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THE UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA

A STUDY TO DETERMINE THE RELATIONSHIP

OF ANXIETY TO IRRATIONAL IDEAS

BY

LYMAN MURDOCK TAFT

A THESIS

SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE

OF MASTER OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

EDMONTON, ALBERTA

OCTOBER, 1968

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2019 with funding from

University of Alberta Libraries

h ttps ://a rc h i ve. o rg/d eta i I s/Taft 19 68

UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA

FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

The undersigned certify that they have read, and recommend

to the Faculty of Graduate Studies for acceptance, a thesis

entitled "A Study to Determine the Relationship of Anxiety to

Irrational Ideas," submitted by Lyman Murdock Taft, in partial

fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of

Education.

Date: October, 1968

.

ABSTRACT

This study was designed to investigate a hypothesized covariance

of irrationality and anxiety. Irrationality was operationally defined as

the holding of the types of irrational ideas enumerated by Ellis (1963)

which are integral to the Irrational Ideas Inventory constructed by

Zingle (1965).

Anxiety was defined in terms of six paper-and-pencil anxiety mea¬

sures. Specifically, The Maudsley Personality Inventory, the Revised

Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale and the Willoughby Personality Schedule.

As well, separate scores were tabulated and analyzed for the following

subscales: The Neuroticism Scale of the Maudsley; the Emotional Sensiti¬

vity and Unadaptive Anxiety Reactions Scales of the Willoughby. From an

initial sample of 238 high school students, 62 S's were designated as a

high irrational belief group and 66 S’s were designated as a low irration¬

al belief group. The high and low groupings represented (1) all male

S’s with the 25 highest and 25 lowest Irrational Ideas Inventory scores

respectively, and (2) all female S's with the 25 highest and 25 lowest

Irrational Ideas Inventory scores respectively.

For all six anxiety indices separate analyses of variance were

performed upon the scores obtained by the high and low irrational belief

groups according sex within groups.

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The results revealed that the high irrational belief group in

every instance exceeded the low irrational belief group in level of

anxiety (pc.OOl). In one instance sex accounted for a significant

(pc.OOl) difference inside the high and low groupings. This difference

was found only on the Emotional Sensitivity Scale of the Willoughby

Personality Schedule and was in favor of females.

Suggestions were made toward the research implications and the

wider application of Ellis' therapy in countering not only irrationa¬

lity but anxiety as well.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to express his appreciation to the principals

and teachers who allowed the writer to test the students in their

classrooms. Their interest in the study was encouraging and facilita-

tive.

Special gratitude is expressed to Dr. H. W. Zingle for all his

time, consistent encouragement and helpful criticism throughout the

study.

Many words would be necessary to express my deep gratitude to

my wife, Skip, and our children. Often family togetherness was missed

or postponed due to this study.

Special thanks are expressed to Mr. Robin Andrews, Dr. Donald

Black, Mr. Eugene Fox, Miss Maeburn McDonald and Mr. Robert Paton for

their help in the completion of this study.

This study is specially dedicated to my life-long friend,

teacher and coach, the late, Alan I. Chase. His years of guidance

and encouragement are integrated into the writer's life and work.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ... 1

Introduction ........ 1

The Problem ........ 2

II A REVIEW OF RELATED THEORY AND RESEARCH ... 4

Introduction ........ 4

Irrational Idea Theory ...... 4

Rational-Emotive Therapy ...... 5

The Major Irrational Ideas ..... 6

Some Current Views of Anxiety ..... 7

Cognitive Control of Behavior ..... 8

Research Relating Irrationality and Anxiety . . 10

Hypotheses ........ 13

III DESIGN AND PROCEDURE.15

The Sample ........ 15

The Procedure ........ 15

Instruments ........ 16

The Irrational Ideas Inventory . . . . 16

The Maudsley Personality Inventory . . . 17

The Revised Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale . . 18

The Willoughby Personality Schedule ... 19

IV FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS.20

Hypothesis I 20

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CHAPTER PAGE

Findings ........ 20

Conclusion ........ 21

Hypothesis II ....... 22



Hypothesis III ........ 23



Hypothesis IV ....... 25



Hypothesis V ....... 27



Hypothesis VI ....... 28


Conclusions ........ 30

V DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS . 31

Discussion ........ 31

Implications ........ 31

Implications for Practice ..... 31

Implications for Research ..... 32

BIBLIOGRAPHY . 34

38 APPENDIX

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

I. DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS BY SCHOOL AND SEX . . . 16

II. DISTRIBUTION OF I-I INVENTORY ITEMS BY IRRATIONAL IDEA

CATEGORY ..17

III. MEANS FOR THE HIGH AND LOW IRRATIONAL BELIEF GROUPS AND

FOR SEX WITHIN GROUPS ON THE NEUROTICISM SCALE OF

MPI . 20

IV. SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SCORES ON THE MPI

NEUROTICISM SUBSCALE FOR ALL GROUPS . . . 21

V. MEANS FOR THE HIGH AND LOW IRRATIONAL BELIEF GROUPS AND

FOR SEX WITHIN GROUPS ON THE TOTAL MPI ... 22

VI. SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SCORES ON THE TOTAL

MPI FOR ALL GROUPS.23

VII. MEANS FOR HIGH AND LOW IRRATIONAL BELIEF GROUPS AND SEX

WITHIN GROUPS ON THE REVISED TAYLOR MANIFEST ANXIETY

SCALE . ........ 24

VIII. SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SCORES ON THE REVISED

TAYLOR MANIFEST ANXIETY SCALE FOR ALL GROUPS . . 24

IX. MEANS FOR HIGH AND LOW IRRATIONAL BELIEF GROUPS AND SEX

WITHIN GROUPS ON THE EMOTIONAL SENSITIVITY SCALE . 25

X. SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SCORES ON THE

EMOTIONAL SENSITIVITY SCALE FOR ALL GROUPS . . 26

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TABLE PAGE

XI. MEANS FOR HIGH AND LOW IRRATIONAL BELIEF GROUPS AND

SEX WITHIN GROUPS ON THE UNADAPTIVE ANXIETY

REACTIONS SCALE . 27

XII. SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SCORES ON THE

UNADAPTIVE ANXIETY REACTIONS SCALE FOR ALL GROUPS . 28

XIII. MEANS FOR HIGH AND LOW IRRATIONAL BELIEF GROUPS AND

SEX WITHIN GROUPS ON THE WILLOUGHBY PERSONALITY

SCHEDULE FOR ALL GROUPS.29

XIV. SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SCORES ON THE

WILLOUGHBY PERSONALITY SCHEDULE FOR ALL GROUPS . 30

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

INTRODUCTION

A decade ago, commentaries by vocal educators (e.g. Conant, 1959;

Freidenberg, 1959; Neatby, 1953) repeatedly stressed the types of school

programs which would serve and would not serve the student learner. It

could be argued that governments, school trustees, and administrators

have risen to the challenge in the ten years since those reports were

first published. In Canada, the Federal Vocational and Technical Agree¬

ment Act permitted the federal government to infuse massive sums into

the upgrading of long neglected facets of secondary education. Provin¬

cial departments of education and local trustees responded to the chal¬

lenge. Archaic programs, obsolete facilities and inadequate organiza¬

tion have given way in almost every urban setting. In their place, new

programs, facilities, practices and techniques are being employed to

more nearly approximate the aim of supplying an education for every stu¬

dent in line with his or her potential.

