.
The first empirical studies on temperament took place in Europe with the work of Ivan
Pavlov, Gerard Heymans, and Ernst Kretschmer. Also during the 20th century,
anthropologists and psychiatrists began to examine the relationship between the human
biological makeup and inherited dispositions. Most temperament researchers, regardless
of orientation, agree to the following fundamental features: temperament refers to
behavioral characteristics, or dispositions, in which individuals differ; temperament is
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relatively stable when compared with other phenomena; temperament has a biological
basis; and temperament refers to characteristics of behavior such as intensity, speed,
tempo, and fluctuation (Strelau, 1998).
Measurement Techniques
The most popular methods of measuring temperament include: observations,
interviews, and questionnaires.
Observations. When examining the history of temperament, the first method of
measurement used was naturalistic observations of behaviors. The most popular
observations included having children play various games that elicited certain
temperamental characteristics. The games that children played during these observations
allowed for the quantitative analysis of the frequency, duration, and intensity of the
behaviors of interest (Strelau, 1998).
Home observations. Researchers often conducted home observations of infant
and toddler temperament. The rationale for observing in the child’s home is based on the
assumption that the home is the most natural environment for children until they begin
attending school. The home environment allowed for naturalistic observation of parent-
child interactions and the influence of those interactions on temperament. While
naturalistic observations provide a unique perspective on child temperament, they are
also influenced by the observer’s limitations in being able to capture the whole range of
the child’s behaviors (Strelau, 1998).
Laboratory observations. Researchers used laboratory observations in order to
control both the setting and the stimuli that children were exposed to during the
observation period. Three major studies used laboratory observations of child
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temperament: The Louisville Twin Study, Kagan’s study on inhibited children, and
Goldsmith and Rothbart’s attempts to standardize laboratory methods for assessing child
temperament (Strelau, 1998). The Longitudinal Twin Study incorporated standardized
vignettes and videotaped infant/child behavior to create a temperament profile. Kagan’s
laboratory study examined inhibited and uninhibited children during standardized
episodes and physiological data exhibiting temperamental dispositions. Goldsmith and
Rothbart developed a Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery (LAB-TAB), which
enabled the assessment of five temperament dimensions: activity level, fearfulness, anger
proneness, interest / persistence, and joy / pleasure (Strelau, 1998).
Criticisms of observations. Observations of temperament are based on the
premise that behaviors are manifestations of temperamental traits. Observations can be
influenced by reactivity effects, which occur when the process of observing alters the
behaviors of the child. Observations can also be time consuming and require multiple
observations to obtain reliable and valid data. The number of behaviors available during
an observation period is also limited. Observations tend to be more reliable when
multiple coders are able to observe and rate the behaviors of interest, but it also increases
the cost of conducting observations. Lastly, observations are only effective when the
observer is properly trained in temperament assessment (Strelau, 1998).
Interviews. Many physicians use interviews to understand the temperament of
children. Interviews are used in measuring temperament by either allowing an individual
to describe their own experiences and / or by having someone close to the individual
describe the person’s experiences. The interview is unique because it allows for the
exploration of covert / internal reactions and behavioral states. Interviews are typically
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based on retrospective behavioral observations and therefore the information gathered is
subjective. Interview questions are typically unstructured and are conducted face-to-face.
Since the interview format requires a great deal of time from the interviewer, the number
of interviews conducted is typically smaller than might be included in studies using
questionnaires (Strelau, 1998).
Benefits of interviews. Clinicians can use this method of measuring temperament
to obtain in-depth information from informants. For example, the interviewer can ask the
informant a question about the child and then follow-up with questions to get an accurate
picture of the child and his/her behavioral profile. Both structured and unstructured
interviews allow for the flexibility to explore beyond what might be included in a
questionnaire. For example, a structured interview format provides the opportunity to
gather information about the continuity or discontinuity of a behavior over the course of
time. An interviewee can also provide information about behaviors that are a result of
factors other than temperament (e.g. experience) (Teglasi, 1998). Interviews are helpful
when an informant is not willing to complete a questionnaire and/or has a lot of other
paperwork to complete for a research project. Furthermore, interviews can help to rectify
discrepancies between informants (e.g. teachers and parents) because it allows for
gathering of detailed information about behaviors that are present across situations
(Kristal, 2005).
Criticisms of interviews. Interviews have been criticized because they are time
consuming and can produce inconsistent data. The interviewer has to spend a significant
amount of time with the informant to gather enough data to make an accurate assessment
of the child. The interview can produce different results depending on how much
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information an informant is willing to give the interviewer and thus will be inconsistent
across interviews. Social desirability may influence how much an informant, especially a
parent, is honest with the interviewer. As in all methods of temperament, cultural factors
will influence the interpretations informants provide about the child’s behaviors (Kristal,
2005).
Questionnaires. Temperament inventories have gained popularity in recent years
due to the standardization of the measures and the ability to administer them to different
populations of individuals. Questionnaires are the most commonly used temperament
measure because they are relatively inexpensive and are easy to use (Teglasi, 1998).
Researchers who use questionnaires to measure temperament tend to believe that the
statements on the questionnaires are indicative of behaviors and reactions associated with
particular temperament expressions. Temperament questionnaires differ from other
measures of personality because the items focus on behaviors with a biological base
versus learned reactions; they measure the how of behavioral reactions instead of the
content of the behaviors; they measure behavior that is typically stable over a person’s
lifetime; they measure behaviors that have been present since infancy; they ask about
behaviors that can be reliably observed by others; and they ask about type of activity and
setting instead of cognitive aspects of behaviors. Questionnaires about child
temperament are typically given to parents, caregivers, and teachers, whereas those for
adolescents and adults are typically self-report (Strelau, 1998). Parents of young children
are believed to be good informants due to their vested interest in closely observing their
children and their ability to report on the subtlety of behaviors that are not observable in
the laboratory (Teglasi, 1998).
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Criticisms of questionnaires. Questionnaires have been criticized for observer
biases, and inaccuracies in recollections, observations, and interpretations of behaviors.
Parents may try to represent their children in a way that matches their conceptions of
their children, however, is inaccurate when compared to a normative population of
children (Teglasi, 1998).
Constructs. There is a close tie between the measurement techniques used and
the constructs that emerge from temperament research. Therefore, the discrepancies
found between different measures of temperament should not be explained as a result of
the shortcomings of the measure but as a result of the emerging constructs (Teglasi,
1998).
Measurement of Approach and Avoidance
Regardless of the method of measurement, temperament researchers need to be
mindful when conducting research with children. For example, when working with
infants and young children, as commonly occurs when measuring temperament, the
researcher needs to be considerate of the child’s schedule. Temperament should not be
measured via observations when the child is off his/her schedule or feeling ill because
they may appear reactive to stimuli that might not typically elicit a reaction. It is ideal to
measure temperament, especially aspects of temperament such as behavioral inhibition,
during the early years of life. Including early measures of temperament helps the
researcher distinguish between behaviors that are a result of temperament and those that
are a result of experience. For example, behaviorally inhibited children have
demonstrated that they are able to develop adaptive strategies that may mask their
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underlying temperament as they get older and understand socially appropriate behaviors
(Degnan & Fox, 2007).
Approach and avoidance dimensions of temperament have been measured
through behavioral observations, parent and teacher ratings, and peer and self-reports
(Rubin & Coplan, 2010). Interview measures of approach and avoidance allow for the
examination of behaviors over the course of time. While interview measures involve a
dimension of subjective judgment from the interviewee, they also allow for a broader
picture of the child and how he/she behaves in different situations, with different people,
and with different stimuli.
Structured Temperament Interview
A new measure of child temperament was undertaken with the goal of clarifying
the measurement of the constructs of temperament. More specifically the Structured
Temperament Interview (STI) was created to closely examine the behavioral
manifestations of temperament and the explanations parents provide when rating their
child’s temperament. This interview format provides a unique examination of both the
child’s behaviors and the parent’s understanding and conceptualization of those
behaviors. The STI allows for the examination of numerical ratings of behaviors similar
to those found on temperament questionnaires and open-ended explanations of behaviors
typical of interviews. The STI items differ from existing measures because they allow
the interviewee to reflect on his/her quantitative answers and provide qualitative
examples of the behaviors they have in mind.
The current version of the STI includes 112 items that parents answer in the
company of a research assistant. The questions provide both the opportunity to rate the
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child’s behaviors on a Likert scale and to provide qualitative examples of the behaviors.
The STI includes six dimensions identified in the literature: Attention/Distractibility,
Approach/Avoidance, Self-Regulation, Emotionality (divided into positive and negative
dimensions), Activity, and Reactivity (intensity and threshold). The research assistant
leads the parent through the questions taking notes and tape recording the interview for
accuracy of information. This format has proven to be more accurate than a standard
questionnaire because the parent has the opportunity to clarify questions and reflect on
their child’s behavior with the research assistant. In some instances parents change their
numerical rating of their child’s behavior as they reflect and talk through their examples
of the relevant behaviors with the research assistant.
Target Age Group
Temperament can be thought of as a set of inborn traits that determines each
child’s unique behaviors, how he / she experiences his / her world, and how he / she
reacts to his / her life experiences (Kristal, 2005). Since most temperament researchers
agree that temperament is early appearing in life, they tend to focus their studies on the
early years of development, including infancy, toddlerhood, and preschool age. As
children move from infancy to toddlerhood and then to preschool, the way in which they
acquire autonomy is influenced by their temperament. Toddlers and preschoolers exhibit
behavioral qualities of expression, exploration, experimentation, egocentricity, and
energy. The temperament qualities that children demonstrate during infancy continue to
affect their development and understanding of their world (Kristal, 2005).
Temperament fosters the growing child’s drive for independence, development
of fine and gross motor skills, development of cognitive and language skills, and
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regulation of emotions and understanding others’ emotions. How children navigate the
changes in their social environment during toddlerhood and preschool is largely
influenced by their temperament (Kristal, 2005).
The current study focuses on children ages 3 to 6 years old attending a university-
based preschool. This age group allows for the exploration of expressions of
temperament across multiple settings including school and home, the development of
cognitive skills, the beginning of social understanding, and the building of social
relationships with peers.
Developmental Outcomes
Children’s temperament influences their behaviors, interpretations of their world,
and reactions to stimuli in their world. These experiences have implications for both
academic and socio-emotional development.
Academics. Child temperament, particularly approach and avoidance, has the
potential to influence adaptation to the school environment. Experiences of success and
failure in school influence how the child evaluates himself/herself, school, teachers, and
peers. For example, differences in reactions to novelty may influence how readily
children engage in classroom tasks or how easily they adapt to the classroom
expectations. Temperament is likely to also influence how children interact with their
peers and teachers in the school environment (Henderson & Fox, 1998).
