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A radiographical study of the feline urinary systemCopyright is
owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy
to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and
private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere
without the permission of the Author.
A RADIOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF THE FELINE
URINARY SYSTEM
A d is s er ta t ion pres ented in par t i a l fulfilment
of t h e requ i rements for the
Ma s ter o f P h i l osophy
in the Faculty of Veterinary Science
at Massey University
Al though .
radiogra phi c a l techn i ques to examine the
ur inary sy stem are we l l estab l i shed in dogs and human s, these
techniques have not been wi dely accepted or appl i ed t o examine
the f e l ine uri nary sy stem . Considerab l e confusion and contro
ver sy exi s t regarding anatomical features and rad iographical
inter pretation of the f e l in e urinary system. Much of the
curren t ly avai l able informa t i on on the f e l ine ur inary sy stem
has been assumed f rom comparative s tudi e s in other species,
par t i c u l ar ly the dog .
Thi s s tudy comprises a comprehens ive l i terature review
of the anatomy and radiography in the f e l ine urinary t ract and
inc ludes resu l t s of a l imi t ed radiographical study of the
urinary trac t in 27 c l in i ca l ly normal cat s .
The cat s s tudi ed were prepared for radiography and
rest rai ned with variou s anaes thet i c agen t s and techni ques . Rad io
graphi cal examinat ions of the urinary sy s tem invo lved standard
rad iography, and the use of an image intensifier connected wi th
a t e l ev i sion moni tor and 70 mm spot f i lms . The kidney was
studi ed u sing p l ain radiography, intravenous and int r amuscu l ar
exc retory urography, renal ar teriography and renal venography .
Wi th these techn i ques the kidney l ocat i on, si ze, out l i ne, radio
graphi c a l den s i ty and bl ood supply were observed . Changes in
kidney po s i t ion in various pos tures relative to the l umbar
ver t ebrae were a l so studied • . The ureter a l course, s i z e and
b lood supply wer e studied f o l l owing excretory urography and in
some cats the presenc e of vesi co-ureteral ref lux enabl ed retro
grad e uret erography . The l ocat ion, shape, size and radiograph
ical den s i ty of the ur inary b l adder were s tudied by p l ain
rad iography , excretory rad iography and retrograde cy stography
i n c l ud i ng po si t ive, negat ive and doub l e contrast techn i que s . The
urethr a l c our se , shape, s i ze and sex dif ferences were s tudied by
retrograde and micturating urethrography. Following the radio graphi c a l studi e s , a l l cats were euthani zed and thei r urinary
..___
ii
S e l ec tive f inding s of thi s study are as fo l l ows . The
i n t erna l struc tures of the kidney , name ly the cortex , medu l l a ,
ren a l column s , pelvic diverticu l i , pelv i s and renal ves se l s
i i i
were visua l i z ed.u sing contrast radiography . The interna l venous
drainage of the kidney was demonstrated by selec t ive renal veno
graphy . As previously de s cribed in the l i terature , the kidney
l oc ation varied in ind ividu a l cats pos ture respiratory phase and
the geometrical rel ationshi p between the x-ray tube and the
anima l . However the ang l e of the l ongi tudinal axi s , the l ength
and width of the kidney and the ratio between the l eng th of the
kidney and lumbar vertebrae were rel atively consi stent . The
proxima l uret ers had a character i s t i c s tep- wi se course. Vesico
uretera l ref lux was observed in 36% o f cats s tud i ed during m i c
turating cy sto-urethrography but no evidence of thi s ref lux was
found in c at s sedated with xy lazine . A l though the urinary
bl adder expanded proportiona l ly during i l l ing , i t a ssumed an
hour-glass- shape during mi c turi tion . The ma l e urethra narrowed
at the l eve l s of the prostate and bu l bourethral g l an d s . The
f ema l e urethra formed a bu l bous enl argement immediat ely proxima l
·
· --..
The author would l i ke to s incerely thank hi s chi ef
supervi sor, Dr . B . E . Goulden for h i s interest, encouragement,
s t i mulus and suppor t through the experiment s and in the prep
aration of thi s manuscrip t . The kind guidance and advice of
the o ther supervisors, Mr. R . S . Wyburn and Dr . W . T . Clark, i s
also apprec i at ed . The au thor offers h i s sincere t hanks and
app re c iation to Dr . I . L . Ander son for hi s in teres t and for proof
read i ng of thi s manuscr ipt.