Along with this massive reorientation and rededication of the

school system has come a renewed effort toward understanding the in¬

dividual student. For, despite the electronic aids, the diversity of

program and better prepared staff, a sizeable group of the nation’s

youth profit only marginally from the school experience.

Educational psychologists have begun to look at those aspects of

personality and behavior which promote student success and those aspects

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of personality and behavior which defeat the learner. The present study

examines the role that student anxiety and illogical or irrational be¬

lief systems play in preventing optimal individual learning.

THE PROBLEM

Zingle (1965) prepared an instrument to measure the extent to

which individuals give currency to illogical or irrational ideas. The

theory underlying the instrument was derived from the work of Ellis

(1963). Essentially, what Ellis suggested was that individuals covertly

rehearse illogical or irrational statements which in turn govern their

overt acts. The "irrational ideas" behind these self-statements fall

into eleven major categories under which most such defeating notions may

be subsumed. (Ellis, 1963, p. 60).

"Irrationality" as measured by Zingle’s instrument, the Irration¬

al Ideas Inventory (I-I Inventory), was subsequently found to be related

to underachievement. (Zingle, 1965). Again in 1967, Conklin using the

I.I. Inventory in a different experimental design replicated Zingle's

earlier findings. Thus, lack of achievement or lack of learner produc¬

tivity has been linked to irrationality. Studies also repeatedly re¬

port that higher anxiety is a correlate of underachievement (e.g. Frost,

1965; Flynn and Morgan, 1966; Diamond, 1967). That underachievers are

more apt to be high anxious as a finding is interesting. Unfortunately,

it is not of immediate value in helping the counsellor, the teacher or

the student in overcoming the anxiety. However, if it were determined

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that the possession of irrational ideas was causal of or at least coin¬

cident with a significant amount of anxiety, then techniques are avail¬

able to help the student.

That is, Ellis' rational therapy approach to counselling could

be employed extensively to not only reduce the holding of irrational

ideas, but, as well, the attendant anxiety. In addition, "guesswork

diagnosis" could be controlled through the use of the I-I Inventory.

Also, the progress of therapy could be evaluated and re-evaluated

through administration of parallel forms of the test.

Theoretically, the anticipation of such a relationship has abun¬

dant support in the work of Eysenck (1958; 1959) and Wolpe (1958).

Wolpe, for instance, utilizes an anxiety measure, The Willoughby

Schedule, with adult incapacitated clients in a manner as described

above. His whole therapy is based on very specific techniques for

lessening anxiety. However, his methods (i.e. hypnotism, carbon dio¬

xide inhalation) are not now readily or even ethically available to the

high school counsellor. Thus, the cognitive-verbal approach embodied

in Ellis' therapy offers a much wider application well within the scope

of school personnel.

Emerging from this discussion, then, is the underlying hypothesis

of the study that: High school students holding a high number of irra¬

tional beliefs will demonstrate more anxiety than will high school stu¬

dents holding few irrational beliefs.

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CHAPTER II

A REVIEW OF RELATED THEORY AND RESEARCH

Introduction

The present study is concerned with the relationship of irration¬

al or illogical beliefs to anxiety. Specifically, it is concerned with

the role that Ellis’ conception of irrational ideas plays in creating

disturbance (i.e. anxiety) within students. Thus, Ellis' theory and

therapy are considered as well as the literature relevant to anxiety

and the function of cognition in producing anxiety.

Irrational Idea Theory

Ellis terms his theory the "rational-emotive approach to psycho¬

therapy." The basic tenet of his system is that human emotion is pri¬

marily the result of thought. Most simply, he regards bias, prejudice,

and judgmental acts as the product of controlled thinking. Moreover,

the person who exhibits such emotions as "love" or "elation" according

to Ellis is most probably saying to himself overtly or covertly, some

sentence such as "this is good." Similarly, negative emotions such as

disgust or depression are caused by verbally based thought such as "this

is terrible." This conscious or unconscious use of "internalized sent¬

ences" is the basis of emotion. (Ellis, 1963, p. 60).

Drawing upon the work of Fromm (1941), Horney (1939) and others

(e.g. Reik, 1948), Ellis' attempts to show that illogical social teach¬

ings are central to neurosis. Man by giving currency to irrational, but

socially approved ideas, creates personal emotional disturbance.

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Rational-Emotive Therapy

The aberrations of an emotional genre that individuals display

are therefore subject to change through the use of a form of therapy

which counters these illogical ideas or beliefs. The reasoning is that

if human thinking or "self-verbalization" results in unadaptive emotions,

they may also be employed to cause adaptive social faciliting emotions.

Ellis, in his own words, says that:

It is the task of the psychotherapist to work with individuals who are needlessly unhappy and troubled, or who are weighted down with intense anxiety or hostility, and to show them (a) that their difficulties largely result from distorted perception and illogical thinking, and (b) that there is a relatively simple, though work-requiring method of reorder¬ ing their perceptions and reorganizing their thinking so as to remove the basic cause of their difficulties, (p. 36)

The "work requiring method" of change to which Ellis alludes is the ac¬

tive participation of the individual in a process of substitution of

rational ideas for irrational ideas. A consideration of his A-B-C theory

of personality and emotion will clarify the issue.

Ellis refers to the "internalized sentence" as the "B" step in the

A-B-C sequence of behavior. The assumption behind the theory is that a

stimulus "A" rarely causes a particular emotional reaction "C" in an

individual. Rather it is usually "B" (the socially conditioned inter¬

pretation that the individual places upon "A") that determines the reac¬

tion. The task of the rational-emotive therapist is to (1) acquaint the

client with the irrationality of his belief system and (2) provide logi¬

cal alternative ideas for immediate reality testing. As Ellis succinctly

states it, "the therapist serves as a frank counter-propagandist" (1963,

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p. 95). For example, if a client believes that it is necessary to be

loved by everyone; he is forcefully persuaded to operate anew from the

idea that it is pleasant to be approved, but not necessary.