Children who are highly avoidant of novel situations and people risk developing
certain forms of anxiety. Children who are anxious, tend to be more avoidant, and their
continued avoidance can be manifested in behaviors such as school avoidance and certain
phobias. Children with specific manifestations of anxiety, such as social phobia, are at an
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increased risk of premature withdrawal from school (Van Ameringen, Mancini, &
Farvolden, 2003). Children who experience anxiety narrow their thoughts to the
perceived threat, and therefore have trouble attending to academic tasks. Furthermore, a
child experiencing high levels of anxiety may have difficulty remembering previously
learned academic material (Wood, 2006).
When children have difficulty adapting to the demands of the school environment,
their academic success is usually affected. A child’s temperament is an important factor
in determining how well the child adapts to new environments, such as school, and to
new social and academic demands. Some researchers argue that temperament is as good
a predictor of academic success as is cognitive ability (Martin, Olenjnik, & Gaddis,
1994). The goodness-of-fit model posits that a child’s academic success is dependent
upon the balance between the child’s temperament and the demands of the school
environment. For example, children with temperaments characterized by low self-
regulation and low adaptability develop a poor fit with the school environment, and are
therefore likely to have academic difficulty (Bramlett, Scott, & Rowell, 2000).
Three specific dimensions of temperament have been shown to consistently
predict classroom behavior: activity, distractibility, and persistence. Some
temperamental characteristics have been demonstrated to buffer children from having
behavior problems in school. The more positive temperamental characteristics in school
settings include high adaptability, low social inhibition, low negative emotionality, and
high task persistence. The temperamental characteristics of persistence and adaptability
have been closely linked to grades and standardized test scores (Bramlett, Scott, &
Rowell, 2000). Research has demonstrated a moderately negative relationship between
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activity level and distractibility and reading and math achievement in elementary school
(Martin, Olenjnik, & Gaddis, 1994). These specific aspects of temperament and the
influence on academics can be assessed through the ratings and examples given on the
STI.
Social-emotional implications. Arguably equally as important as academics,
social experiences play a critical role in normal child development. There are strong
theoretical beliefs that social interactions, particularly peer interactions, serve to facilitate
development of social understanding. The social adaptability aspects of temperament
including the tendency to approach or withdrawal have been associated with social-
emotional wellbeing. For example, children who are socially isolated, or who
withdrawal, from their peers have limited opportunities for social learning. However,
cautious approach to peers is not always maladaptive. For example, initial avoidance or
non-approach of new peers, situations, and stimuli may serve as a protective function
(Rubin & Asendorpf, 1993). On the STI, parents are given the chance to explain cautious
or approaching tendencies their children have when interacting with new and familiar
peers.
Social-emotional implications with teachers. Approach and avoidance
tendencies influence peer interactions and interactions with adults in schools. Some
believe that teachers’ attitudes about students in their classroom mediate the relationship
between child temperament and academic achievement. In other words, teachers think of
students more positively when those students’ temperamental characteristics fit with the
classroom environment. The teachers’ perception of the child may influence how he/she
grades the child and the academic achievement of the child has the potential to influence
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the child’s self-concept (Martin, Olenjnik, & Gaddis, 1994). The STI allows for a unique
examination of the child’s approaching and avoiding tendencies in both school and the
home environment.
School psychologists and educators may apply the research on the connection
between temperament and academic achievement, and between temperament and social-
emotional adjustment.
Research Questions
The next chapters detail the conceptualization of temperament and define the
approach / avoidance dimensions of temperament. These chapters highlight the
intricacies involved in understanding the approach / avoidance dimensions of
temperament and how they have been measured by other researchers. Existing studies
have primarily examined temperament through behavioral questionnaires and structured
observations. This particular study provided new information about the approach /
avoidance dimensions of temperament through parent ratings and qualitative examples on
interviews. There was very little literature on parent qualitative examples of
temperament, and therefore this study provided a unique perspective in temperament
research.
Due to the gap in the literature, the main research question for the current study
was to investigate how parents conceptualize their child’s temperament and what
examples, or rationale, they provide for rating their child a particular way. In addition,
the second research question addressed what common themes parents shared across the
different ratings of the approach / avoidance dimension of temperament.
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Parent examples were quantified and classified and then compared with the
existing theoretical research on approach and avoidance. The STI is a relatively new
measure of temperament and was designed to clarify the unique dimensions of
temperament. This particular study aided in the clarification of the approach and
avoidance dimensions of temperament as assessed by this particular interview.
These research questions were addressed by conducting a principal components
analysis of the approach / avoidance scale on the STI to help to streamline the qualitative
analysis. Once factors were chose from the principal components analysis, the two items
with the highest loadings on each of the three factors were examined. Qualitative
examples of the top six items were quantified and classified based on parent responses.
While this study only examined one dimension of temperament, it was important to
further our understanding of the intricacies involved in approaching and avoiding
tendencies in childhood temperaments.
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Chapter 2: Overview of the Literature
Defining Temperament
Temperament refers to behavioral characteristics in which individuals differ.
These differences are described by concepts such as disposition, trait, quality, attribute,
factor, dimension, type, and category and are used interchangeably by many researchers
(Strelau, 1998). Early definitions of temperament differ in some ways; however,
researchers tend to agree on the general concept. Temperament concerns the normal
range of variability in behaviors. Table 1 below illustrates some of the early definitions
of temperament.
Table 1
Definitions of Temperament Author(s) Definitions Allport (1920’s) The characteristic phenomena of an
individual’s nature, including his susceptibility to emotional stimulation, his customary strength and speed of response, the quality of his prevailing mood, and all the peculiarities of fluctuation and intensity of mood, these being the phenomena regarded as dependent on constitutional make-up and therefore largely hereditary in origin.
Buss and Plomin (1984) Temperament is inherited personality traits that are present in early childhood. The three personality traits include: emotionality, activity, and sociability as being the foundation for personality.
Eysenck (1940’s) Temperament is more or less a stable enduring system of affective behavior.
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Definitions of Temperament Author(s) Definitions Goldsmith and Campos (1987) Temperament is individual differences in
emotionality including individual differences in fear, anger, sadness, pleasure, interest, etc.
Kagan and Snidman (2004) Temperament is a reflection of features that are inherent in the individual at birth, or an inherited biology.
Rothbart (2007) Temperament is defined as individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity measured by latency, intensity, and recovery of response, and self-regulation processes such as effortful control that modulate reactivity.
Strelau (1998) Temperament is relatively stable across time as compared with other phenomena and is characterized by cross-situational consistency. Temperament has a biological basis and refers mainly to behavioral reactions such as intensity, energy, strength, speed, tempo, fluctuation, and mobility.
Thomas and Chess (1977) Thomas and Chess posited one of the most popular definitions of temperament. They are known as the founders of contemporary temperament research in children and consider temperament as a behavioral style. They thought that temperament was best viewed as the ‘how’ of behavior. They believed it differed from ability, which is concerned with the ‘what’ and ‘how well’ of behaving, and from motivation, which accounts for why a person does what he/she is doing. They believed that temperament concerned the way in which a person behaves.
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Most theorists agree that temperament refers to biologically based traits that are
relatively stable over time. However, researchers tend to have unique ideas about the
different dimensions of temperament and how they are expressed early on. Some
researchers emphasize the emotionality aspects of temperament, where others focus more
on the biological differences seen with children having different temperaments. The
behaviors observed are a product of temperament interacting with the environment and
therefore it is important to examine context when studying temperament.
Historical Perspectives of Temperament
Strelau (1998) provided a review of the historical roots of temperament in his text
Temperament: A Psychological Perspective. The following table is a historical sketch of
temperament based on that review.
Table 2
Historical Roots of Temperament Year Historical Significance to Temperament 4th Century B.C. – late 1800’s The concept of temperament has its roots
in the thoughts of ancient Greek philosophers and physicians. Hippocrates, the father of medicine, developed a theory of humors to explain the states of health and illness and Galen, a Greek physician, built upon this theory with psychological interpretations. A major contribution of the ancient Greeks to the study of temperament was that they believed individual differences in behavior could be explained by physiological mechanisms. The variety of behaviors that individuals could exhibit was therefore reduced to a small number of temperament categories.
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Historical Roots of Temperament Year Historical Significance to Temperament 1887 Wilhelm Wundt studied emotions and
reaction time in his laboratory with the aim of establishing general laws of psychic characteristics and discovered individual differences in reactions that led him to conclude that individuals differed in temperament. Wundt distinguished four temperament types: cholerics, melancholics, sanguines, and phelgmatics. He believed that cholerics and melancholics had strong emotions and sanguines and phelgmatics had weak emotions. He also believed that sanguines and cholerics experienced rapid emotional changes whereas melancholics and phelgmatics experienced slow emotional changes.
1905 Gerard Heyman undertook a large study with the aim of describing the basic dimensions of temperament and determining to what degree heredity and environment contributed to the development of temperamental traits. Three basic temperament dimensions were distinguished: activity, emotionality, and primary-secondary function (e.g. perseveration). Eventually eight temperament types emerged, known as ‘Heymans cube’. These eight types were: amorphous, apathetic, nervous, sentimental, sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, and passionate.
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Historical Roots of Temperament Year Historical Significance to Temperament 1910 Ivan Pavlov conducted the first empirical
study on types of nervous system (TNS). Pavlov underlined the functioning significance of temperament, and the role of the Conceptual Nervous System (CNS) in an individual’s adaptation to his/her environment. Through his laboratory studies, Pavlov was able to demonstrate the link between temperament characteristics and the CNS. Pavlov illustrated the concepts of arousal and protective inhibition to explain performance under highly stimulating conditions.
1912 Immanuel Kant built upon Pavlov’s theory of temperament in his publication, Anthropology. Kant believed that temperament was a psychological phenomenon that consisted of psychic traits determined by the composition of an individual’s blood.
1920’s Gordon Allport’s conception of temperament in the 1920’s was very influential in determining the meaning of temperament for emotion-oriented researchers. Allport is known as the founder of trait-oriented personality psychology. Allport’s understanding of temperament referred to individual differences in emotions and that these dispositions were unchanged from infancy throughout life. He also believed that the behavioral manifestations of temperament were present from early infancy. Allport believed that two aspects of temperament could be characterized by dimensions: broad emotions – narrow emotions (the range of objects and situations an individual reacts to emotionally) and strong emotions – weak emotions (the intensity of feelings evoked by objects and situations).
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Historical Roots of Temperament Year Historical Significance to Temperament 1923 Carl Jung proposed that people are either
extroverted or introverted. Jung believed that these two attitudes were anchored in biology and influenced the direction the libido expressed itself. He thought that these two attitudes expressed themselves through sensation, thinking, feeling, and intuition. Jung’s theory resulted in the construction of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).
1928 Arnold Gesell developed normative growth tables for infants and young children. He focused on the biological aspects of psychological development. Gesell observed significant differences in infants’ behaviors and believed they were innate and separate from the environment.