I am grateful to the t echnical staff at Massey Univer s i ty
for thei r skilful as s i stance and cooperat ion . Special thanks
ar e due to Mr . T . G . Law who a s s i st ed in preparing the photo
graphs . Grati tude i s also due to Dr . R . E . Harris f o r h i s very
kind advice in analysis of the dat a .
Special thanks are d u e t o Mi s s N . Okawa for preparat ion
of thi s study parti cularly for computer processing of the data
and for typing earlier draf t s of thi s manu scr ip t . To the o ther
typ i s t s, Mr s . J . Pearce who typed the f i r st drafts and Mi s s
K . s. Walker who typed the f inal copy o f thi s manu scri pt, the
au thor is gratefu l .
Las t bu t not least, the author would l ike to r ecogni ze
the patience, understanding and assi stance of his parents,
Mr . Y asuji Kur o sawa, and Mr s . Kau Kurosawa .
"Minasan Taihen Ar igato Gozai Mashi t a . "
iv
A. KIDNEY
4. SIZE . . . . . . . . .
P roximal convo l uted tubu l e • • • • • • • • i i .
i i i .
Loop of Hen l e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D i s t a l convo luted tubu l e
v . Co l l ec ting tubu l e e • • • • • • • • • • • e • • • • e • •
BLOOD SUPPLY
a . Artery
b. Vein
LYMPHATI CS
NERVE SUPPLY
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e e e 8 e e e e e e e e e e e e e 0 e e e e e V e e e e e e e e e a e e
• • • • • • • • • • • e • • • • • • • • • • e • • • • • • •
High dose urography
Large volume urography . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Subcutaneou s Urography
Retrograde Pyel ography
vi . Function
RENAL ARTERIOCRAPHY
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Int roduction e e e e V e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e
b. Pro cedure • • • • • •
c. Equi pment • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •-....! • •
RENAL VENOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OTHER METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
• • • • • • • • • • • Q • • • • • • • • • • EXCRETORY URETEROGRAPHY
LARGE VOLUME URETEROGRAPHY e e e e e e e e e e • e V e e e e e e e
RETROGRADE URETEROGRAPHY
b. Pos i t ive Cys tography • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
i . Ret rograde cystography • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
c . Dou b l e Contrast Cy stography • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
d . Interpretation of Cys tograms
E... URETHRA RADIOCRAPHY
RENAL ARTERIOGRAPHY
RENAL VENOGRAPHY
Posi t ive Cy s tography
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
URETHROGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a .
b .
a . Dor sal Recumbency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b . Change in Kidney P o s i t ion wi th Posture • • • • • •
c. Change in Kidney P o s i tion due to Other Causes
d. Longi tudinal Axi s o f Kidney . . . . . . . .... . . . .
OUTLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SIZE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .
b . I n tramuscu l ar Urography
RENAL ARTERIOGRAPHY
RENAL VENOGRAPHY
LI ST OF FIGURES Figure Page
1 Schematic d i agram of the geometrica l relat ionship of
the x- ray tube , skin marker , l umbar vertebra and kidney ,
and their r adiographical images on radiographs taken in
three diff erent direc tions . • • • • . • • • . . . . . • . • • • • . • • • • • • • • • 49
2 Ventra - do r s a l excret ory urogram showing def ini tions
of kidney 1 ength and wid th . • • • • . . • • • . . . . . . . . . • . . • • • • • • • • 5 1
3 Lateral excr etory u rogram showing methods of measure
ment of kidney l ength and thickness , and vertebral
body length • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2
4 Ventra- dor s a l excretory urogram showing methods of
measu remen t of kidney dis tance , and location of kidney
compared wi th vert ebrae and vert ebral body l ength • . • • . • • 5 2
5 Schematic diagram o f ventra- dor sal excretory urogram
showing methods of measuremen t of angle of l ongi tud-
ina l axes of kidney . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • • . . . . . . . . • . • • . • • . • • . 53
6 Lateral mic turating cy sto- urethrogram and its schematic
diagram showing the po sitions of measurement of the
l ongi tudinal and ver tic a l diameters of the urinary
bladder and the urethral diameter in fema l e cats • • • • . • • • 57
7 Latera l mic tu rati ng ure throgram and its schematic
diagram showing the component par t s of the urethra and
the po sitions of measurement of urethral diameter in
ma le cat s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8 Ventra- do rsal plain radiograph showing the kidneys and
u rinary b l adder . • • . . . . . . • . • • • . • . . . . • . . • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . 63
9 Lateral p l a i n radiograph showing the kidneys and
urinary b ladder • • • . . . • • • • • • • • • . . • • . • • . . • . • . • . . • . • . • • • • • . 63