6

The Major Irrational Ideas

There are numerous illogical internalized statements which Ellis

suggests are widely perpetuated and common in our culture. It is, thus,

most characteristic to find these "self-defeating" universal sentences

in a client requesting therapy. The eleven most inclusive irrational

ideas Ellis (1963) lists as:

1. The idea that it is a dire necessity for an adult human being to be loved or approved by virtually every signi¬ ficant other person in his community.

2. The idea that one should be thoroughly competent, adeq¬ uate, and achieving in all possible respects if one is to consider oneself worthwhile.

3. The idea that certain people are bad, wicked, or vil¬ lainous and that they should be severly blamed and punished for their villainy.

4. The idea that it is awful and catastrophic when things are not the way one would very much like them to be.

5. The idea that human unhappiness is externally caused and that people have little or no ability to control their sorrows and disturbances.

6. The idea that if something is or may be dangerous or fearsome one should be terribly concerned about it and should keep dwelling on the possibility of its occurring.

7. The idea that it is easier to avoid than to face certain life difficulties and self-responsibilities.

8. The idea that one should be dependent on others and needs someone stronger than oneself on whom to rely.

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9. The idea that one's pst history is an all-important determiner of one’s present behavior and that because something once strongly affected one’s life, it should indefinitely have a similar effect.

10. The idea that one should become quite upset over other people's problems and disturbances.

11. The idea that there is invariably a right, precise and perfect solution to human problems and that it is catas¬ trophic if this perfect solution is not found, (pp. 60-68)

Some Current Views of Anxiety

That anxiety accompanies irrational beliefs is the central predic¬

tion of the current study. And while, considerable theoretical support

is available, little specific empirical evidence has been accrued to

date. There have been many and varied studies dealing with anxiety.

The accumulated research relates to many complex variables which effect

anxiety (e.g. see the comprehensive review of Sarason, 1960).

Sarason points out that an enduring concern of anxiety researchers

has to do with the timing of measurement. Anxiety is a fleeting "mer¬

curial" quantity and, therefore, defies easy examination and hence

classification.

However, Levitt (1967) categorizes most current views of anxiety

according to (1) those which deal with it as a trait, (2) those which

treat it as a behavioral response and (3) those which take it to be a

transient state of emotional arousal. Inherent, even so, in all of

these disparate views is the concept of individual differences in anxiety

level. Thus, the highly anxiety prone individual may conceivably react

more intensely to stressful stimulation. Also, Levitt points out

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individual personal experiences appear related to the varied reaction

potential. Therefore, the "personal experience" obtained from a therapy

session could, in theory, vary the individual's reaction. Such a notion

of course, is compatible with Ellis' theory and therapy.

Relevant also to Ellis' position is the contention of Whiting

and Child (1953) that all or most anxiety is "socialization anxiety."

Such socialization anxiety arises, they suggest, from the pressures an

individual feels toward channeling his energies or impulses into soci¬

ally approved outlets.

Thorne (1967) in a very similar view postulates that a person

cannot be considered apart from his society. What he terms "integrative

psychology" is the view that man has social feelings. This social per¬

ception, Thorne feels, is related to man's ability to produce a change

in social problems or situations. As such Thorne's system comes concep¬

tually close to that of Ellis. For, Ellis' position is that the indivi¬

dual must counter socially sanctioned irrational ideas in order to pro¬

duce change.

Cognitive Control of Behavior

Thorne's integrative psychology is also based on the postulate

that the conscious self-awareness of man enables him to be highly inte¬

grative and deliberate in his actions. Accordingly, for Thorne as for

Ellis, the highest form of integration (i.e. national-deliberate or

inventive-creative behavior) is consciously controlled. Again the compa

tibility of Thorne's view with Ellis' position is evident. Ellis most

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certainly states that an individual can control his thought patterns.

The two theorists considered above do not stand alone, for others,

(Festinger, 1957; Luria, 1961; Rokeach, 1960; Vinake, 1960; Goldstein,

1960) openly concur. The two most fundamental hypotheses of Festinger?s

theory of cognitive dissonance relate intimately to Ellis' view.

Festinger states:

1. The existence of dissonance, being psychologically un¬ comfortable, will motivate a person to try to reduce the dissonance and achieve consonance.

2. When dissonance is present, the person will try to re¬ duce it and in addition will actively avoid situations likely to increase the dissonance, (p. 3)

Essentially, what Festinger has proposed is that motivation affects

cognitions (e.g. knowledge, opinion, or belief about the environment).

An individual may explain away or rationalize any inconsistency. For

in Festinger's model, inconsistency creates dissonance which the indivi¬

dual seeks to avoid because of "psychological discomfort." The discom¬

fiture could quite logically be seen in terms of emotional arousal (i.e.

anxiety). Moreover, as in Ellis' proposal, the individual upon confron¬

tation with an anxiety producing environment resorts to an irrational

belief for relief. This association of irrational beliefs with anxiety

has explanatory significance for the moment of confrontation. What is

not explained is how the anxiety is sustained. However, the prediction

tested in this study and Ellis' contention is that the sustaining of the

emotional arousal or anxiety is due to repeated ideas of the "interna¬

lized sentence" form. These affect the individual's perceptions, atti¬

tudes and overt behavior.

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A related theory is Rokeach's (1960) dogmatism concept which like

Festinger's dissonance concept carries a backlog of validation studies.

High dogmatics cling to simple, "often erroneous" beliefs in the face of

contradictory evidence. Rokeach (p. 364) also reports considerable

anxiety accompanies the "closedmindedness" of the high dogmatic person.

The underlying implication appears to be that individuals control their

own thinking.

Psychologists in the Soviet Union (e.g. Luria, 1961; Luria and

Yudovich, 1959; Liublinskaya, 1957) building upon the pioneer work of

Pavlov contend that thinking becomes increasingly the product of self¬

stimulation with age. The idea is that a "stimulus appearance" activates

a nervous activity in which abstraction and the generalization of innum¬

erable signals are possible. Thinking is the result. Thought, in turn,

becomes "the highest regulator of human behavior" (Pavlov, cited in Simon,

1957, p. 20). This, again, supports Ellis' theory and his therapeutic

approach of effecting change by altering ideas.

In the West, the work of Goldstein (1960) and of Vinake (1960) is

corroborative, as well. Goldstein assumes that thinking may be instiga¬

ted by perceptions, concepts, feelings, thoughts and ideas. Likewise,

Vinake theorizes that all thinking is goal-relating or wish-fulfilling

behavior or a compound of both.

Research Relating Irrationality and Anxiety

Rychlak and Lerner (1965) studied the relationship of anxiety

level to unwarranted expectation of success. High anxious Ss were found

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to be far more expectant of success upon one reinforcement than low an¬

xious Ss. This "generalized expectancy" characteristic of the Rychlak

and Lerner study appears to parallel the notion of irrationality. In

particular, it seems close to Ellis' Irrational Idea Number II: "that

one must be thoroughly competent, adequate and achieving in all possible

respects if one is to consider oneself worthwhile."