1930’s – 1950’s In the middle of the 20th century two of Pavlov’s students attempted to adapt Pavlov’s theory on TNS to children. Ivanov-Smolensky distinguished four types of higher nervous activity in children: the mobile type (positive and inhibitory reflexes are formed easily and quickly), the slow type (both kinds of reflexes are formed slowly, with difficulty), the excitable type (positive reflexes are formed easily and quickly, and inhibitory reflexes slowly with difficulty), and the inhibited type (positive reflexes are formed slowly, inhibitory reflexes easily and quickly). Pavlov’s second student, Krasnogorsky, investigated the inhibitory reaction in children and distinguished two nervous systems: the normal and the inert (slow). He was also one of the first Pavlovian typologists to recognize that temperament changed due to environmental factors.
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Historical Roots of Temperament Year Historical Significance to Temperament 1950’s Freud attributed differences in amount of
energy in the libido and the excitability of the nervous system to temperamental differences.
1970’s The formal study of temperament was largely initiated in the New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS) conducted by Thomas and Chess in 1977. Thomas and Chess collected detailed parent reports of infant behaviors and concluded that nine different dimensions of temperament were responsible for individual differences. The nine dimensions of temperament included activity level, rhythmicity, approach-withdrawal, adaptability, threshold, intensity, distractibility, and attention span-persistence. Thomas and Chess believed that temperament referred to a general overarching style of responding rather than motivation to respond in a particular way. Thomas and Chess grouped children into three distinct temperament types: difficult, slow to warm up, and easy. They described difficult children as irregular, low in adaptability, withdrawing, intense, and negative. Slow to warm up children were low in activity level, withdrawing, low in adaptability, and moderately negative in mood. Easy children were regular, adaptable, approaching, mild, and positive. Thomas and Chess emphasized that temperament must be differentiated from motivations, abilities, and personality; and is always expressed as a response to an external stimulus, opportunity, expectation, or demand; and is an attribute of the child that influences the environment.
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Historical Roots of Temperament Year Historical Significance to Temperament 1980’s Albert Mehrabian presented an emotion-
based theory of temperament in which temperament was viewed as a characteristic emotional state. Goldsmith and Campos centered their temperament research around infants, and led them to conclude that motoric, facial, and vocal behavior of infants are all expressions of the affective systems. They proposed that infant temperament was observed by individual differences in tendencies to express primary emotions.
Although many dimensions of temperament have been studied over time, four
dimensions are common across all models and include activity, emotionality, approach-
avoidance/sociability, and attention/distractibility (Teglasi, 2006). Temperament and
experience together help to form a child’s cognitions about self, others, their physical and
social world, their values, attitudes, and coping strategies (Rothbart, 2007). Children
show variability in their reactions to their environment, and these reactions form each
child’s own unique temperament.
Approach and Avoidance
The approach and avoidance dimensions of temperament have been represented in
the literature as either being opposite ends of a continuum or as distinct dimensions. The
conceptualization of approach and avoidance as distinct or polar ends influences how
child temperament is perceived. The approach dimension of temperament is understood
as a general neurobiological sensitivity to positive stimuli that is accompanied by a
behavioral predisposition toward such stimuli. The avoidance dimension of temperament
is characterized by a general neurobiological sensitivity to negative stimuli and a
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behavioral disposition away from such stimuli (Elliot & Thrash, 2010). The approach
and avoidant temperament dimensions have biological value in that avoidance protects
individuals from harmful stimuli and approach to positive stimuli can be rewarding. The
STI examines particular situations, reactions to people, and reactions to stimuli, and
whether they are approached or avoided, in other words this dimension of temperament
as assessed by the STI is believed to be opposites on a continuum.
These types of temperament characteristics can be seen in young infants by subtle
behavioral manifestations. For example, the newborn child shows distress and avoidant
movements when unhappy. Infants as young as two months old demonstrate
temperamental approach when they smile, laugh, and move their body. Behavioral
inhibition is more readily noticed when the infant is about seven months old (Rothbart,
2007).
Approaching children are typically attracted by novelty, and they do not hold
back when presented with new people, new places, or new things. These children are
often sociable and outgoing and like to be hands-on learners. The STI uses examples of
such novel situations to assess the degree of approach for that child in that particular
situation. Withdrawing children need time to warm up to new situations and stimuli.
These children are often hesitant with new people, new places, or new things. Children
who withdraw often prefer the familiar or routine, are cautious, and will avoid risky
situations. These children prefer to observe rather than do, and learn by watching others
(Kristal, 2005). Items on the STI assess this dimension of temperament by asking parents
questions about unfamiliar versus routine situations as well as safe versus risky
situations.
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Studies have shown that infants rated high in approach (or low in avoidance) were
also rated as more rhythmic, cooperative, and manageable and less irritable than infants
low in approach. Furthermore, teachers’ ratings of child approach were also highly
correlated with ratings of adaptability and positive mood. Based on Thomas & Chess’s
dimensions of temperament, children who easily approach novel and unfamiliar
situations and/or people are perceived more positively (Henderson & Fox, 1998). These
positive versus negative perceptions of approach and avoidance will be examined via the
parent examples provided on the STI.
According to Teglasi (2006), the tendency to approach or avoid certain situations
is often correlated with positive and negative emotions evoked in those particular
situations. Children who are highly negatively reactive tend to cautiously approach new
situations and/or may fear and avoid such situations. However, those low in negative
reactivity might seek out novelty and/or risk in order to attain that particular emotional
state. Sociability is often related to approach and avoidance dimensions of temperament
and refers to the preference for being around others, regardless of their familiarity
(Teglasi, 2006). The style of approaching or avoiding stimuli, people, and situations in a
planned (proactive) or provoked (reactive) manner also influences adjustment
(Henderson & Fox, 1998). The examples provided on the STI provide rich data as to
whether the child is proactive or reactive in his/her approaching or avoiding tendencies.
Approach, Avoidance & Motivation
Children can approach or avoid stimuli, situations, and people for many different
reasons. Early research assumed that approach/avoidance was based on the emotions of
pleasure or fear. However, newer research has begun to examine a child’s motivation to
24
approach or avoid stimuli, situations, and people. In approach motivation, behavior is
directed by the possibility of a positive event and/or object. Avoidance motivation is
directed by an undesirable possibility and/or negative stimuli (Elliot & Thrash, 2002).
Both approach and avoidance motivations are essential to survival and human
The correlations between each of the three factors were relatively low (Table 35).
The correlations ranged from .166 to .237.
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Table 35
Correlations Among Approach/Avoidance Factors
Prefers Familiar/Routine Sociability
Risk Seeking Approach/Short
Sighted Approach/Risky
Prefers Familiar/Routine 1 .166 .192
Sociability 1 .237 Risk Seeking
Approach/Short Sighted
Approach/Risky
1
The Commonalities, or the proportion of variance explained by common factors,
are shown in Table 36.
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Table 36
Communalities of STI Items Initial Extraction Item 61: prefers routine 1 .660 Item 62: seeks excitement 1 .607 Item 63: approaches pleasant thought told could get hurt
1 .788
Item 64: novel but not risky 1 .402 Item 65: risky 1 .587 Item 66: familiar 1 .482 Item 67: seeks challenge in familiar setting
1 .251
Item 68: seeks departure from routine
1 .643
Item 69: asked to try new activity
1 .653
Item 70: seeks adventure, excitement
1 .534
Item 71: seeks fun though understands that someone may get hurt
1 .753
Item 72: preference for company
1 .437
Item 73: lively enthusiasm in group
1 .463
Item 74: approach unfamiliar adults in familiar setting
1 .517
Item 75: approach familiar adults
1 .431
Item 76: if approached by less familiar children
1 .492
Item 77: approaches well known adults outside immediate family
1 .366
Item 78: initiates with peers outside circle of friends
1 .498
The individual item loadings within the Approach/Avoidance STI scale were
examined (Table 37) and helped to create the names of each factor. Items 68, 61, 66, 69,
and 77 loaded onto Factor 2: Sociability. Finally, items 63, 71, 65, 62, and 67 loaded
onto Factor 3: Risk Seeking Approach/Short Sighted Approach/Risky. The top two items
for each factor were selected for further analysis by examining parent qualitative
examples.
Table 37
Pattern Matrix: Item Loadings on Three Main Factors Factor
Item Prefers Familiar/Routine Sociability
Risk Seeking Approach/Short
Sighted Approach/Risky
Item 68: seeks departure from
routine .802 .047 -.059
Item 61: prefers routine -.796 -.073 -.003
Item 66: familiar -.645 .332 .215 Item 69: asked to try new activity -.543 -.358 -.260
Item 70: seeks adventure, excitement
.492 .083 .418
Item 64: novel but not risky -.447 -.296 -.152
Item 74: approach unfamiliar adults in
familiar settings .145 .691 -.047
Item 76: if approached by less familiar children
-.061 -.684 -.019
Item 73: lively enthusiasm in group -.057 .684 .017
Item 72: preference for company -.013 .680 -.208
Item 78: initiates with peers outside circle of friends
-.028 -.673 -.089
Item 75: approach familiar adults
-.191 .662 -.005
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Pattern Matrix: Item Loadings on Three Main Factors Factor
Item Prefers Familiar/Routine Sociability
Risk Seeking Approach/Short
Sighted Approach/Risky
Item 77: approaches well known adults outside immediate
family
-.099 -.580 -.001
Item 63: approaches pleasant though told
could get hurt -.095 -.188 .924
Item 71: seeks fun though understands
that may hurt someone
-.211 .010 .881
Item 65: risky -.191 .079 -.723 Item 62: seeks
excitement .465 .108 .498
Item 67: seeks challenge in
familiar setting .038 .266 .355
The relationship of each item on the Approach / Avoidance scale with the three
main factors was examined in the Structure Matrix (Table 38). The items are organized
in descending order according to how well they represent each of the three factors.
Table 38
Structure Matrix Factor
Item Prefers Familiar/Routine Sociability
Risk Seeking Approach/Short
Sighted Approach/Risky
Item 61: prefers routine -.809 -.206 -.173
Item 68: seeks departure from
routine .799 .167 .106
Item 69: asked to try new activity -.652 -.510 -.449
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Structure Matrix Factor
Item Prefers Familiar/Routine Sociability
Risk Seeking Approach/Short
Sighted Approach/Risky
Item 70: seeks adventure, excitement
.587 .264 .532
Item 66: familiar -.548 .276 .170 Item 64: novel but
not risky -.525 -.406 -.308
Item 74: approach unfamiliar adults in
familiar setting .251 .704 .145
Item 78: initiates with peers outside circle of friends
-.157 -.699 -.254
Item 76: if approached by less familiar children
-.179 -.698 -.193
Item 73: lively enthusiasm in group .060 .678 .169
Item 75: approach familiar adults -.082 .628 .115
Item 72: preference for company .060 .628 -.050
Item 77: approaches well known adults outside immediate
family
-.196 -.597 -.158
Item 63: approaches pleasant though told
could get hurt .051 .016 .861
Item 71: seeks fun though understands
that may hurt someone
-.041 .184 .843
Item 65: risky -.317 -.124 -.741 Item 62: seeks
excitement .579 .304 .613
Item 67: seeks challenge in
familiar setting .151 .356 .425
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Appendix B
Table 39
Literature Definitions Literature Term Definition
Approach Reflects sensitivity to rewards, emotional exuberance and excited anticipation for pleasurable activities, and behavioral approach to novelty and challenge.
