Art Art A NEW INTRODUCTION TO ART HISTORY APPROACHES TO SAN DIEGO By Ferdinanda Florence — THIRD EDITION ―
A NEW INTRODUCTION TO ART HISTORY
Apr 01, 2023
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80812-3A_SPArtArt A NEW INTRODUCTION TO ART HISTORY
A P P R O A C H E S T O
S A N D I E G O
By Ferdinanda Florence
— T H I R D E D I T I O N
Bassim Hamadeh, CEO and Publisher
Carrie Montoya, Manager, Revisions and Author Care
Kaela Martin, Project Editor
Alexa Lucido, Licensing Associate
Kenneth Whitney, Interior Designer
Kassie Graves, Vice President of Editorial
Jamie Giganti, Director of Academic Publishing
Copyright © 2021 by Cognella, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprinted,
reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any
information retrieval system without the written permission of Cognella, Inc. For inquiries regarding
permissions, translations, foreign rights, audio rights, and any other forms of reproduction, please
contact the Cognella Licensing Department at [email protected].
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Cover images: Copyright © 2011 iStockphoto LP/JoKMedia.
Copyright © 2015 iStockphoto LP/michaeljung.
Copyright © 2015 iStockphoto LP/michaeljung.
Copyright © 2016 iStockphoto LP/baona.
IMG 2: Copyright © 2016 Depositphotos/Anthonycz.
IMG 3: Copyright © 2016 Depositphotos/jemastock.
Printed in the United States of America.
3970 Sorrento Valley Blvd., Ste. 500, San Diego, CA 92121
iii
What Is Art? xi
What Is Art? A Case Study with Augusta Savage xiii
Vocabulary in Introduction xvii
0 1 Art and Culture: The Choice between
Abstraction and Illusionism 01 Beyond the Literal: Abstract Art for the Supernatural 03
Shared Concept, Contrasting Visions: The Theme of Death in Three Cultures 07
The Western Path to Illusionism: From Classical to Medieval to Renaissance 12
Realism versus Reality: Illusionistic Art and Deceiving Truths 14
Vocabulary in Chapter 1 18
02 Culture and the Vocabulary of Space in Two Dimensions 20 Picturing A 3d World in 2d: Landscape in Traditional Eastern and Western Art 20
Traditional Western Space: Perspective and the Italian Renaissance 24
Traditional Eastern Space: Oblique Projection and Pattern 30
Negative Space 35
A P P R O A C HE S T O A R T: A N e w In t r o d u c t io n t o A r t His t o r y
Trading Spaces: Eastern Use of Western Space, Western Use of Eastern Space 37
New Vocabulary in Chapter 2 40
03 Approaches to Abstraction 42 Traditional Approaches to Abstraction 42
Modern Approaches to Abstraction 47
Modern Appropriation of African Art 54
Unity and Variety 57
New Vocabulary in Chapter 3 63
0 4 Beyond Pictures: Nonobjective Art 65 Abstract Expressionism and Nonobjective Art 65
Nonobjective Body Art in Traditional Cultures 69
The Garden and the Tea Bowl: Zen Buddhism and Nonobjective Japanese Art 70
Nonobjective Art and the White Walls of the Modern Art Gallery 72
Minimalism and Conceptual Art 74
Nonobjective Earthworks: Christo and Jeanne-Claude 76
Nonobjective Art and the Issue of “Crafts” 79
New Vocabulary in Chapter 4 86
05 Line and Drawing 87 Line Direction 88
Line Shape (Organic or Geometric) 91
Line Texture 93
Expressive versus Analytical Line Vocabulary: Art Nouveau and Bauhaus 95
Drawing Media and Line Vocabulary 99
“Just a Sketch”: The Traditional Western Approach to Drawing 102
Women Artists and Drawing as a Fine Art Medium 104
New Vocabulary in Chapter 5 107
06 Light and Space 109 The Relationship between Light and Space 109
The Universal Vocabulary of Light and Space 110
Italian Renaissance Light and Space 111
Northern Renaissance Light and Space 115
Baroque Light and Space 117
Light, Space, and Modern Art 120
Installation 122
0 7 The Choice Between Idealism and Verism,
and the Power of Print 127 Idealism and Verism: Universal Criteria 128
Idealism and Verism: Cultural Criteria 130