Rather similar results were obtained by Reidel (1965) who employed

Ss dichotomized on the basis of anxiety in a psychophysical task. His

Ss were called upon to make judgments regarding the length of lines in

195 sets of such lines. High anxious Ss were found to make more "doubt¬

ful" judgments (p=<.01) than did the low anxious Ss. His conclusion was

that the high anxiety group preferred not to risk error regardless of

the insignificance of the task. Such a conclusion again suggests that

the Ss had ideas like Irrational Idea Number II.

Other studies (Feather and Saville, 1967; Flynn and Morgan, 1966;

Diamond, 1967) reflect similar performance disparity in favor of low

anxious subjects in such tasks as following programmed instruction and

conventional achievement tests. In such tasks, performance is related

to judgment and judgment has repeatedly been found to be impaired by

anxiety. The Reidel study cited previously illustrates the fact that

judgment deteriorates as anxiety rises. Pribyl and Walker (1965) also

report an interactional affect of anxiety, social situation and sets of

stimuli upon judgment. This later finding, in particular, is most con¬

gruent with Ellis' position in regard to the social origin of ideas and/

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or emotions. Fitzgerald (1966) reported anxiety to be negatively corre¬

lated with "openness to experience." Given the "closedmindedness"

postulated for the high irrational individual such a finding seems supp¬

ortive of Ellis.

Highly relevant to the present study is research reported by

Lafferty (1963). Lafferty, in a study of fifth grade boys and girls in

the school classroom, examined the development of beliefs and values

that children hold without questioning. He contends that the school

influences the child's belief system more than the home. Quite simply,

he argues, the child spends most of his time at school. He refers to

these values and ideas as self-concepts. In Lafferty's view the indivi¬

dual merely accepts these ideas and does not try to explain them to him¬

self. This position relates closely to the Ellis’ theory concerning the

source of irrational ideas. Lafferty concluded that the greater the ex¬

tent of irrational (unquestioning) beliefs, the greater the extent of

avoidant behavior. Avoidant behavior was defined as any behavior which

led a child away from a social goal. In Lafferty's study this was eva¬

luated in terms of low school achievement as determined by a standardized

instrument.

Lafferty found that underachievers:

1. felt they could simply improve by worrying more about school.

2. are constantly striving for the goal of having everyone approve of them all the time for everything.

3. seem convinced that they cannot, by their own efforts, alter the course of a failing experience, (p. 45)

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These findings appear highly congruent with Ellis' assumption

that human beings usually sustain emotional arousal or anxiety as a

result of irrational and illogical thinking.

HYPOTHESES

The previous consideration of theory and research suggests the

following hypotheses:

1. High school students who score high on the Irrational Ideas

Inventory will score higher on the Neuroticism Scale of the

Maudsley Personality Inventory than will high school students

who score low on the Irrational Ideas Inventory.


Inventory will score higher on the Total Maudsley Personality

Inventory than will high school students who score low on the

Irrational Ideas Inventory.


Inventory will score higher on the Revised Form of the

Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale than will high school students

who score low on the Irrational Ideas Inventory.


Inventory will score higher on the Emotional Sensitivity

Scale of the Willoughby Personality Schedule than will high

school students who score low on the Irrational Ideas Inven¬

tory.

'

14

5. High school students who score high on the Irrational

Ideas Inventory will score higher on the Unadaptive

Anxiety Reactions Scale of the Willoughby Personality

Schedule than will high school students who score low

on the Irrational Ideas Inventory.

6. High school students who score high on the Irrational

Ideas Inventory will score higher on the Total Will¬

oughby Personality Schedule than will high school

students who score low on the Irrational Ideas Inventory.

CHAPTER III

DESIGN AND PROCEDURE

The Sample

The sample was drawn from Edmonton Public Composite High Schools.

Schools and classes were so chosen as to obtain subjects representative

of a wide range of school achievement and a variety of socio-economic

background. The listing below provides the specific details. In all,

238 students participated.

COMPOSITE PARTICIPATING HIGH SCHOOL CLASS

1. Harry Ainlay Sociology 20

2. McNally Psychology 20

3. Ross Sheppard Sociology 20

4. Strathcona Psychology 20

The Procedure

All 238 students were administered the Irrational Ideas Inventory.

The inventories were then scored and divided into two groups in accord¬

ance with the sex of the subject. From these groupings the following

were selected:

1. all male Ss receiving one of the 25 highest scores.

2. all female Ss receiving one of the 25 highest scores.

3. all male Ss receiving one of the 25 lowest scores.

4. all female Ss receiving one of the 25 lowest scores.

Because of the "tying" of subjects’ scores in all categories this selec¬

tion procedure yielded an N of 128 for further testing.

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All 128 of these Ss were subsequently administered the following

three anxiety measures: (1) The Maudsley Personality Inventory, (2)

The Revised Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale and (3) the Willoughby

Personality Schedule. The distribution of the final 128 participating

subjects according to school and sex is depicted in Table I.

TABLE I

DISTRIBUTION OF SUBJECTS BY SCHOOL AND SEX

COMPOSITE SCHOOLS

TOTAL SUBJECTS

HIGH IRRATIONAL GROUPS

LOW IRRATIONAL GROUPS

Male Female Total Male Female Total

Harry Ainlay 31 6 7 13 10 8 18

McNally 19 5 6 11 5 3 8

Ross Sheppard 29 10 5 15 6 8 14

Strathcona 49 8 15 23 11 15 26

TOTALS 128 29 33 62 32 34 66

INSTRUMENTS

The Irrational Ideas Inventory

The Irrational Ideas Inventory (I-I Inventory) developed by Zingle

(1965) was used in the study to measure "irrationality." The test con¬

tains 122 statements related to Ellis' eleven irrational ideas. Table

II shows the number of questions pertinent to each major irrational

idea.

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TABLE II

DISTRIBUTION OF I-I INVENTORY ITEMS BY IRRATIONAL IDEA CATEGORY

ELLIS' IRRATIONAL

IDEA NO. I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI

NO. OF RELATED 12 13 13 8 13 11 12 12 9 7 12 I-I ITEMS

The statements are arranged so as to discourage acquiescent set.

Irrationality is signified in one half of the items by agreement and in

the other half by disagreement. Subject response is recorded on a Likert-

type scale. The weightings are 5, 3, 1 from the greatest degree of

irrationality to the least degree of irrationality. Total test scores

are derived by summing all individual item choices. Thus, the higher

the scores the higher the degree of irrationality.

Zingle reports a test-retest reliability for the I-I Inventory of

.80 for high school students. Content validity via the interjudge method

was found to range from .75 to .85. Initial and subsequent construct

validation by Zingle (1965); Conklin (1965) and Conklin, Boersma and

Zingle (1967) has been extensive. The Irrational Ideas Inventory appears

in full in the Appendix.