1 0 Arteriographi c phas e of the excretory urogram • • • • • • • • • . • 6 4
xii
Figu r e Page
1 1 Sel ec tive renal ar teriogram showing the arterial
dis tribu tion o f one branch of a bifurcated renal
artery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6
1 2 Non-selec tive rena l arteriogram showing the arteria l
supply to the kidney s together with some o ther ma j o r
abdomina l art eries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1 3 S e l ective renal ar teriogram showing the nephrographic
phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1 4 Renal venogram showing venou s drainage of the l ef t
kidney . . ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
15 Renal venogram showing a doub l e rena l vein from the
right kidney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1 6 Ret rograde py el ogram due t o vesico -uret era l ref lux
du ring mic turating cystography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1 7 Lateral radiograph du ring simu l taneou s exc retory
urography and pneuma- cystog raphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1
18 Schematic diagram of the kidney and l umbar ver tebrae
of 15 cats showing the variation in kidney location
rel ative to the lumbar vertebrae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2
1 9 S chematic diag ram o f the rel ationship between the
k idneys and l umbar vertebrae showing variation of the
relative anatomical location in variou s po s tures . . . . . 74
20 Int ravenous u rogram of the kidney s during nephrographic
phase showing the funnel shaped hi l ar no tch and
cortico - medu l l ary separation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2 1 Excretory urogram showing the out lines o f bot h kidneys 79
2 2 Lateral excretory u rogram showing the appearance of
the rena l pe l ve s , pelvic divert i cu l i , ureters and
u rinary b l adder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
xi i i
Figure
23a Scattergram o f kidney l ength at pos tmortem. . . . . . . . . 84
23b Scatt ergram o f kidney l ength i n urograms taken from
anima l s in dorsal recumbency . . • • • . . . . • . • • • • • • • • • • • • 84
23c S cat tergram of kidney l ength in u rograms taken from
animal s in r ight l ateral r ecumbency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
24 N on - se l ec t i v e r ena l arteriogram showing bi l at eral
doub l e rena l arter i es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 6
25 Photograph of postmo r t em spec imen showing the area
26
27
28
Lat eral mi c turating cystogram • • • • • • • . . . • • • • • . • • . • • • 88
Exc retory ureterograms from three d ifferent cats • . . 90
Do rso - vent ra l exc retory cystogram . . • . . • • • . • • • . . • • . • 9 2
29 Typica l lat era l ret rograde pos i tive cystogram in a
30
m a 1 e cat . ., . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . " • . • • • • . . • . . . . . . . • • • • • . • tl 9 3
Serial mi c turat ing cystograms and compo s i t e l ine
drawing showing changes in the shape of the uri nary
b l adder dur i ng mi cturi t ion . . . • • • • • • • • • . . • . . . . • • • . • •
Dor so- vent ral m i c turating u rethrogram i n a ma l e cat .
9 5
9 7
3 2 Dor so-ventral mi cturating urethrogram i n a f ema l e
cat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3 3 Schematic d i agrams showing the representation of
po s tures and pro j ec t ions • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • . • • • • • • • • • • e 1 33
xiv
Tab l e P age
I Ang l e of longitud inal axes of the kidney and i t s
mean , stand ard d eviat ion and stand ard error from
16 c at s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 6
II Hean , s t and ard dev i at ion and s t and ard e rror of
fel ine kidney and lumbar vert ebral sh adow l engths
in u rog ra1ns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Ill Hean , standard d ev i at ion and s t and ard erro r of
measu rement s o f the fel ine kidney at po s tmo rt em . • • • • •
IV Li near reg res sion fo rmu l i of the kidney l ength on
the lumbar vert eb ral l ength as measu red in dors o-
8 1
vent ral and l ef t l ateral u rograms ( mm ) . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2
V Length of mal e u rethra and f i f th lumbar vertebra
( mm as measu red in l at e ral urethrog rams f rom
fou r c at s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lOO
VI Length of femal e u rethra, ves t i bu lum and f i f th
lumbar vertebra ( mm ) as measu red i n l at e ral
u rethrograms f rom f i ve c at s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l OO
V II Width of urethra as measured in l ateral mi c t u rat i ng
A RADIOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF THE FELINE
URINARY SYSTEM
A d is s er ta t ion pres ented in par t i a l fulfilment
of t h e requ i rements for the
Ma s ter o f P h i l osophy
in the Faculty of Veterinary Science
at Massey University
Al though .