Avoidance Reflects sensitivity to potential threats, fear and shyness, and behavioral withdrawal and inhibition in response to novelty and challenge (Carver, 2004; Derryberry & Rothbart, 1997; Kagan, 1999; Panksepp, 1998).
Behavioral Inhibition One’s initial negative emotional and motor reactivity to novelty (Kagan, Reznick, Clark, Snidman, & Garcia Coll 1984). When assessed in toddlerhood it is also described as vigilant and withdrawn behavior in response to novel people and situations.
Control Process Modulation of reactivity to meet goals (Carver, Sutton, & Scheier, 2000; Derryberry & Rothbart, 1997; Davidson & Fox, 1989; Davidson et al., 2002; Fox, 1994; Posner & Rothbart, 2000).
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Literature Definitions Literature Term Definition
Emotion Regulation One’s ability or tendency to initiate, maintain, or modulate internal emotional states and emotion-relevant physiological processing; it often is accomplished through shifting or focusing attention or cognitively manipulating one’s assessment of a situation.
Emotion-Related Behavioral Regulation
The ability to inhibit behavior when appropriate, including impulsive behavior, as well as the ability to initiate, maintain, and modulate emotionally charged behavior when necessary.
Inhibitory Control An executive function that is defined as the ability to effortfully inhibit undesired approach behavior. Children who can inhibit attention and behavior directed toward a desired but prohibited item show greater conscience and are perceived by their parents as more socially skilled and better able to manage negative emotions (Kochanska, Murray, & Coy, 1997; Shoda et al, 1990).
Parental Approach Behaviors that serve to increase child reward sensitivity, such as emphasizing and anticipating rewards and positive events.
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Literature Definitions Literature Term Definition
Parental Avoidance Behaviors that serve to increase threat sensitivity, such as emphasizing and anticipating threats, problems, and compromised safety.
Reactivity The behavioral and physiological excitation, responsiveness, or arousal of an individual (Rothbart, Ahadi, & Evans, 2000).
Regulation The neural or behavioral processes that alter an individual’s level of reactivity (Rothbart, Ahadi, & Evans, 2000). Theoretically it occurs at the physiological, attentional, emotional, or behavioral level, and matures later in development than emotional reactivity (Davidson, Putnam, & Larson, 2000). It is the child’s gradual progression from reliance on caregivers to modulate arousal toward the acquisition of independent regulatory skills.
Regulatory Style Individual differences in the management of internal emotion-relevant states (emotion regulation), emotion-related overt behavior, or stress-inducing situations.
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Literature Definitions Literature Term Definition
Resilience Process Achieving positive adaptation despite experiencing significant threat, adversity, or risk (Luthar, Cicchetti, & Becker, 2000). Resilience also is suggested to result from mechanisms and factors that lead to competent adaptation, known as protective effects, rather than from individual characteristics or extraordinary circumstances (Cicchetti & Garmezy, 1993; Luther et al., 2000; Masten, 2001).
Soothability The ability to recover from emotional distress and arousal; makes a contribution to self-regulation. Quickly recovering emotional equilibrium after experiencing frustration during an emotional challenge promotes effective coping with stressors and reductions in distress (Posner & Rothbart, 2002).
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Appendix C
Qualitative Coding
Factor 1: Prefers Familiar/Routine Item 68. To what extent does the child seek situations that depart from the routine?
1 Extreme preference for changes in routine
2 Strong preference
3 Medium preference for departure from routine
4 Mild dislike of changes in routine
5 Extreme dislike of changes in routine
Frequency of 1: 0 Frequency of 2: 6 Frequency of 3: 22 Frequency of 4: 17 Frequency of 5: 3 Themes for ratings of 2’s: Strong or extreme preference for changes in routine
• Child prefers risky activities; pushes the boundaries with new activities: o (#0067) 2 (strong preference) At night time we often go for a walk in the
town and he rides his bike and he likes to try and do different things on his bike all the time. He’s always asking if he can do this or that and kind of pushing the boundaries as he gets more comfortable doing risky things. But almost every time we go to town, there’s some new stunt or trick he wants to try.
• Child prefers doing different / novel activities: o (#0063) 2 (strong preference) Somewhere in between a 2 and a 3…she
does like doing something different…she really does…but not extreme preference…that would definitely not be it. She definitely…I’ve never seen her not like the opportunity to do something different.
• Child likes departure from certain aspects of routine; depends on the specific departure from routine:
o (#0114) 2 (strong preference) Likes knowing that when she gets up in the morning there is routine, also when she comes to school there is a scheduled day. Then likes to mix it up within those parameters.
o (#0128) 2 (strong preference) depending on what it is he might seek it out to figure out what it is.
• No example: o (#0061) 2 strong preference for non-routine. o (#0065) 2 (strong preference) she does have a pretty strong preference
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Themes for ratings of 3’s: Medium preference for departure in routine
• Is willing to try new things within the context of the family: o (#0046) 3 (medium preference) My schedule varies. She kind of goes
with the flow. The main constant is if I’m around or if she knows that I’m not far she can cope with it.
o (#0001) 3 – when we travel she loves it, she likes to stay up, over the weekend she loves to sleep in.
• Child likes routine, but is willing to change; doesn’t get upset when change is introduced:
o (#0012) 3- He usually likes to have a routine and stick to a routine but he also likes to try new things. So sort of a mix of sometimes wanting to try something new and sometimes wanting to stick with a routine.
o (#0004) 3- He doesn’t mind parting from the routine but I’m not sure he’s necessarily looking for that actively. He’s comfortable in a routine but he’s comfortable with new things. I don’t know that he has a preference.
o (#0019) 3(medium preference) He’s pretty run of the mill. Did you type that I said my son is run of the mill? That’s not good. He doesn’t really have a strong preference. He’s fine with routine- he likes routine. Average, run of the mill- that’s my son!
o (#0031) 3 (medium preference) She doesn’t necessarily seek situations that depart from the routine. If they present than she is interested.
o (#0033) 3 (medium preference) I don’t really feel like he seeks it out but he’s also not afraid of departing. So it’s pretty down the middle on that.
o (#0100) 3 (medium preference) she is fine with routine but she is also fine with changing it
o (#0119) 3 (medium preference) she likes to go into school and knows the routine but if something’s different for the day it’s okay … there’s no stress about it.
o (#0132) 3 (medium preference) in most cases he doesn’t dislike changes from routine, but he doesn’t necessarily seek it out most of the time
• Child likes routine and is cautious when something new is introduced: o (#0069) 3 (medium preference) he likes his familiar stuff but not so tied to
it that he won’t consider something new … but is cautious.
• Likes to have choices in activities: o (#0002) 3 – It’s more about choice. He wants choices. Sometimes, he’s
like, do I have to go to school today, and he’s bummed out it’s a school day. He might wish that he could stay home but it’s not a real strong thing, just a medium.
o (#0127) 3 (medium preference) mild. I think about our evenings … some new proposition comes he might be happy.
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• In particular situations likes departure from routine: o (#0003) 3- So, he’ll go see something new. He got new things for his
birthday and he definitely wants to check it out. o (#0094) 3 (medium preference) Normally we go – we stay home during
the weekday but sometimes he’ll ask if he can go to my brother’s house. o (#0108) 3 (medium preference) During the year she has a routine that she
likes but she doesn’t have a routine during the summer and she loves it … she can be like … in the middle.
o (#0109) 3 (medium preference) Like this morning my mom was off from work so she was going to spend the morning with the girls and she wanted to stay home from school to stay with her grandma, but she had to go to school. She wanted to depart from her routine of school to stay with her grandma.
• Parental preference for routine / departure from routine frames child’s responses: o (#0093) 3 (medium preference) He does not seem to make a point of
trying to change routine. Although, on that one I tend to have a strong preference for departing from the routine so I don’t necessarily stick to morning or night or weekend routines- every weekend is different. We don’t have a particular routine for the week or weekend days- we’re always doing something different. It may be that he has this automatic departure from the routine so he hasn’t shown a strong preference to seek it out because it’s already there but I’d probably have to say 3.
• Child doesn’t have a preference for routine: o (#0117) 3 (medium preference) I don’t think she really cares about the
routine … it’s not important to her.
• No example: o (#0083) 3 (medium preference) no example o (#0131) 3 (medium preference) no example o (#0144) 3 (medium preference) no example
Themes for ratings of 4’s and 5’s: Mild or extreme dislike of change in routine • Enjoyment of doing the same activities repeatedly; creature of habit; doesn’t
enjoy new activities or situations: o (#0005) 5 –It’s more than mild. But it’s less than extreme. But given the
choice I’ll definitely go with extreme. Again, we’ve been working with a child psychologist who works with children who are on the spectrum for about a year and a half and giving him and us coping strategies. That has helped so deviations from the routine are much more tolerable than they used to be.
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o (#0024) 4 – She has a mild dislike of changes in routine. She likes to do new stuff if they fit into the new stuff time block. She wants to have lunch when it’s time for lunch and nap when it’s time for nap.
o (#0029) 4 (mild dislike of changes) Like I said when we were on vacation she prefers to go to the same pool every day. She didn’t even want to go to a pool at another hotel. It was kind of hard to get her off of that.
o (#0037) 5 (extreme dislike) He likes to do the same things over and over…he likes familiarity
o (#0048) 4 (mild dislike of changes) She doesn’t really like the field trips. She likes to go but she has problems the next time she is in school.
o (#0057) 4 (mild dislike of changes) 4- She doesn’t really seek for those situations.
o (#0064) 5 (extreme dislike) he is very much a creature of habit o (#0085) 4 (mild dislike of changes) like changes in routine he doesn’t
really like o (#0092) 4 (mild dislike of changes) He can deal with changes but he
would prefer to stay with the routine. Like bed time. Or bath. We have a routine and he knows what to do and he does it. Like if we switch things up like sometimes I’ll say no bath because it’s too late. He’ll protest and say, I really really want a bath. And it’s not because he loves baths, it’s because it’s the routine.
o (#0126) 4 (mild dislike of changes) That can go to extreme though depending on what it is … I didn’t anticipate his reaction to changing the route to school (which was crying 10 to 15 minutes) … that happened one time and I thought it was odd.
o (#0137) 4 (mild dislike of changes) If it’s really out of her routine she won’t jump in to do that.
o (#0142) 4 (mild dislike of changes) When we drive to school on campus and there are 3 turns we could take … and he likes to go the front way all the time.