The Maudsley Personality Inventory

The Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI) constructed by Eysenck

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was employed as one anxiety measure in the study. The HPI contains 48

items half of which relate to neuroticism and half of which relate to

extraversion-intraversion. Thus, three scores are possible: Extraver¬

sion or E Scale scores; Neuroticism or N Scale scores and Total Scale

scores (N & E). A weighting of 2 is awarded any response which represents

extraversion or neuroticism. A weighting of 1 is awarded any response

indicative of indecision. High scores indicate high anxiety.

Eysenck (1959) reports split half and Kuder-Richardson reliability

correlations in the .85 to .90 range for the Neuroticism Scale and in the

.75 to .85 range for the Extraversion Scale. Test-retest reliability

correlations of .81 and .83 are also reported, (p. 4) Validity studies

are extensive (Eysenck, 1959) and complex. Particularly germane to the

present study is the finding that scores on the N Scale correlated .77

with the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale.

The Revised Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale

The revised form of the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale was a second

anxiety measure employed in the current investigation (Taylor, 1953).

There are 28 items in the revised edition, each of which requires a true

or false response. Each response indicative of anxiety is weighted 1

point. Total test scores are derived by simple summation. High scores

being indicative of high anxiety. Taylor (1953) reports test-retest re¬

liability values of .82 and .89 for the revised form. Initial and sub¬

sequent validity studies are numerous (e.g. Taylor, 1953; Solomon, 1954;

Sarason, 1960).

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The Willoughby Personality Schedule

The Willoughby Inventory constituted a third anxiety measure. The

schedule purportedly indicates neurotic anxiety. It consists of 25 items,

12 of which comprise an emotional sensitivity sub-scale (ES) and 13 of

which comprise an unadaptive reactions sub-scale (UAR). Thus, three

scores are possible. That is, separate values are obtainable for the

ES and UAR sub-tests as well as the total Willoughby. Item content con¬

sists of a description of an emotion or a behavior typical of anxious

persons. The testee responds with one of four possible answers which

signify the frequency with which the testee has the emotion or exhibits

the behavior (e.g. "not at all") to ("practically always"). Weighting

is 1 2 3 4 from "not at all" to "practically always."

The reliability and validity of the instrument rests with the

work of Wolpe (1958). Wolpe has used the test extensively with his

neurotic patients and gauges therapeutic success on the changes evident

in pre and post therapy administrations of the Willoughby. He does re¬

port a validation study wherein differences were found between the scores

obtained by non-neurotics and by neurotics (Wolpe, 1958, p. 110).

"Normal" subjects were found significantly (p=<.001) less anxious than

neurotic patients.

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CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

For purposes of clarity and ease of reader interpretation each

hypothesis is restated, followed by the pertinent statistical findings

and appropriate conclusion.

HYPOTHESIS I

High school students who score high on the Irrational Ideas In¬

ventory will score higher on the Neuroticism Scale of the Maudsley Per¬

sonality Inventory than will high school students who score low on the


Findings

Scores on the Neuroticism Scale of the Maudsley Personality In¬

ventory (MPI) were tabulated for each S. Means for these scores were

calculated for both the high irrational belief group and the low irra¬

tional belief group and for sex within these groupings. Table III de¬

picts these values.

TABLE III

MEANS FOR THE HIGH AND LOW IRRATIONAL BELIEF GROUPS AND FOR SEX WITHIN GROUPS ON THE NEUROTICISM SCALE OF THE MPI

GROUP HIGH IRRATIONAL BELIEF GROUP X

LOW IRRATIONAL BELIEF GROUP X

Males 31.24 23.38

Females 31.73 26.38

Totals 31.49 24.88

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It can be seen that the mean for the high irrational belief group

was higher than the total mean for the low irrational belief group (i.e.

31.49 as opposed to 24.88). A subsequent analysis of variance was per¬

formed to determine if the observed differences were significant. In¬

spection of the results of the analysis presented in Table IV reveal a

significant difference does exist which exceeds the .001 probability

level.

TABLE IV

SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SCORES ON THE MPI NEUROTICISM SUBSCALE FOR ALL GROUPS

Source of Sum of Squares

Degrees of Freedom

Mean Squares

Obtained F. Ratio Sig.

Sex 97.25 1 97.25 1.86 NS

Group 1391.30 1 1391.30 26.57 P<.001

Interaction 50.75 1 50.75 .97 NS

Within 6493.39 124 52.37

Conclusion

Confirmation of Hypothesis I was obtained. Those high school

students found to score high on the Irrational Ideas Inventory were

found to obtain higher scores on the Neuroticism Scale of the MPI than

were their low Irrational Idea counterparts.

.

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22

HYPOTHESIS II

High school students who score high on the Irrational Ideas Inven¬

tory will score higher on the TOTAL Maudsley Personality Inventory than

will high school students who score low on the Irrational Ideas Inventory.

Findings

Scores for the Total Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI) were

tabulated for each S. Means for these scores were calculated for both

the high irrational belief group and the low irrational belief group and

for sex within these groupings. Table V depicts these values.

TABLE V

MEANS FOR THE HIGH AND LOW IRRATIONAL BELIEF GROUPS AND FOR SEX WITHIN GROUPS ON THE TOTAL MPI

GROUP HIGH IRRATIONAL

GROUP X LOW IRRATIONAL

GROUP X

Males 58.59 50.97

Females 57.82 53.85

Total 58.21 52.41

The observed difference between means for the high and low irra¬

tional belief groups (i.e. 58.21 as opposed to 52.41) were subsequently

through analysis of variance found significant beyond the .001 level.

Table VI presents the pertinent analysis of variance results.

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TABLE VI

SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF THE SCORES ON THE TOTAL MPI FOR ALL GROUPS

Source ss df Ms F Ratio Sig.

Sex 35.62 1 35.62 .37 N.S.

Group 1069.30 1 1069.30 11.02 p<.001

Interaction 106.37 1 106.37 1.10 N.S.

Within 12035.31 124 97.06

Conclusion

Confirmation of Hypothesis II was obtained. High school students

who scored high on the Irrational Ideas Inventory scored higher on the

total MPI than their low scoring counterparts.

HYPOTHESIS III


ventory will score higher on the Revised Form of the Taylor Manifest

Anxiety Scale than will high school students who score low on the


Findings

Scores on the Revised Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale were tabulated

for each S. Means for these scores were calculated for both the high

and low irrational belief groups and for sex within these groupings.

Table VII depicts these values.