radiogra phi c a l techn i ques to examine the
ur inary sy stem are we l l estab l i shed in dogs and human s, these
techniques have not been wi dely accepted or appl i ed t o examine
the f e l ine uri nary sy stem . Considerab l e confusion and contro
ver sy exi s t regarding anatomical features and rad iographical
inter pretation of the f e l in e urinary system. Much of the
curren t ly avai l able informa t i on on the f e l ine ur inary sy stem
has been assumed f rom comparative s tudi e s in other species,
par t i c u l ar ly the dog .
Thi s s tudy comprises a comprehens ive l i terature review
of the anatomy and radiography in the f e l ine urinary t ract and
inc ludes resu l t s of a l imi t ed radiographical study of the
urinary trac t in 27 c l in i ca l ly normal cat s .
The cat s s tudi ed were prepared for radiography and
rest rai ned with variou s anaes thet i c agen t s and techni ques . Rad io
graphi cal examinat ions of the urinary sy s tem invo lved standard
rad iography, and the use of an image intensifier connected wi th
a t e l ev i sion moni tor and 70 mm spot f i lms . The kidney was
studi ed u sing p l ain radiography, intravenous and int r amuscu l ar
exc retory urography, renal ar teriography and renal venography .
Wi th these techn i ques the kidney l ocat i on, si ze, out l i ne, radio
graphi c a l den s i ty and bl ood supply were observed . Changes in
kidney po s i t ion in various pos tures relative to the l umbar
ver t ebrae were a l so studied • . The ureter a l course, s i z e and
b lood supply wer e studied f o l l owing excretory urography and in
some cats the presenc e of vesi co-ureteral ref lux enabl ed retro
grad e uret erography . The l ocat ion, shape, size and radiograph
ical den s i ty of the ur inary b l adder were s tudied by p l ain
rad iography , excretory rad iography and retrograde cy stography
i n c l ud i ng po si t ive, negat ive and doub l e contrast techn i que s . The
urethr a l c our se , shape, s i ze and sex dif ferences were s tudied by
retrograde and micturating urethrography. Following the radio graphi c a l studi e s , a l l cats were euthani zed and thei r urinary
..___
ii
S e l ec tive f inding s of thi s study are as fo l l ows . The
i n t erna l struc tures of the kidney , name ly the cortex , medu l l a ,
ren a l column s , pelvic diverticu l i , pelv i s and renal ves se l s
i i i
were visua l i z ed.u sing contrast radiography . The interna l venous
drainage of the kidney was demonstrated by selec t ive renal veno
graphy . As previously de s cribed in the l i terature , the kidney
l oc ation varied in ind ividu a l cats pos ture respiratory phase and
the geometrical rel ationshi p between the x-ray tube and the
anima l . However the ang l e of the l ongi tudinal axi s , the l ength
and width of the kidney and the ratio between the l eng th of the
kidney and lumbar vertebrae were rel atively consi stent . The
proxima l uret ers had a character i s t i c s tep- wi se course. Vesico
uretera l ref lux was observed in 36% o f cats s tud i ed during m i c
turating cy sto-urethrography but no evidence of thi s ref lux was
found in c at s sedated with xy lazine . A l though the urinary
bl adder expanded proportiona l ly during i l l ing , i t a ssumed an
hour-glass- shape during mi c turi tion . The ma l e urethra narrowed
at the l eve l s of the prostate and bu l bourethral g l an d s . The
f ema l e urethra formed a bu l bous enl argement immediat ely proxima l
·
· --..
The author would l i ke to s incerely thank hi s chi ef
supervi sor, Dr . B . E . Goulden for h i s interest, encouragement,
s t i mulus and suppor t through the experiment s and in the prep
aration of thi s manuscrip t . The kind guidance and advice of
the o ther supervisors, Mr. R . S . Wyburn and Dr . W . T . Clark, i s
also apprec i at ed . The au thor offers h i s sincere t hanks and
app re c iation to Dr . I . L . Ander son for hi s in teres t and for proof
read i ng of thi s manuscr ipt.