• Reaction depends on how the parents frame the new situation: o (#0023) 4-It all depends again on how we frame it. If we say, we are
going to stop at McDonalds but there’s a playland there so she’ll love it then she’s fine with it. So it’s a departure from the routine but if we tell her it’s gong to be great, she’ll do it. It wouldn’t be what she would suggest.
o (#0066) 4 (mild dislike of changes) Again, this goes back to, have we been through the whole explanation, negotiation, getting used to phase of something or not.
o (#0081) 4 (mild dislike of changes) she definitely want it but if we give her enough advance warning she’ll do it and handle it.
• Only departs from routine when something is particularly interesting: o (#0014) 4(mild dislike of changes) It depends, if it gets her interest she
will try it but she can stick to a routine as well.
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o (#0047) 4 (mild dislike of changes) It’s not something that she is going to specifically seek out and we know her well enough to not push things that are too different from the routine on her. But for example, a trip to see a puppet show- she would certainly be happy to go do that from time to time.
• No example: o (#0060) 4 (mild dislike of changes) no example o (#0088) 4 (mild dislike of changes) no example o (#0139) 4 (mild dislike of changes) no example
Item 61. To what extent does the child prefer routine situations as opposed to novel situations?
1 Almost always prefers what is routine or familiar
2 Often 3 Sometimes prefers what is routine or familiar
4 Rarely 5 Almost never prefers what is routine or familiar
Frequency of 1: 5 Frequency of 2: 14 Frequency of 3: 23 Frequency of 4: 6 Frequency of 5: 0 Themes for ratings of 1’s and 2’s: Always or often prefers what is routine
• Child is rigid with routines; doesn’t want to change for the sake of familiarity; change in routine may cause child to become upset:
o (#0001) 2(often) – especially at school because at first when she attended school, she was scared esp. not being able to speak English, principal wanted mom to stay (at school routine is very important)
o (#0005) 1 (always routine) Known quantity, routine, structure is always much better to him.
o (#0037) 2(often) – He definitely thrives off of routine…if it’s something out of the ordinary he sometimes doesn’t like it.
o (#0057) 2 – I think often…it depends…but sometimes mom drives her to school…if dad drives her she likes it…but that is a special situation….she likes her own pillow…and always has those for sleep….but w/o it…but sleep w/o it she doesn’t like it…she likes routine.
o (#0060) 2- She would prefer routine. Certain things she likes to…there just seems to be certain things she likes or have to happen in a certain way…we are learning how to tie her shoes…she likes to tie things together…and she will want to tie your arm up…it’s kind of the way she likes to approach a lot of things…she wants you to just sit back and listen to what she says…as far as routine the daily routine…she definitely
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prefers…if get a nice routine going she will ask why things are not happening the way she likes.
o (#0064) 1 – he likes his routines…so 1 almost always prefers what is routine or familiar.
o (#0066) 2 (often) D: Routine to her is acceptable. Deviations from that are sometimes difficult. M: I tend to think it’s not because it’s routine. It’s that routine activity is accepted so you don’t have to go through the negotiation of doing the non-routine activity so everything else is subject to this negotiation. It’s not clear to me that it’s the routine nature but that they have been established.
o (#0085) 2 (often) when his teachers aren’t there and there’s a substitute that’s stressful for him because it’s a change and what their expectations are for them, he tests different staff members – he prefers routine or structure
o (#0092) 1 (always routine) He kind of really, really gets attached to routines and will perpetrate some himself. If we did it once that day, he will continue it that way just because he’s familiar with it.
o (#0131) 2 (often) – She’s cautious and reserved and laidback and low key and she can get on a stage and perform but at the same time she’s known someone for a while and gets afraid.
• Child has a preference for routine or doing the same things but isn’t emotional when routine is changed
o (#0014) 2 (often) I think often she would prefer a routine situation. Reading the same book sometimes- she likes that sometimes.
o (#0023) 2 (often) If you ask her if she wants to go to a new restaurant or a restaurant she has been to she’ll say the one she’s been to. She doesn’t want to try new things for the sake of trying new things. She’d rather go for the sure bet.
o (#0019) 2(often) It depends on what the situation is. If it’s novel it would be a trip or something cool and he likes that. But in general routines. Driving to school- my husband drives a certain way and I go a different way. And he’s like mom, you are supposed to go that way, that’s the way dad goes.
o (#0024) 2 (often) She likes to talk through what the day is going to hold. She likes, we are going to have dinner and then we’ll play and then we’re gonna have bath, and then we’re going to brush teeth, and then we’re going to read a book. She likes to repeat it back. But she likes doing fun new things too.
o (#0047) 2 (often) She doesn’t seek out novel situations. She is a child of routine. But if something novel or unusual happens she’ll be interested.
o (#0126) 1 – almost always … it doesn’t mean that he is distressed if something new comes about.
• Child enjoys routine, but also enjoys novel activities:
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o (#0088) 2 – He prefers routine…but if something is fun and out of the routine he would want to do that
• No example: o (#0081) 1 – no example o (#0139) 2 – often prefers routine situations. No example.
Themes for ratings of 3’s: Sometimes prefers routine
• Child likes routine but is also able to “go with the flow”: o (#0003) 3 (sometimes prefers routine) Definitely not overly- he doesn’t
have problems if it’s different than the routine. o (#0031) 3 (sometimes prefers routine) She is perfectly happy getting up,
going to school, doing her normal routine but if something else gets thrown in there- she gets picked up early or I have lunch with her, she is perfectly happy with that too.
o (#0063) 3 (sometimes routine) – She is a roll with the punches kind of a person. Sometimes…but she kind of goes with the flow…sometimes she will ask questions about something that is new…she will check to see what is coming up…if it’s not…she likes to be prepared…for what is coming up.
o (#0069) 3 – sometimes prefers … he definitely likes to play the same games again … he built a fort in the beginning of the summer and really wanted to play forts but was fine with moving on … but he definitely likes to go back to things he knows.
• Child has an equal preference for routine and novel situations: o (#0012) 3 (sometimes prefers routine) If we’re walking in an area that
we’ve been to before and there is one section that we’ve been to and one we haven’t been to he’ll kind of vary on going to the place he knows as opposed to saying, hey lets look over here, we haven’t seen it yet. It’s kind of half and half.
o (#0083) 3 – sometimes prefers routine and familiar but gets pretty excited about new situations
o (#0109) 3 (sometimes routine) – she’s right in the middle. She likes familiar situations but she likes new ones too.
o (#0127) 3 (sometimes prefers routine) - he likes what we do regularly … if I have a lot of regular activities he enjoys then but he also likes new activities.
o (#0142) 3 – He gets excited about doing new things … but also likes new things.
• Child prefers routines in particular settings and/or situations (e.g. school); deviation from routine for a preferred activity is accepted:
o (#0002) 3 (sometimes prefers routine) It’s that whole, I want to be at home, I want my stuff and hang out here versus taking in a new situation
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like we’re going to Hershey Park today- and would you like to ride a roller coaster and he’s like yes! He’s not very fearful.
o (#0033) 3 (sometimes prefers routine) The reason I pick 3 is that he’s usually fair game for something new unless the alternative is that he could do something routine. If it was something new and he didn’t have the choice then he would be fine with it. But if he had the choice he might go with the routine.
o (#0046) 3 (sometimes prefers routine) It depends on what it is. I tried to get her to play soccer one time and that was a bunch of kids running around that she didn’t know and it was kind of chaotic and she was not into that. But we went to a gymnastic class and that was a little bit more orderly. That wasn’t kids running around in random. It was organized more and she liked that a lot better.
o (#0065) 3 – sometimes prefers what is routine and familiar…I’d say coming home after school…coming straight home after school and getting a snack…and getting to play…sometimes I will try to run errands after I pick her up and she doesn’t want to do that…but if I would be taking her to Chuck E Cheeses straight after she would be happy with that
o (#0093) 3 (sometimes) Between 3 and 4. It’s so situational dependent; it’s hard to generalize. It depends on what routine or novel situation. I’d say 3 in general.
o (#0094) 3 (sometimes) It’s sometimes but not always… they have a normal routine schedule… that they come and sometimes I tell him he has a field trip or you are going to go some where…
o (#0119) 3 – sometimes … we have the routine but then when we break it it’s fun for her … if we have a night that we go out and she gets to stay up late.
o (#0128) 3 (sometimes prefers routine) – I think it depends on what the novel situation is he might be interested or it might take a little coaxing.
o (#0132) 3 (sometimes prefers routine) There are certain routines he wants to stick with, like his bedtime routine. But at other times of the day, he’s pretty flexible.
• Child takes time to “warm up” or adjust to new situations: o (#0029) 3 (sometimes prefers routine) Like when we were on vacation,
she wanted to go to the pool every day and didn’t want to go exploring or if we were leaving- that’s what she thought was vacation and was sort of stuck on that and didn’t think anything else would be fun. And she can have trouble transitioning. She took gymnastics and when she first went it was difficult for her to adapt but now that she knows the routine, she’s comfortable.
o (#0114) 3 Likes to mix it up change it up. In the last year, she can be a little bit shy at first. Like when she first started in the red room. Between 3 and 4. More comfortable in a group that includes at least one of her friends. Really happy if her friend Name is there, though a few new kids were there. If someone who’s Asian in her class, immediately gravitates to
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that Asian child. Name’s parents are 94hinese. I don’t know if she’s conscious of it. Seeks them out even if she doesn’t know that.
• Child prefers routine and may be upset by change / worries about change: o (#0048) 3 (sometimes prefers routine) First I thought, she does not need a
routine but it seems that every time they take the kid to a field trip the next time she has school she has difficulty to let me leave. It is really strange to me- it came as a surprise to me.
o (#0144) 3 (sometimes prefers routine) – We’re very routine and scheduled … so 3. She will verbalize the routine.
• No example: o (#0137) 3 (sometimes prefers routine) no example.
Themes for 4’s: Rarely or never prefers what is routine • Enjoys new / different activities; is up for anything new; doesn’t seem to need
routine: o (#0004) 4 (rarely) He’s up for anything. He’s not a kid who needs routine
at all. He likes new and different things to do. o (#0100) 4 (rarely) she is good with routine but always open to new things o (#0117) 4 – rarely … she adjusts really quickly … she doesn’t have to
have a routine.
• Thrives off of new activities, excitement or adventure seeking: o (#0061) 4 (rarely) – He likes some routine because it’s comforting…he
really thrives on doing new and different stuff…if he’s tired he might prefer to stay home…but he likes to do exciting things.
o (#0067) 4 (rarely) He likes new things. He likes doing new stuff. He’s adventurous. He seems to enjoy that. So if there’s a new task, like ice skating that we’ve been doing recently, he gets really excited about frozen ponds and stuff like that because he wants to go check them out and go try more ice skating and find new ponds that we can go skate on.
o (#0108) 4 (rarely) – You know she would rather do something different than the routine … she’s much more prefers exciting adventurous.