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TABLE VII

MEANS FOR HIGH AND LOW IRRATIONAL BELIEF GROUPS AND SEX WITHIN GROUP ON THE REVISED TAYLOR MANIFEST ANXIETY SCALE



GROUP X

Males 12.90 7.78

Females 13.85 7.15

Total 13.38 7.47

To determine if the observed differences between means for the

high and low irrational belief groups were significant, an analysis of

variance was performed. Table VIII provides a summary of the analysis

of variance.

TABLE VIII

SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SCORES ON THE REVISED TAYLOR MANIFEST ANXIETY SCALE FOR ALL GROUPS

Source ss

Sex .80

Group 113.10

Interaction 20.06

df

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1

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.80 .03 N.S.

1113.10 44.72 p<.001

20.06 .81 N.S.

24.89 Within 3086.67 124

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Conclusion

Confirmation of Hypothesis III was obtained (p<.001). Those

high school students found to score high on the Irrational Ideas Inven¬

tory were found to obtain higher scores on the Revised Taylor Manifest

Anxiety Scale than their low Irrational Ideas counterparts.

HYPOTHESIS IV


ventory will score higher on the Emotional Sensitivity Scale of the

Willoughby Personality Schedule than will high school students who score

low on the Irrational Ideas Inventory.

Findings

Scores on the Emotional Sensitivity (ES) Scale of the Willoughby

Personality Schedule were tabulated for all Ss. Means for these scores

were calculated for both the high and low irrational belief groups and

for sex within these groups. Table IX depicts the various means.

TABLE IX

MEANS FOR HIGH AND LOW IRRATIONAL BELIEF GROUPS AND SEX WITHIN

GROUPS ON THE EMOTIONAL SENSITIVITY SCALE

GROUPS

HIGH IRRATIONAL

GROUP X

LOW IRRATIONAL

GROUP X

Males 19.93 12.41

Females 23.70 14.68

Total 21.82 13.55

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In order to determine if the observed differences between means

represent significant differences an analysis of variance was performed.

The results of the analysis of variance is summarized in Table X.

TABLE X

SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SCORES ON THE EMOTIONAL SENSITIVITY SCALE FOR ALL GROUPS

Source ss df Ms F. Ratio Sig.

Sex 290.44 1 290.44 5.46 p<.001

Group 2182.15 1 2182.15 41.05 p<.001

Interaction 17.84 1 17.84 .34 N.S.

Within 6592.00 124 53.16

Conclusion

Confirmation of Hypothesis IV was obtained. High school students

found to score high on the Irrational Ideas Inventory were found to score

higher on the Emotional Sensitivity Scale of the Willoughby Personality

Schedule than low Irrational Idea high school students (p<.001).

Also as a result of the analysis of variance females were found

to obtain higher (p<.001) Emotional Sensitivity scores than males. No

other index of anxiety employed in the study revealed higher anxiety to

be related to sex. While no such difference was hypothesized the obtain¬

ed results do confirm Wolpe's (1958, p. 107) contention that there is an

"anxious basis" to emotional sensitivity. The higher emotional

■ . .• a :' m o i

27

sensitivity of female may conceivably affect the course of therapy.

Therefore, more exploratory work in this regard could be productive.

HYPOTHESIS V

High school students who score higher on the Irrational Ideas In¬

ventory will score higher on the Unadaptive Anxiety Reactions Scale of

the Willoughby Personality Schedule than will high school students who

score low on the Irrational Ideas Inventory.

Findings

Scores on the Unadaptive Anxiety Reactions Scale of the Willoughby

were tabulated for all Ss. Means for these scores were tabulated for

both the high and low irrational belief groups and for sex within

groups. The relevant means are presented in Table XI.

TABLE XI

MEANS FOR HIGH AND LOW IRRATIONAL BELIEF GROUPS AND SEX WITHIN GROUPS ON THE UNADAPTIVE ANXIETY REACTIONS SCALE

GROUPS HIGH IRRATIONAL


GROUP X

Males 22.07 14.50

Females 22.45 15.79

Total 22.26 15.15

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The observed differences in means (22.26 as opposed to 15.15)

were found highly significant (pc.OOl) upon analysis of variance. Table

XII below provides the analysis of variance summary.

TABLE XII

SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SCORES ON THE UNADAPTIVE ANXIETY REACTIONS SCALE FOR ALL GROUPS


Sex 22.51 1 22.51 .37 N.S.

Group 1614.04 1 1614.04 26.82 p<.001

Interaction 6.56 1 6.56 .11 N.S.

Within 7463.61 124 60.19

Conclusion

Confirmation of Hypothesis V was obtained (p<.001). High school

students found to score high on the Irrational Ideas Inventory score

higher on the Unadaptive Anxiety Reactions Scale than low Irrational

Idea high school students.

HYPOTHESIS VI


ventory will score higher on the TOTAL Willoughby Personality Schedule

than will high school students who score low on the Irrational Ideas

Inventory.

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Findings

Scores on the Willoughby Personality Schedule were tabulated for

all Ss. Means for both the high and low irrational belief groups and

for sex within groups were calculated. Table XIII provides the specific

means obtained.

TABLE XIII

MEANS FOR HIGH AND LOW IRRATIONAL BELIEF GROUPS AND SEX WITHIN GROUPS ON THE WILLOUGHBY PERSONALITY SCHEDULE FOR ALL GROUPS


GROUP 1 LOW IRRATIONAL

GROUP X

Males 42.00 26.19

Females 46.15 30.47

Total 44.08 28.33

To determine if the observed differences between means (i.e. 44.08

as opposed to 28.33) were significant, an analysis of variance was per¬

formed. The results of the analysis of variance are summarized in

Table XIV.

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TABLE XIV

SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SCORES ON THE WILLOUGHBY PERSONALITY SCHEDULE FOR ALL GROUPS


Sex 474.55 1 474.55 2.63 N.S.

Group 7549.59 1 7549.59 41.86 p<.001

Interaction 2.87 1 2.87 .02 N.S.

Within 22363.37 124 180.35

Conclusions

Confirmation of Hypothesis VI was obtained (p<.001). High school

students who possess a high score on the Irrational Ideas Inventory,

score higher on the Willoughby Personality Schedule than students who

score low on the Irrational Ideas Inventory.

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CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

DISCUSSION

The results of this investigation are definitely supportive of

the general underlying hypothesis. Irrationality was found associated

with anxiety on the basis of 3 indices; all obtained relationships of

which exceeded chance expectation beyond the .001 level.

Therefore, one may conclude that high school students who hold

a high number of irrational ideas do demonstrate more anxiety than stu

dents who hold fewer irrational ideas. Moreover, it appears from the

theory considered, that irrational ideas are embraced prior to and are

causal of anxiety. However, such a notion is merely a suggestion and

not a finding of the study. What has been demonstrated is that there

is a strong association between irrational ideas and anxiety.