The Social and Political Power of Verism 131
Verism and the Power of Printmaking 134
C o n t e n t s
A P P R O A C HE S T O A R T: A N e w In t r o d u c t io n t o A r t His t o r y
Verism and Photography 135
Techniques of Printmaking 141
08 Classicism: Art, Architecture, and Propaganda 149 Ancient Roman Propaganda 149
The Classical Female as Allegory 152
The Impact of the Enlightenment 152
Neoclassicism and the French Revolution 154
The United States: Classicism, Racism, and Manifest Destiny 157
The United States and Classical Nudity 159
Classicizing Architecture and Propaganda 162
Modern Classicism and Propaganda 167
New Vocabulary in Chapter 8 172
09 The Public Memorial and the Vocabulary of Time 173 The Challenges of a Public Memorial 173
Idealism versus Verism: A Tale of Two Lincolns 176
Timeless Vocabulary: The World War II Memorial 178
The Vocabulary of Time’s Passing: The FDR Memorial 181
The Challenge of Catharsis: The Vietnam Veterans Memorial 183
Catharsis and Compromise: The 9/11 Memorial 186
vii
Catharsis, Change, and Contemporary Issues: The National
Memorial for Peace and Justice 192
New Vocabulary in Chapter 9 196
10 Color and Painting 197 Color Mixing and Color Harmonies 198
Symbolic Color 206
Painting Media 212
New Vocabulary in Chapter 10 218
1 1 Patronage and Artist Agency 220 Power, Patronage, and the Artist’s Vocabulary 221
Women and Patronage 222
Addressing Modern Times 232
New Vocabulary in Chapter 11 240
12 Controversies and Art 241 Expectations about the Modern Artist 242
Questioning Expectations: Dada and Pop 245
Controversy and Nonobjective Art 247
Nudity and “Obscenity” 249
C o n t e n t s
A P P R O A C HE S T O A R T: A N e w In t r o d u c t io n t o A r t His t o r y
Context, Race, and Agency 255
Irony and the Sacred 258
Controversy, Technology, and Social Media 265
New Vocabulary in Chapter 12 268
Index of Artists 269
Appendix: Art Timelines 273
ix
INTRODUCTION
When you receive a gift, it’s customary to thank the giver and perhaps say, “I appreciate that!” But you may or may not like the gift. You might prefer a different color or size. You might like
the color and hate everything else about it! What does that mean, then, to “appreciate” a gift? We often say about gifts that “it’s the thought that counts.” So, the key to appreciating art is to understand the thought that goes into the making of it. This is where things get tricky. We can rightly question whether we can ever truly know what was in the mind of the artist when they made the artwork. Though artists give a great deal of thought to their work, they don’t necessarily think consciously about their work while they are working.
The job of art experts (such as art historians and critics) is to infer and interpret all the thoughts that drove a particular artwork’s creation—not just the thoughts in the artist’s mind (conscious and subconscious), but also the driving concerns of those who paid for the art and gave direction to its making (known as patrons). Indeed, it is the thought that counts. What, then, are the thoughts that drive art making?
Brain science is a field of great advances and of many still unanswered ques- tions. We are still trying to figure out how the brain works and how creativity happens. There is no question, however, that successful art making requires coordinated brain functioning. It was traditionally argued that the driving force behind creativity lay in the “right brain.” The right side of the brain was believed to be more adept at making the kinds of decisions that creative work demands; it could see the “big picture” and make connections between distant, scattered threads. The “left brain,” in contrast, was believed to be better at linear thinking—following a chain of thought down the line, step by step.1 Different parts of the brain are certainly responsible for specific skills.