I am grateful to the t echnical staff at Massey Univer s i ty
for thei r skilful as s i stance and cooperat ion . Special thanks
ar e due to Mr . T . G . Law who a s s i st ed in preparing the photo
graphs . Grati tude i s also due to Dr . R . E . Harris f o r h i s very
kind advice in analysis of the dat a .
Special thanks are d u e t o Mi s s N . Okawa for preparat ion
of thi s study parti cularly for computer processing of the data
and for typing earlier draf t s of thi s manu scr ip t . To the o ther
typ i s t s, Mr s . J . Pearce who typed the f i r st drafts and Mi s s
K . s. Walker who typed the f inal copy o f thi s manu scri pt, the
au thor is gratefu l .
Las t bu t not least, the author would l ike to r ecogni ze
the patience, understanding and assi stance of his parents,
Mr . Y asuji Kur o sawa, and Mr s . Kau Kurosawa .
"Minasan Taihen Ar igato Gozai Mashi t a . "
iv
A. KIDNEY
4. SIZE . . . . . . . . .
P roximal convo l uted tubu l e • • • • • • • • i i .
i i i .
Loop of Hen l e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D i s t a l convo luted tubu l e
v . Co l l ec ting tubu l e e • • • • • • • • • • • e • • • • e • •
BLOOD SUPPLY
a . Artery
b. Vein
LYMPHATI CS
NERVE SUPPLY
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e e e 8 e e e e e e e e e e e e e 0 e e e e e V e e e e e e e e e a e e
• • • • • • • • • • • e • • • • • • • • • • e • • • • • • •
High dose urography
Large volume urography . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Subcutaneou s Urography
Retrograde Pyel ography
vi . Function
RENAL ARTERIOCRAPHY
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Int roduction e e e e V e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e
b. Pro cedure • • • • • •
c. Equi pment • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •-....! • •
RENAL VENOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
OTHER METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
• • • • • • • • • • • Q • • • • • • • • • • EXCRETORY URETEROGRAPHY
LARGE VOLUME URETEROGRAPHY e e e e e e e e e e • e V e e e e e e e
RETROGRADE URETEROGRAPHY
b. Pos i t ive Cys tography • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
i . Ret rograde cystography • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
c . Dou b l e Contrast Cy stography • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
d . Interpretation of Cys tograms
E... URETHRA RADIOCRAPHY
RENAL ARTERIOGRAPHY
RENAL VENOGRAPHY
Posi t ive Cy s tography
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
URETHROGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a .
b .
a . Dor sal Recumbency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b . Change in Kidney P o s i t ion wi th Posture • • • • • •
c. Change in Kidney P o s i tion due to Other Causes
d. Longi tudinal Axi s o f Kidney . . . . . . . .... . . . .
OUTLINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SIZE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .
b . I n tramuscu l ar Urography
RENAL ARTERIOGRAPHY
RENAL VENOGRAPHY
LI ST OF FIGURES Figure Page
1 Schematic d i agram of the geometrica l relat ionship of
the x- ray tube , skin marker , l umbar vertebra and kidney ,
and their r adiographical images on radiographs taken in
three diff erent direc tions . • • • • . • • • . . . . . • . • • • • . • • • • • • • • • 49
2 Ventra - do r s a l excret ory urogram showing def ini tions
of kidney 1 ength and wid th . • • • • . . • • • . . . . . . . . . • . . • • • • • • • • 5 1
3 Lateral excr etory u rogram showing methods of measure
ment of kidney l ength and thickness , and vertebral
body length • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2
4 Ventra- dor s a l excretory urogram showing methods of
measu remen t of kidney dis tance , and location of kidney
compared wi th vert ebrae and vert ebral body l ength • . • • . • • 5 2
5 Schematic diagram o f ventra- dor sal excretory urogram
showing methods of measuremen t of angle of l ongi tud-
ina l axes of kidney . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • • . . . . . . . . • . • • . • • . • • . 53
6 Lateral mic turating cy sto- urethrogram and its schematic
diagram showing the po sitions of measurement of the
l ongi tudinal and ver tic a l diameters of the urinary
bladder and the urethral diameter in fema l e cats • • • • . • • • 57
7 Latera l mic tu rati ng ure throgram and its schematic
diagram showing the component par t s of the urethra and
the po sitions of measurement of urethral diameter in
ma le cat s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8 Ventra- do rsal plain radiograph showing the kidneys and
u rinary b l adder . • • . . . . . . • . • • • . • . . . . • . . • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . 63
9 Lateral p l a i n radiograph showing the kidneys and