IMPLICATIONS

Implications for Practice

Essentially, what the results of the study mean is that the

rational-emotive therapy of Ellis should be more widely applied. The

anxiety which accompanies the embracing of irrational ideas is diffi¬

cult, at present, for the high school counsellor to combat. However,

the intervention of the counsellor in the client’s unquestioning accep

tance of irrational ideas is entirely possible.

In addition, identification of those students whose lack of

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achievement is due to the debilitating relationship between irrationa¬

lity and anxiety becomes highly reliable through the use of the I-I

Inventory. Upon completion of a specific planned program of therapy

a re-test would provide an objective evaluation of student change and

counselling success. The possible immediate benefits to the student in

the learning environment justify the recommendation that practicing

school counsellors commence further evaluation of Ellis’ approach to

therapy.

Implications for Research

Further research building upon the findings of this study would

be productive in many areas. Foremost in priority, would be a larger

scale study to determine if, in fact, irrational ideas precede and are

causal of anxiety. Such an investigation might take many forms. One

design that occurs to the author is that high irrational belief subjects

be identified. Then such persons could be confronted individually with

ideas counter to their specific irrational ideas. Anxiety measures

could be taken at numerous intervals during the confrontation or course

of therapy. The resultant pattern of the intensity of anxiety during

this procedure would confirm or disconfirm the contention that irration¬

ality leads to anxiety.

Research could also profitably be carried out to determine which

clusters of irrational beliefs or I-I items are most indicative (condu¬

cive?) of anxiety. This latter suggestion would lead to obvious econo¬

mical advantages to the counsellor in "diagnosis" and therapy.

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33

The major research implication is that follow-up work should be

done to determine if a cognitive-verbal approach to countering irrational

beliefs will decrease anxiety.

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.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Conant, J.B. The American high school today. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959.

Conklin, R.C. A psychometric instrument for the early identification of underachievers. Unpublished M.Ed. Thesis: University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, September, 1965.

Conklin, R.C., Boersma, F.J., and H.W. Zingle. Construct validity and further correlates of the Barron Complexity Scale. Psychological Reports. 1967, 20, 1059-1061.

Ellis, A. Reason and emotion in psychotherapy. New York: Lyle Stuart, 1963.

Eysenck, H.J. A short questionnaire for the measurement of two dimen¬ sions of personality. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1958, 42 (1), 14-17.

Eysenck, H.J. Manual of the Maudsley Personality Inventory. London: University London Press, 1959.

Feather, N.T. and Seville, M.R. Effects of amount of prior success and failure on expectations of success and subsequent task performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1967, 5 (20), 226-232.

Festinger, L. A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1957.

Fitzgerald, E.T. Measurement of openness to experience: A study of regression in the service of the ego. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1966, 4 (6), 655-663.

Flynn, J.T. and Morgan, J.H. A methodological study of the effective¬ ness of programmed instruction through analysis of learner characteristics. Proceeds of the 74th Annual Convention of the A.P.A., 1966.

Friedenberg, E.Z. The vanishing adolescent. New York: Dell Publishing

Co,, 1959.

Fromm, E. Escape from freedom. New York: Farrar & Rinehart, Inc., 1941.

Frost, B.P. Intelligence, manifest anxiety and scholastic achievement. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 1965, 11 (3), 167-175.

:

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.£ra

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J ; •. i :■■■', j;.v _

'

36

Harms, E.: Conf. Ed. Fundamentals of psychology: The psychology of thinking. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, December, 1960, Vol. 91, 1-158.

Horney, K. New ways in psychoanalysis. New York: Norton, 1939.

Lafferty, C.J. Values that defeat learning. The Eighth Inter-Insti- tutional Seminar in Child Development, 1963, 45.

Levitt, E. The psychology of anxiety. Indianapolis, The Bobbs-Merril Co., Inc., 1967.

Luria, A.R. and Yudovich, F. Speech and the development of mental processes in the child. London: Staples Press, 1959.

Luria, A.R. The role of speech in the regulation of normal and abnormal behavior. New York: Liverright, 1961.

Neatby, H. So little for the mind. Toronto: Clarke, Irwin, & Company Limited, 1953.

Pribyl, J.F., Walker, R.E., and Hunt, W.A. Judgment as a function of manifest anxiety and social conditions. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1965, 21 (3), 759-765.

Reik, T. Listening with the third ear. New York: Pyramid Book, 1948.

Riedel, W.W. Anxiety level and the "doubtful'1 judgment in a psychologi¬ cal experiment. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1965, 70 (6), 462-464.

Rokeach, M. The open and closed mind. New York: Basic Books, 1960.

Rychlak, J.F. and Lerner, J.J. An expectancy interpretation of manifest anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1965, 2 (5), 677-684.

Sarason, I.G. Empirical findings and theoretical problems in the use of anxiety scales. Psychological Bulletin, 1960, Vol. 57, 403-415.

Simon, B.: ed. Psychology in the Soviet Union. Standord: Stanford University Press, 1957.

Solomon, L.N. A personality scale of manifest anxiety. Psychological Abstracts, 1954, 288 (2683), 239.

to ^golorfo^sq sriT , i'jDfrtxoS io v'i ■

i ' <* GI

, :. - iilavag ni wi$ • # «Y^rnoH

■$fi .->rrl .oO

.

; I_ •.; _ L '2

• I

. .

?0I , baSiatiJ

. anoiiibnoD LeIoob ‘bn* îai.xnE lasiin&m

r^troY y/9^ ■ lao mil rf3jcw aabn^-j - J J

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to ssu er(t r; . OrrH i ■■ .o * 1 vor \ ;:: IsDiiiqraH .0.1 t<fspefi?*2

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Taylor, J.A. A personality scale of manifest anxiety. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1953, Vol. 48, 285-290.

37

Thorne, F.C. The structure of integrative psychology. Journal of Clinical Pscyhology, January, 1967, Vol. 23, No. 1.

Whiting, J.W.M. and Child, I.L. Child training and personality: A cross-cultural study. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1953.

Wolpe, J. Psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition. Palo Alto, Stanford University Press, 1958.

Zingle, H.W. A rational therapy approach to counselling underachievers Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta July, 1965.

'

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APPENDIX

x h n i h a

I-I INVENTORY

Name _ School_

Birthdate _ Grade_Age _

To The Student

This is a study of events and experiences in everyday life. You

are asked to cooperate seriously and carefully in marking the items in

this booklet. This is not an intelligence test. The best answer to

each statement is your own impression - there are no right or wrong

answers.

Your answers will be treated with the strictest confidence and

in no case will they be used to cause you any embarrassment.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR MARKING ANSWERS

For each statement, decide whether your answer is "Yes" or "No."