1 Though now repudiated as pseudoscience, this left brain-/right brain-domi-
nance model is hard to shake, as it provides such a useful (if oversimplified) way
of talking about complex brain functions. The phrase “right-brain thinking” pro-
vides a tidy short-hand for creative, free-form problem solving, while “left-brain
thinking” clearly speaks of a less creative, more literal or mechanical approach.
Augusta Savage, Lift Every Voice and Sing
exhibited at 1939–40 New York World’s
Fair. Plaster. Photo by Carl Van Vechten.
Copyright © 1943 by Mine Okubo.
Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
A P P R O A C HE S T O A R T: A N e w In t r o d u c t io n t o A r t His t o r y
However, scientific studies of people’s brains in action show a dynamic dance of dual hemispheres, as the left and right brains work interdependently to solve creative problems.
The job of the “art appreciator,” then, is to understand just what problems are being solved and how. Then appre- ciating is easy! You are not expected to like every work of art that you see—that wouldn’t be realistic or fair—but you can still appreciate every work that you see, on some level. (And once you are able to uncover the reasons behind the artwork, you will find a lot more to like.) That is a gift well worth having. I think of it as a kind of superpower—one that is essentially free, accessible to all, and that lasts a lifetime.
WHAT IMPACTS HOW WE SEE AND MAKE ART? There are three main factors that determine how art is made and also determine how any given viewer interprets (sees or “reads”) the artwork. These factors are operating whether we are aware of them or not, and whether we acknowledge them or not! As viewers, we often see far more than we think we see, and make inferences and assumptions that can be confirmed or challenged, the deeper we look into a work of art.
FIGURE 0.1 Mine Okubo, Untitled (Children at play, Topaz Relocation Center, Utah, circa 1942–43, watercolor on paper. Oakland Museum of California.
C op
yr ig
Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
Universal Experience These are the basic, human experiences understood by virtually all people. Being cheered by the sun, being afraid of the dark, telling an angry face from a sad or happy face—the knowledge of simply being human affects both art making and art viewing. Take, for example, the watercolor painting by Mine Okubo of children playing (figure 0.1). Anyone from a sixth-century Viking to a twenty-fifth-century space traveler could recognize that little children are standing in a circle with buildings behind them.
Cultural Influence The influence of one’s own culture is sometimes hard to recognize; something that you might consider “universal” is actually not shared by all cultures, but rather just something considered “normal” for your culture. Our cultural background—shaped by where and when we were born and the society in which we grew up—acts as a sort of filter through which we see the world. This influences us as artists, and as viewers. We look at the world through a pair of “culture glasses”; although we can (and should) learn about other cultures and empathize with others as human beings, we cannot fully remove our “glasses” when we look at others—or their art. Both being aware of our own cultural filters and understanding how culture influences vision are essential skills for art appreciation.
In Untitled, figure 0.1, our universal, human understanding tells us that the taller figures are adults, tending to the children. However, most viewers would further assume that the children are playing (rather than, say, gathered for a sacred ritual). Further, most viewers today would assume the adults are women, even though their faces and figures are undefined. This assumption comes from our knowledge of traditional gender roles, which ascribe characteristics like dresses, aprons, and child-rearing to women.2
Personal, Individual Perspectives We are each a product of our culture. However, you are an individual, and your individual experiences—combined with a unique brain, a unique body, a unique combination of genes inside—give you unparalleled perspectives on your world. You are shaped by your environment, but your vision is always, essentially, personal.
Much as Okubo’s Untitled speaks universally about childhood and play, it was a decidedly personal subject for the artist. We know that she witnessed this scene, and many other moments from day-to-day life, living behind the barbed wire of an internment camp in Utah. Okubo documented her experiences as an interned Japanese-American in her illustrated book, Citizen 13660. Knowing Okubo’s personal history, we see clearly the contrast between the joyful chil- dren in Untitled, and the grey, joyless barracks, barren landscape, and indifferent sky. With this knowledge, the viewer may begin to look more deeply into this painting and question if indeed all the children here are blissfully unaffected by their surroundings. The boy in the lower right corner stands apart from the others, his arm held—or grabbed—by a woman in a blue skirt; perhaps he is acting out and misbehaving, or perhaps he is shy and afraid. How you, as a viewer, respond to this scene depends a great deal on your own personal experiences and worldview.