urinary b ladder • • • . . . • • • • • • • • • . . • • . • • . . • . • . • . . • . • . • • • • • . 63
1 0 Arteriographi c phas e of the excretory urogram • • • • • • • • • . • 6 4
xii
Figu r e Page
1 1 Sel ec tive renal ar teriogram showing the arterial
dis tribu tion o f one branch of a bifurcated renal
artery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6
1 2 Non-selec tive rena l arteriogram showing the arteria l
supply to the kidney s together with some o ther ma j o r
abdomina l art eries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1 3 S e l ective renal ar teriogram showing the nephrographic
phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1 4 Renal venogram showing venou s drainage of the l ef t
kidney . . ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
15 Renal venogram showing a doub l e rena l vein from the
right kidney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1 6 Ret rograde py el ogram due t o vesico -uret era l ref lux
du ring mic turating cystography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1 7 Lateral radiograph du ring simu l taneou s exc retory
urography and pneuma- cystog raphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1
18 Schematic diagram of the kidney and l umbar ver tebrae
of 15 cats showing the variation in kidney location
rel ative to the lumbar vertebrae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 2
1 9 S chematic diag ram o f the rel ationship between the
k idneys and l umbar vertebrae showing variation of the
relative anatomical location in variou s po s tures . . . . . 74
20 Int ravenous u rogram of the kidney s during nephrographic
phase showing the funnel shaped hi l ar no tch and
cortico - medu l l ary separation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2 1 Excretory urogram showing the out lines o f bot h kidneys 79
2 2 Lateral excretory u rogram showing the appearance of
the rena l pe l ve s , pelvic divert i cu l i , ureters and
u rinary b l adder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
xi i i
Figure
23a Scattergram o f kidney l ength at pos tmortem. . . . . . . . . 84
23b Scatt ergram o f kidney l ength i n urograms taken from
anima l s in dorsal recumbency . . • • • . . . . • . • • • • • • • • • • • • 84
23c S cat tergram of kidney l ength in u rograms taken from
animal s in r ight l ateral r ecumbency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
24 N on - se l ec t i v e r ena l arteriogram showing bi l at eral
doub l e rena l arter i es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 6
25 Photograph of postmo r t em spec imen showing the area
26
27
28
Lat eral mi c turating cystogram • • • • • • • . . . • • • • • . • • . • • • 88
Exc retory ureterograms from three d ifferent cats • . . 90
Do rso - vent ra l exc retory cystogram . . • . . • • • . • • • . . • • . • 9 2
29 Typica l lat era l ret rograde pos i tive cystogram in a
30
m a 1 e cat . ., . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . " • . • • • • . . • . . . . . . . • • • • • . • tl 9 3
Serial mi c turat ing cystograms and compo s i t e l ine
drawing showing changes in the shape of the uri nary
b l adder dur i ng mi cturi t ion . . . • • • • • • • • • . . • . . . . • • • . • •
Dor so- vent ral m i c turating u rethrogram i n a ma l e cat .
9 5
9 7
3 2 Dor so-ventral mi cturating urethrogram i n a f ema l e
cat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3 3 Schematic d i agrams showing the representation of
po s tures and pro j ec t ions • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • . • • • • • • • • • • e 1 33
xiv
Tab l e P age
I Ang l e of longitud inal axes of the kidney and i t s
mean , stand ard d eviat ion and stand ard error from
16 c at s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 6
II Hean , s t and ard dev i at ion and s t and ard e rror of
fel ine kidney and lumbar vert ebral sh adow l engths
in u rog ra1ns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Ill Hean , standard d ev i at ion and s t and ard erro r of
measu rement s o f the fel ine kidney at po s tmo rt em . • • • • •
IV Li near reg res sion fo rmu l i of the kidney l ength on
the lumbar vert eb ral l ength as measu red in dors o-
8 1
vent ral and l ef t l ateral u rograms ( mm ) . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2
V Length of mal e u rethra and f i f th lumbar vertebra
( mm as measu red in l at e ral urethrog rams f rom
fou r c at s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lOO
VI Length of femal e u rethra, ves t i bu lum and f i f th
lumbar vertebra ( mm ) as measu red i n l at e ral
u rethrograms f rom f i ve c at s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l OO
V II Width of urethra as measured in l ateral mi c t u rat i ng
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