If your answer is a definite "Yes" put an (X) on the end of the line

where the "Yes" is typed. If your answer is a definite "No" put an (X)

on the end of the line nearest the "No." If you are uncertain as to how

you feel about the statement mark an (X) on the middle of the line. If

the true answer is somewhere between the yes and no, put the (X) where

it is most true for you.

Think carefully, but do not spend too much time on any one ques¬

tion. Let your own personal experience or opinion guide you to choose

the answer you feel about each statement.

There is no time limit.

Please mark every item.

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1. I would rather play by myself than with someone.

2. I prefer to get things done very quickly rather than being slow and sure in movement.

3. All human lives are equally sacred.

4. I usually object when a person steps in front of me in a line of people.

5. I have sometimes had a nickname which I didn't like very well.

6. I am afraid in the dark.

7. I prefer to accept suggestions rather than work them out for myself.

8. It is better to tell your troubles to your friends than to keep them to yourself.

9. Men are created equal in mental capacity.

10. It is necessary to be especially friendly to new

students.

11. School promotions should be for intellectual merit alone.

12. I like to be praised.

13. It is foolish to let others see your emotions.

14. To spare the rod is to spoil the child.

15. I worry about little things.

16. There are people to try to do me harm or hurt me.

17. I sometimes worry about my health.

18. Students should not be required to take courses

for which they see no use.

19. I like to bear responsibilities alone.

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20. It is a big aid to health to say each morning "Day by day in every way I am getting better and better."

21. Helping others is the very basis of life.

22. Firm convictions make for stength of character.

23. I feel that it is important to get on well with my teachers and principal.

24. Will power is the most important trait.

25. The "insanity plea" as a defence in murder trials is undesirable.

26. I must learn to 'keep my head1' when things go wrong.

27. I think that I am getting a square deal in life.

28. It is useless to worry about things that cannot be changed or corrected.

29. It is better to live a coward than die a hero.

30. I prefer to have someone with me when I receive bad news.

31. Some children are dull and unimaginative because of defective training in home and school.

32. Sympathy is the most divine passion of the human heart.

33. The good person is usually right.

34. Sometimes I feel that no one loves me.

35. I find it difficult to take criticism without feeling hurt.

36. We are justified in refusing to forgive our

enemies.

37. It is all right to create a scene in order to

get one's own way.

41

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38. Riches are a sure basis for happiness in the home.

39. I worry over possible misfortunes.

40. I have sometimes crossed the street to avoid meeting some person.

41. I prefer to be alone.

42. The boy who regularly stands at the foot of his class is often a great success after leaving school.

43. I get disturbed when neighbours are very harsh with their little children.

44. I find it easy to set standards of "right" and "wrong".

45. Jeers humiliate me even when I know that I am right.

46. Admiration gratifies me more than achievement.

47. Punishment is a sure cure for crime.

48. I frequently feel self-conscious about my appearance.

49. My feelings are hurt easily.

50. Sometimes I am troubled by thoughts of death.

51. If I were able to do so I would rather attend some other school than the one I am attending now.

52. My folks are not reasonable to me when they demand obedience.

53. Habits of pre-school years carried over into adult life may help determine our usefulness.

54. I get annoyed when people are impolite to me.

55. If one needs something badly enough and cannot buy it, there are times when it is all right to take it.

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56. I want people to like me better.

57. Too much importance is attached to the posses¬ sion of money and good clothes in this school.

58. Criminals are really sick and should be treated like sick persons.

59. I get terribly upset and miserable when things are not the way I would like them to be.

60. This school provides adequate opportunity for me to meet and make friends.

61. I worry about eternity.

62. I need to learn how to keep from being too aggressive.

63. I would like school better if teachers were not so strict.

64. Children outgrow their bad habits.

65. X get upset when I hear of people (not relatives or close friends) who are very ill.

66. It is alright to cheat in a game when you will get caught.

67. My folks do not take time to become acquainted with my problems.

68. This school places too much emphasis upon grades.

69. The members of my family seem to criticize me a lot.

70. I get very angry when I miss a bus which passes only a few feet away from me.

71. I find that this school tends to make me unhappy.

72. I can walk past a grave yard alone at night without feeling uneasy.

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73. I usually like to be somewhere else than at home.

74. I enjoy being alone more than being with my classmates.

75. A person who will not stand up for his rights as a teen-ager will probably not be able to stand up for his rights as an adult.

76. Other people's problems frequently cause me great concern.

Yes No

77.

78.

79.

80.

Crime never pays.

I wish that more affection were shown by more members of my family.

I worry about tests.

hope the robber won't get caught in the end.

81. When things are not the way I would like them to be, and it is not in my power to change them, I calmly accept things the way they are.

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82. I feel that life has a great deal more happi¬ ness than trouble.

83. I can face a difficult task without worry.

84. I avoid inviting others to my home because it is not as nice as theirs.

Yes t

Yes f

Yes i

No i

No i

No t

85. I prefer to be independent of others in making

decisions.

86. A juvenile delinquent will almost surely be a criminal when he becomes an adult.

87. He that loses his conscience has nothing left that is worth keeping.

88. It is better to have friends than fame.

89. My folks appear to doubt whether I will be successful.

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102.

103.

104.

105.

106.

I feel guilty when I misbehave and I expect to be punished.

Sticks and stones will break my bones but words will never hurt me.

I tend to worry over possible troubles.

Many of my classmates are so unkind or unfriendly that I avoid them.

I tend to look to others for the kind of behavior they approve as right and wrong.

If a child is brought up in a home where there is much quarreling and unhappiness he will probably be unhappy in his own marriage.

People who unjustly criticize the government should be put in jail.

When a friend ignores me I become extremely upset.

If a person tries hard enough, he can be first in anything.

The police may sometimes be right in giving a man the "third degree" to make him talk.

It hurts me when my friends are unkind.

I worry about the possibility of an atomic attack by some foreign power.

I often spend more time in trying to think of ways of getting out of something than it would take me to do it.

I feel my parents have dominated me too much.

I know there is a God.

I find it very upsetting when people who are important to me are indifferent to me.

When a person is no longer interested in doing his best he is done for.

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It is impossible at any given time to change one’s emotions.

intrinsically frightful about these things.

I am happiest when I am sitting around doing little or nothing.

Cooperation is better than competition.

It is sinful to doubt the Bible.

It makes me uncomfortable to be different.

People who do not achieve competency in at least one area are worthless.

People who perform acts which are immoral do so because they are too stupid or too ignorant to refrain from doing so.

Unhappiness largely comes from within and is largely created by the unhappy person himself.

I am naturally a lazy person.

It is better to take risks and to commit possib; errors, than to seek unnecessary aid of others.

Persons who are punished for their "sins" usual; change for the better.

It would be terrible or catastrophic to be a cripple.

I follow a definite study schedule during the school term.

Most people can be truly outstanding in at least one area of their work.

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A study to determine the relationship of anxiety to ...

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