Factor 2: Sociability Item 74. To what extent does the child approach unfamiliar adults in familiar surroundings (such as new or rare visitors to the home or classroom)?
1 Extremely Approaching: almost always seeks out new people
2 Highly approaching: often and easily approaches new people
3 Moderately Approaching
4 Rarely Approaching: usually hangs back in the company of new people
5 Almost never approaching, keeps distance
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Frequency of 1: 3 Frequency of 2: 18 Frequency of 3: 17 Frequency of 4: 10 Frequency of 5: 0 Themes of 1’s and 2’s: Extremely or Highly Approaching of New People
• Approaches particularly in familiar context / environment (e.g. home and/or school):
o (#0002) 2(highly approaching) – In our home, an architect comes, he’s ready to show the architect around the house and talk to him. Show him his trains.
o (#0063) 2 (highly approaching) …esp. because of familiar surroundings…like feeling safe in her classroom would make her feel fine.
o (#0033) 2 (highly approaching) If they’re in familiar surrounds he’s pretty- he’ll go to new people, he’ll talk to them, he’ll talk about his interests fairly easily.
o (#0094) 2 (highly approaching) sometimes he told me that we had a new teacher today and I say okay he explains that what the new teacher told them and sometimes he asks the…
o (#0109) 2 (highly approaching) She’s been a good friend to a new girl in the classroom who was sad and she was being a good friend to her.
o (#0127) 2 (highly approaching) he’s nice to our visitors … he was totally nice and fine with substitute teacher in art class one time … she was nice but didn’t have enough experience with children she wasn’t as cheerful but he was totally fine and said that she was a nice lady … he just accepted that she was a nice substitute teacher.
o (#0144) 2 (highly approaching) highly if they are in our house.
• Doesn’t respond differentially to new people; potential for risky interactions: o (#0019) 2(highly approaching) We went shopping yesterday and I was
looking for something and we were trying to find out where the kids shoes were and he walked away from me and asked a sales clerk where the shoes were.
o (#0029) 2 (highly approaching) We were at a time share resort where people sort of said hi, what’s your name, how are you? And by the end of the week, she’d say, hi, what’s your name, how old are you? That was sort of a shift and now she always greets people. If a stranger is walking down the house she’ll wave or engage in a conversation almost to the point where you always have to be watching her.
o (#0001) 2(highly approaching) – when she just attends school because she didn’t understand, she would find adults and hold her hand to feel safe; if we have a visitor she will be very outgoing and get excited.
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o (#0046) 2 (highly approaching) Some kids are annoying to her- she’ll say is that kid over there yours? He’s taking my stuff.
o (#0093) 2 (highly approaching) He doesn’t seem at all bothered by not knowing people.
o (#0065) 1extremely approaching…almost always meeting new people…if we have friends over that she doesn’t know she will run to them and give them a hug
o (#0117) 1 (extremely approaching) It depends on the person … sometimes she can be extremely approaching … she’s all over the person … sometimes she doesn’t understand personal space. When we would go to the library when she was really little she would run up to people…from the beginning she was very social and very approaching.
o (#0132) 2 (highly approaching) most of the time he’s not too shy about new people, he wonders about who are they. Most of the time he’ll approach somebody new.
o (#0142) 2 (highly approaching) One. This is what has scared us since he was little. He’s extremely approaching … he’s not hesitant … new people don’t bother him. Actually I’ll change that to a two.
• Child will always approach new adults but may initiate contact in a shy/less overt
way: o (#0083) 1 (extremely approaching) always seeks out new people but in a
coy way o (#0100) 2 (highly approaching) On occasion she can appear to be shy but
for the most part she will approach any person in a familiar surrounding
• Child will approach new adults but hangs back to observe first: o (#0031) 2 (highly approaching) She’ll go look at them, she’ll go talk to
them. She might go talk to them if she sees them or that other people are talking to them. But she’ll usually look for a few minutes and assess the situation.
• No example: o (#0057) 2she’s highly approaching o (#0128) 2 (highly approaching) no example.
Themes for ratings of 3’s: Moderately Approaching • Child is likely to approach in familiar context / environment (e.g. home and/or
school): o (#0003) 3(moderately approaching) – So like a nurse in a doctor’s office
he’s never seen before- he’s open to that. He’s interested in talking to that person at a moderate level.
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o (#0048) 3 (moderately approaching) It depends between 2 and 3. Generally I would say number 3 but then with some people she just clicks. Most of the time it’s 3.
o (#0064) 3 (moderately approaching) He doesn’t typically talk to random people…in his classroom they share a bathroom and he seems to be interested in the other classroom…and likes the teacher in the other classroom…and he was okay approaching her.
o (#0069) 3 (moderately approaching) more apt to approach you in a familiar setting … if you are new to the classroom he’ll approach you because you must be okay because you’re on his turf.
o (#0119) 3 (moderately approaching) so many people at school that come in and out … and at our house she’s moderately approaching.
o (#0139) 3 (moderately approaching) I’ve been surprised how willing he has been to approach new adults in the home and show them things.
• Willing to engage but doesn’t always initiate the interaction: o (#0004) 3(moderately approaching) – I think he is very social for his age.
He doesn’t hide from new adults. But he’s not necessarily initiating the conversation. He’ll say hi and hope they initiate a conversation.
o (#0067) 3 (moderately approaching) He’s getting more comfortable with that as he gets older. We had a visitor recently- I guy that was coming, a contractor was coming to work on our plumber and my son was engaging him in conversation in a way that surprised me because he hadn’t really done that before. The guy initiated it but my son didn’t seem that shy and then he kept talking to him throughout the night.
• Child will approach new adults but hangs back to observe first; takes time to
warm up: o (#0023) 3 (moderately approaching) She won’t run up to them at first.
She’ll watch for a minute or two but once she sees that we think they’re okay, she’ll want to talk to them.
o (#0061) 3 (moderately approaching) moderately…he will talk to someone…but he won’t necessarily hang out with them a lot…it took him a little bit to warm up with mom’s friend on Sunday.
o (#0066) 3 (moderately approaching) M: She was in one classroom in the summer and switched, in the fall. And I think it took a good two weeks for her to warm up to those teachers. I think it was a distressing transition.
o (#0081) 3 (moderately approaching) she’ll stay away for awhile until she feels comfortable to the person and she can be very approaching sometimes.
o (#0114) 3 (moderately approaching) Hesitant at first but warms quickly.
• Child is selective in or cautious about who he / she will approach: o (#0037) 3 (moderately approaching) he used to approach more often, but
now he’s kind of stopped…he’s more cautious now I guess… and it depends on the person, if he thinks they are safe to approach I guess…(me: do you see him approach certain people more often than
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others you said?) yeah, if it’s a little kid or something or a friendly looking person…I don’t know, some people he’ll approach and some he won’t…so I guess it’s…he’s got some kind of criteria. He won’t approach, like some old guy standing there, he’s not going to approach him, but he’ll approach somebody his age.
o (#0047) 3 (moderately approaching) She is not going to approach them that much but she will certainly talk to them. It’s going to totally depend on the moment or the mood. But she is not likely to just go right up to them but she will accept them in their presence.
o (#0060) 3 (moderately approaching) sometimes…they get set off by things…and just don’t say.
o (#0108) 3 (moderately approaching) she’s a little shy with approaching … she might want to but she’s a little shy
Themes for ratings of 4’s: Rarely or Never Approaching • Likes to observe new adults in familiar surroundings; slow to warm up; hangs
back: o (#0005) 4(rarely approaching) – He doesn’t approach unfamiliar adults.
He’ll be watching, and observing, and trying to get a grip on who this person is and what their doing and everything. He doesn’t quickly warm up to people.
o (#0012) 4(rarely approaching) – Like having a party at the house, and there are people he doesn’t know, he probably won’t go up to them.
o (#0014) 4(rarely approaching) She usually hangs back if it’s people she never sort of met.
o (#0024) 4 (rarely approaching) Adults, she’s not going to go up and ask, who are you? She’s going to wait to see their role in the environment.
o (#0088) 4 (rarely) rarely approaching usually hangs back…if we have friends over that he hasn’t met…he will hang back…he’ll warm up eventually but it takes him a little time
o (#0092) 4 (rarely) I don’t think he keeps his distance. He doesn’t purposefully avoid them but he won’t initiate. No, I change that to rarely. Occasionally have seen him in the observation booth talking to whatever random aid is sitting next to him about whatever he’s interested in.
o (#0131) 4 (rarely approaching) in fact we did just have someone new come to the house for me to interview for babysitting and I had her answer the door and she did but then she came back to me … she’s moving more to moderate … she used to want to be right by me and now she’ll approach more.
• Resistant to approach even within familiar surroundings: o (#0085) 4 (rarely approaching) substitute example, even around family
members, at his grandmom’s house, like someone new is there, and we tell him to say hi or bye he’ll say no, and I’m like sorry!
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o (#0137) 4 (rarely approaching) Won’t do it very often especially with someone she doesn’t know.
• No example: o (#0126) 4 (rarely approaching) no example.
Item 76. How would the child respond if approached by other children who are outside the familiar circle of friends in a familiar setting (in the neighborhood or at school)?
Frequency of 1: 0 Frequency of 2: 6 Frequency of 3: 24 Frequency of 4: 13 Frequency of 5: 5 Themes for 2’s: Reserved around new peers
• Child is reserved around new children; may not approach other new children; may avoid interacting with new children:
o (#0004) 2 (reserved) –He tends to be very much more quiet around other kids than adults. He is definitely reserved around other kids- especially ones he doesn’t know.
o (#0066) 2 (reserved) M: At the farmers market we often see other kids and unless they are kids that she already knows she doesn’t really play with them but if it’s kids she already knows, it’s all out running around.
o (#0081) 2 (reserved) well if we go to a playground that’s a little far away, if she’s playing with something and another kid comes up she will probably drop what she’s playing and move around to somewhere else.
o (#0131) 2 (reserved) she wouldn’t outwardly reach out to them
• Child would interact with other new children but would not initiate the interaction:
o (#0047) 2 (reserved) She would answer their questions or whatever but she would also wonder who is this weird kid and why are they talking to me?
• No example: o (#0139) 2 (reserved) no example.
Themes for 3’s: Warm but mildly reserved around new peers • Differential approach to familiar and unfamiliar children; has warm reaction to
new children:
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o (#0003) 3(warm but mildly reserved) So if there is a familiarity issue. The familiar people he’s really engaged and warm and then moderately warm with those he doesn’t know as well but definitely not fearful.
o (#0137) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) Generally a warm child. 3. If she sees someone who’s reserved she’ll invite them in.
• Child will engage, but may try to assess the situation; needs time to warm up: o (#0014) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) When you go to a playground where
she never met someone she is warm but it can take a few minutes before she is comfortable and starts playing with that person.
o (#0019) 3(warm but mildly reserved) If they are his age. If it’s a baby, he’s not nice to little babies. He says he’s allergic to babies. If the kid is his age he’ll be warm but a little bit reserved because he doesn’t know them. I don’t know why he doesn’t like babies.
o (#0031) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) She would assess the situation. And she would have noticed them first and then decided weather she wanted to play with them or not before they approached her.
o (#0048) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) Between 3 and 4. Sometimes K brings a new friend to a playgroup and then she needs a little bit – she is friendly, she is nice, but she needs a little bit to warm up to the new child.
o (#0064) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) warm but mildly reserved at first…but then tends to come out of his shell…and that’s relatively new…but before he had unrestrained enthusiasm…he was super excited at first because he hadn’t been around other kids.
o (#0067) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) He would be reserved at first. It takes a little while for him to warm up. He’ll warm up after a short time and then quickly be fully engaged like in 15 minutes.
o (#0088) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) if he was at school and there were new kids he may hang back a little bit
o (#0094) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) 2 to 3. 3. It really depends if I invite somebody to visit us at home. It’s okay for him to play with the friends kids for the first time… he just watching them play
o (#0127) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) probably he’s in the middle. Well he gets new friends at the park but not immediately … he needs to see them for a while and then they become friends … not immediately.
o (#0144) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) until she knows them better.
• Child will engage with other children, but won’t initiate the interaction; interaction may be limited:
o (#0023) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) She is a little reserved if they’re unfamiliar people. She is warm but wouldn’t initiate contact.
o (#0046) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) She gets a little shy. o (#0092) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) He’ll talk but he won’t be very
extraverted. He’ll give whatever response. Like if it’s what’s your name,
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he’ll give them his name but there won’t be a lot of talking or exchange.
• Approach is reflective of parental coaching / encouragement to meet new people: o (#0005) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) We’ve been oppressing upon him
that he’s always going to meet new people and there will be kids that warm up to him. We know parents that have kids that we won’t see all the time and he’ll warm up and then as time goes by and the course of the afternoon progresses, he’s warmer than initially but it’s definitely not unrestrained enthusiasm. But he’s midly reserved there.
• Child’s reaction to new children depends on his / her mood that particular day: o (#0061) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) It depends on his mood…whether it
is a fun thing we are doing o (#0060) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) I’ve seen this go both ways…so
3…it depends on her mood…but definitely if she’s with a group of people that she knows.
• Child’s response to new children depends on how often he / she interacts with them:
o (#0037) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) it depends on how often he sees them
• No example: o (#0069) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) no example. o (#0085) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) no example. o (#0109) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) no example. o (#0119) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) no example. o (#0126) 3 (warm but mildly reserved) no example.
Themes for 4’s and 5’s: Immediately relaxed around new peers / unrestrained enthusiasm
• Approach characterized by overall friendliness; being outgoing: o (#0001) 4 (immediately relaxed) – she can always play with other kids;
when we go to the playground she can always find a friend o (#0002) 5 (unrestrained enthusiasm) –This is the observation that our son
made- I think they were at a public park and had never been there and he was with his grandparents. My older son said S always makes friends. He was disappointed because that’s something that S is really good at.
o (#0024) 4 (immediately relaxed) She is very friendly and outgoing and willing to take other people into the circle.
o (#0029) 4 (immediately relaxed) She can get into conversations with other children very easily.
o (#0063) 5 (unrestrained enthusiasm) like at the zoo she ran up to an unfamiliar girl and said let’s go play…she said I made a new best friend today…kids are totally open.
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o (#0093) 4 (immediately relaxed) He seems to be very comfortable meeting other kids and playing with him. Last weekend we went on the metro downtown and on the ride back home, Sam hopped on the seat next to a boy his age and started playing with him and they played together on the metro ride home. A complete stranger and he was comfortable right away.
o (#0108) 5 (unrestrained enthusiasm) You know she’s very open so maybe a 5.
o (#0117) 5 (unrestrained enthusiasm) she makes the friends at the playground … she’s not alone very long … doesn’t matter the age she goes for it.
o (#0128) 4 (immediately relaxed) if they are new kids … not familiar … he would be relaxed and approach them.
o (#0132) 4 (immediately relaxed) he’s not generally reserved, he’ll approach new kids pretty readily and try to find something they have in common. He’ll use things to initiate contact.
• Child is likely to approach in familiar context / environment (e.g. home and/or school):
o (#0012) 4 (immediately relaxed) Like meeting new kids at the playground- so it’s a playground he knows but there’s someone new- he’ll play with them. He doesn’t seem uncomfortable with them.
o (#0142) 4 (immediately relaxed) if he’s at his regular school with new kids he’s relaxed.
• Child might hang back initially to see if he / she will be accepted by peers: o (#0033) 4 (immediately relaxed) Occasionally you might see slight
hesitation but usually I would say for the most part it’s immediately relaxed. There might be a little, are they going to accept me? But after he feels that there is no more apprehension.
• No example: o (#0057) 4 immediately relaxed…she’s good o (#0065) 5 (unrestrained enthusiasm) no example. o (#0083) 4 (immediately relaxed) no example. o (#0100) 4 (immediately relaxed) no example. o (#0114) 4 (immediately relaxed) no example
Factor 3: Risk Seeking Approach / Short Sighted Approach / Risky Item 63. To what extent would the child approach a pleasant situation after being told that someone could get hurt?
1 Almost always 2 Often 3 Occasionally 4 Rarely 5 Almost never
Frequency of 1: 10
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Frequency of 2: 10 Frequency of 3: 14 Frequency of 4: 10 Frequency of 5: 4 Themes for 1’s and 2’s: Always or often approaching pleasant situations after being told someone could get hurt
• Unrestrained approach of situations regardless of danger: o (#0002) 2 (often) He is not completely fearless but usually with a pleasant
situation. Yeah- the bike riding, he has known all along that he could fall off. We took the training wheels off pretty early but that’s something that he really enjoys doing. He knows he could get hurt.
o (#0012) 1 (almost always) When he got his new bike for his birthday or in any situation, if we say, you have to be really careful or you might fall, if it’s something he wants to do that won’t deter him.
o (#0033) 1 (almost always) Those are the things he likes to do. Even if he knows. Trampoline, bike riding, he does the rock climbing. He is always willing to. I am trying to think of a time he thought he could get hurt and didn’t try and I can’t think of one.
o (#0046) 2 (often) If you were doing something that was fun and you told her that she could get hurt she would still do it. If she sees other people doing it then she’ll do it in a heart beat. Like the rock wall at Maryland. She was like 3, and they wouldn’t let little kids couldn’t go up there but they had a whole bunch of other people climbing. They were telling her the reasons she couldn’t go up there because she’s really small and all this stuff. But she was like, I want to go, I want to go. So they ended up putting her in the rigging even though the straps were big. She ended up trying to climb up the wall and they ended up pulling her up like 40 feet and she loved it. And I think some people would have been really scared but she wanted to do it again and again.
o (#0061) 1 (almost always) – He’ll still do it. He loves riding his scooter…which isn’t particularly safe…he knows he can get hurt…but still does it.
o (#0064) 1(almost always) – I think he wouldn’t care…my husband has been throwing him around since he was little…he has no fear with it
o (#0065) 2 – often…I keep thinking of her saying ‘mommy it’s okay I don’t mind’….she says this a lot…she will bear the discomfort
o (#0066) 2 (often) D: I don’t think she worries too much about getting hurt. She’ll jump off things and she’ll often launch herself at me assuming that I’ll catch her.
o (#0093) 1 (almost always) That doesn’t hinder him on that type of activities. The risk of injury doesn’t deter him.
o (#0132) 2 (often) that usually doesn’t dissuade him, he thinks “well I wouldn’t get hurt”. He would often still do it.
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o (#0142) 1 – almost always … because mommy spends all her time saying “don’t do that you might get hurt.”
• Child would engage in activity but would use safety measures; cautious approach: o (#0029) 1 (almost always) She would still do it and be cautious. She’s
cautious enough. If it’s pleasant- she’ll wear a helmet. Or when she rides a scooter she wears knee pads and elbow pads. She understands how to protect herself.
o (#0024) 1 (almost always) She would still do it. She knows she needs her helmet but wants to be able to ride with the big kids.
o (#0060) 2 (often) – She would continue into the situation but she would do so cautiously…and it’s a funny way she goes about doing things…she will go after something and try something new..but she’s particular about everything…like her rock climbing…we tell her to be careful and you can fall…but she’s really good at it…and it’s fun to watch.
o (#0067) 1 (almost always) If you explain to him how he could get hurt he would understand and avoid that in most cases. I think he’s able to know how to enjoy a situation appropriately.
o (#0131) 1 – almost always … she would use good judgment … she would have good body confidence in playground/bike situations. She would know her capabilities.
o (#0139) 2 – He will ride his bike and play on the playground but I would say that’s an occasionally … maybe even an often … he definitely takes it into consideration … but it doesn’t prevent him from doing something he enjoys … he won’t just blow it off … it’s definitely going to be in the back of his mind.
• The novelty of a situation has more influence than the level of danger: o (#0005) 2 (often) For him, tell him it’s really be hurt. That’s not what
drives him. It doesn’t affect him. He’s more hesitant if it’s a new situation even if you can’t get hurt. The get hurt doesn’t even register with him. That’s not what makes him hesitant. What makes him hesitant is the newness, not the hurtness.
• No example: o (#0100) 2 (often) no example o (#0109) 2 (often) No example
Themes for 3’s: Occasionally approaching pleasant situations after knowing someone could be hurt
• Unrestrained approach of situations regardless of danger: o (#0085) 3 (occasionally) Between 3 and 4, running in the street type of
thing he’ll just go and not think about, but some things he knows are dangerous like a cord or putting things around your neck or a knife, but if it’s jumping off your bed he’ll try to do it
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o (#0117) 3 – occasionally … I think she would try to do something over again even if she was told it wouldn’t be a good idea or someone would get hurt.
o (#0137) 3 (occasionally) I don’t know how often she thinks about the getting hurt part. Approach it occasionally. Doesn’t think about what could happen. Will say “but it didn’t happen.”
• Depends of the danger level of the activity / and who is also involved in doing the
activity; evaluation of activity: o (#0014) 3 (occasionally) She would probably want to do it. Depending on
the activity. She is allergic to dairy products but she still likes to eat pizza. She will have some acne on her body but she still wants to eat it.
o (#0128) 3 – occasionally. It would depend on the activity and what he observes and who might be involved and if others were involved he might be more willing to try it … he might evaluate it and decide what to do.
• If the activity was particularly interesting child would approach or engage in activity:
o (#0019) 3 (occasionally) If it was something that he looked interested in, he still might occasionally approach it even though he was told someone could get hurt. But then again, he might not.
o (#0048) 3 (occasionally) She is really good in biking now so she tries to do biking with one arm and doing crazy things like that.
o (#0119) 3 – occasionally … she would definitely respond that someone got hurt but maybe if it was fun enough.
• The idea of someone getting hurt would deter child from engaging in activity: o (#0063) 3 – This is hard…b/c she is a little bit fearful…if she is told
someone that would get hurt…I think that would change her mind her about going to go do it. If you are talking to her about someone getting hurt…we just try to tell her about something like that…we will explain to her about safety…she will understand that safety is first. Last year at her other school sometime she fell off the slide and broke her elbow…that plays into how she will react to someone getting hurt.
o (#0108) 3 – occasionally … she would be afraid to get hurt … she’s more careful when it comes to that.
• Child would reluctantly engage in activity but would use safety measures;
cautious approach: o (#0069) 3 (somewhat reluctant) – you know … with the whole bike riding
he knows he can get hurt but he still likes to do it … he’s cautious about it o (#0088) 3 – he’s more cautious…even when he’s younger all the other
kids would go down the slide…he would kind of hang back…but he will do it
o (#0114) 3 (occasionally) A little bit cautious. 3. Occassionally. A ferris wheel she would know she wouldn’t get hurt. Danger, she’s a little more
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standoffish.
• No example: o (#0094) 3 (occasionally) no example
Themes for 4’s and 5’s: Rarely or never approaching pleasant situations when told someone could be hurt
• Fear of hurting self: o (#0001) 4 (rarely) – when husband went to teach her the monkeybars, she
didn’t want to continue when told she could get hurt o (#0081) 4 (rarely) she will probably say no
• Empathic responding; getting hurt overrides everything else; won’t do if risky:
o (#0004) 5 (almost never) I think it’s more his empathetic personality. He does not like to see anyone get hurt so that possibility would take away all the fun. The possibility of someone getting hurt would override everything else in his mind.
o (#0003) 4 (rarely) So yesterday actually a next door neighbor boy was climbing a tree very high, and he said to him don’t do that- it’s not safe. So he’s not only not doing that himself but he’s telling others not too.
o (#0023) 5 (almost never) That’s just the kind of things she doesn’t do- if there’s risk involved.
o (#0037) 4 (rarely) – when he’s warned about something being dangerous he usually won’t attempt it.
o (#0047) 5 (almost never) If I specifically said, that riding a bike is something where people fall off all the time and that’s why you have helmets it would be 5, almost never. I would never sell it that way. I would sell it a different way. If you go into all the pleasantness of it first and the other thing is you need to be careful then she might be okay. But someone could get hurt is a major part of the description so I’m going with 5.
o (#0083) 4 – rarely… as long as she understands that somebody can be hurt…she understands somebody can be hurt
o (#0092) 5 (almost never) He would become obsessed with the someone getting hurt piece and not go near it.
o (#0126) 4 – rarely. Yeah if there’s any chance of being hurt … he’s very conscious about safety.
o (#0144) 4 – rarely … she doesn’t like to take a lot of chances.
• Child is cautious when risk is involved: o (#0031) 4 (rarely) She’s cautious. o (#0127) 4 (rarely) – He was brave on his scooter … he’s careful …for
example on bike he goes down hill very slowly … it seldom happens that he hurts someone by accident. My daughter hurts accidentally more often. My daughter bit me quite badly during breastfeeding but he was much
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more careful. He’s very careful.
• Child might still try to approach even after knowing he / she could be hurt: o (#0057) 4 – rarely…she doesn’t care that her sister has an injury
sometimes…so she likes to learn.
Item 71. Would the child engage in a fun activity even after understanding that someone could get hurt?
1 Almost always 2 Often 3 Occasionally 4 Rarely 5 Almost never
Frequency of 1: 11 Frequency of 2: 14 Frequency of 3: 12 Frequency of 4: 6 Frequency of 5: 5 Themes for 1’s: Almost always engages in fun activities even after understanding someone could get hurt
• Child will engage despite understanding someone could get hurt; not concerned with getting hurt; acts invincible:
o (#0005) 1 (almost always) It’s funny. If it’s fun, and he’ll like it, he’ll do it. The getting hurt is not what he’s worried about.
o (#0012) 1 (almost always) Like jumping into a pool and having us tell him over and over again not to jump into a certain area. Or jumping carefully so he doesn’t slip. It doesn’t seem to bother him at all. He’ll keep doing it.
o (#0024) 1 (almost always) Trampoline, moon bounce. o (#0031) 1 (almost always) She would get right in there. o (#0064) 1 (almost always) he doesn’t usually fear very much o (#0066) 1 (almost always) M: Absolutely. There’s a bench that she has
that’s in the kitchen for her to be able to get up to the counter and lately she loves to jump off of it. And she still does it. She knows she could get hurt, she has gotten hurt, she still does it.
o (#0100) 1 (almost always) saying someone could get hurt is different than saying she can get hurt
o (#0142) 1 (almost always) and do it repeatedly.
• Child would evaluate situation but would likely still engage: o (#0128) 1 (almost always) he would evaluate it but would try to engage if
he could.
• Parents regulates level of dangerous activities child can engage in: o (#0033) 1 (almost always) The skate boarding example. The other day our
neighbor is an older kid and he had a skate board and he wanted to try it
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and I wouldn’t let him because we didn’t have a helmet and I didn’t think he was ready for it. But he was ready to do it even though he knows it can be a dangerous thing.
• No example: o (#0131) 1 (almost always) no example
Themes for 2’s: Often engages in fun activities even after understanding someone could get hurt
• Unregulated engagement; not concerned with getting hurt: o (#0002) 2(often) – The bike riding, doing the monkey bars, whatever. o (#0019) 2 (often) If he thought it would be fun he would still going to
engage in it even if someone could get hurt or he saw someone get hurt. He would still try it- still engage in it.
o (#0029) 2 (often) Like riding a bike- she’s still interested in doing it. o (#0109) 2 (often) if she knows it’s fun she would risk it. o (#0139) 2 (often) because if he saw a chance to do something fun with his
friends but knew he could fall he would still do it.
• Child will approach when watching other children doing task successfully: o (#0046) 2 (often) Like as long as it looks fun and she sees other people
successfully doing something she’s going to try.
• Child doesn’t respond differentially to different levels of risk: o (#0093) 2 (often) I’m not sure how well he really assesses risk. You
mentioned the bicycle example. He’s got a bicycle and I tell him that people can fall and skin their knees or crack their head or whatever and people and he will still want to go do them. And sports injuries don’t perturb him at all. He’ll want to rough house and jump around on the furniture and not be perturbed at all that he could get hurt. You could fall and bang your head on a table, which he has done. That doesn’t seem to slow him down. But then the water park example, there are certain slides that he won’t go on because of the perceived risk where the actual probability of him getting hurt in these other things is greater than he would get hurt on these slides. It’s his perception of risk. It might be risky but if he has done it before. So I would say often.
• Child would use a cautious approach but would still engage in the activity: o (#0060) 2 (often) she’ll be cautious…but she would always still do it. o (#0063) 2 (often) it would just be how you phrased that to her…sometimes
the phrasing of it to be safe and follow the rules that would be different for her. Like she likes to go on the trampoline and will stay towards the middle.
o (#0108) 2 (often) I don’t think she really got any bruises before … she’s very careful … she has good judgment with this.
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o (#0132) 2 (often) he often thinks he can be careful enough
• If child understood the activity was dangerous he / she might not engage in the activity:
o (#0067) 2 (often) He listens to instructions and as long as he’s told what the risk is, he’ll avoid it.
• No example: o (#0057) 2 (often) no example. o (#0065) 2 (often) no example.
Themes for 3’s: Occasionally engages in fun activities after understanding that someone could get hurt
• Cautious approach; engagement in activity; may involve parental explanation: o (#0001) 3 (occasionally) – if it’s very fun she will want to try, but she will
know to be very careful o (#0083) 3 (occasionally) because a lot of the stuff is that she needs to be
careful b/c somebody could get hurt…she understands there is a relative risk
o (#0137) 3 (occasionally) Not something she’s chosen. Wouldn’t choose it herself. Not jumping to do it.
• Child may engage depending on the type of activity; would engage in preferred activity; may assess the level of risk:
o (#0014) 3 (occasionally) Again it depends what it is. The example of her liking the pizza but again she is allergic to dairy.
o (#0069) 3 (occasionally) depends on what it is … he would weigh his risks … see anyone got hurt and then try
o (#0094) 3 (occasionally) between 2 or 3. I think maybe 3. If he really understands that he might get hurt or if he got hurt before.
o (#0119) 3 (occasionally) like a moonbounce at a birthday party she would try.
• Child would likely engage in activity regardless of level of risk: o (#0085) 3 (occasionally) mm-hmm (laughs) I think he would o (#0127) 3 (occasionally) I can say “don’t run here, you can fall” like in the
national park he would still run … and eventually he fell but good that it was a soft place to fall.
• Needing external reminders of danger: o (#0048) 3 (occasionally) You have to remind her again that this is
probably not a good idea.
• No example: o (#0114) 3 (occasionally) no example o (#0117) 3 (occasionally) It’s a fine line between 2 and 3.
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Themes for 4’s and 5’s: Rarely or never engages in fun activities after understanding someone could get hurt
• Won’t engage in activity; fear or concern with getting hurt: o (#0004) 5 (Almost never). Again, he doesn’t like to see anyone or
anything get hurt at all. So that would override any feelings of fun he thought he would have.
o (#0023) 4 (rarely) She is risk-adverse. o (#0037) 5 (almost never) he wouldn’t do it. o (#0047) 5 (almost never) If that’s part of the description, she would get
that and it wouldn’t be something. If you are at a playground or something like that and the person who is giving directions focuses on the safety part, that would be bad salesmanship.
o (#0092) 5 (almost never) No, no way. He’s kind of obsessed with people not getting hurt.
o (#0126) 5 (almost never) he’s very concerned with things that could hurt him … like electrical outlets and that he could get hurt … we explain it to him that electrical outlets are like fire … he’s concerned with fire … he’s concerned with the soundness of the construction of our house because he’s seen some destruction from storms with trees falling.
o (#0144) 4 (rarely) if someone could get hurt she’s not going to do it.
• Child’s reaction is dependent on how parent’s frame situation: o (#0061) 4 (rarely) I can get him to stop something if I tell him it could hurt
someone. It’s really hard to get him to take leave of all of his sticks at the playground b/c he loves sticks…but he will at least stay away from others.
o (#0081) 4 (rarely) she wouldn’t entirely try or actively go, but if you give her enough promotion, sometimes we kind of force her to, but then she’ll feel better after she tries
• Cautious approach; engagement in activity; may involve parental explanation: o (#0003) 4 (rarely) – He’s pretty cautious. It’s partially from the siblings
that will tell him not to do something. They’re trying to protect him or something.
o (#0088) 4 (rarely) he’s cautious about himself getting hurt.