WHAT IS ART? There are three essential aspects to art. From theater sets to fashion design to sculpting, at the highest level of visual creativity, these three aspects work in perfect concert to give the viewer a meaningful (and hopefully memorable) experience. Such an experience invites viewers to make connections, either consciously or subconsciously, between their world and the artist’s world.
2 Note that a viewer need not hold certain cultural viewpoints in order to recognize them. In this example, one need not
personally value or uphold traditional women’s roles in order to guess that the adult figures are women.
xiIn t r o d u c t io n
A P P R O A C HE S T O A R T: A N e w In t r o d u c t io n t o A r t His t o r y
Visual Vocabulary The visual vocabulary works much like a verbal vocabulary; you have the visual elements (such as line, light, color, etc.) that act like the “parts of speech” in language (noun, verb, adjective). The visual elements are arranged in a composition in a logical, persuasive order—the way that the components of language are arranged to communicate effectively, to “make sense.” The different ways in which the elements can be arranged are called the principles of design (such as unity and balance). The visual vocabulary also includes the style of the art—whether it looks “real” and detailed or simplified and distorted. The visual vocabulary acts like a computer operating system, the Linux or Windows of the artwork, running behind the scenes to enable and optimize visual performance.
Media The media are the materials of the artwork and the physical process of making and shaping those mate- rials. An example of a medium is watercolor on paper, as we see in Mine Okubo’s work (figure 0.1). Most watercolor artists work on paper, and many begin with a light pencil sketch with few details. It’s likely that Okubo chose watercolor as a medium because it is easy to transport and rewards quick and decisive mark making; here, it enabled the artist to capture the rapid movements of the children in the waning afternoon light.
Concept In essence, the concept is the idea behind the work—the artist’s interest or intended point. The concept is what the artist believes is essential about the work; this might be as simple as a feeling or as complex as a political agenda. The artist must be clear about what they are trying to do. Without clarity, the artwork “falls down” for the viewer. Note that lack of clarity is not the same as ambiguity. Ambiguity can present an interesting challenge for the viewer, forcing the viewer to struggle with what they believe or want to see.
In the best art, these three aspects—visual vocabulary, medium, and concept—act in concert, working together to communicate meaning to the viewer. The choice of medium and visual vocabulary each rein- force the concept, just as the medium and visual vocabulary must complement each other. Concept is no more or less important than the other two aspects of art; however, it can often be the most challenging aspect for artists to marry with the others. In college classes, art students are often asked (especially in more traditional academic programs) to focus on the first two aspects, learning the visual vocabulary and experimenting with a range of art media. At this level, art students learn to control the media, to get the best results and see which medium is most agreeable for the kind of art they wish to make. Students try to create engaging visual compositions, applying theoretical knowledge of elements and principles to actual practice. Their training involves developing the physical and mental discipline necessary to create art: learning proper work habits and procedures, developing hand-eye coordination, and paying close attention to the world around them. Over time, students will develop their conceptual voice and be able to articulate more fully what their work is “about.”
D I S C U S S I O N : What’s Behind the Artwork? Find a picture of a work of art that you like. It might be a photograph, sculpture, painting, or some other medium. Identify the work by artist, title, date, and medium. If you found the work online, without searching an art database, it might be difficult to get this information. (This is why museum websites are so useful; since the artwork belongs to the museum, they know all about it and are glad to tell you!
xii
In contrast, if you find a work posted on some blog somewhere, it’s likely copied from another website, which copied the art from another website. The Internet is filled with examples of copying without attributing; it’s the World Wide Web of plagiarism!) If you can’t find the identifying information right away, don’t give up; a little Googling around might get you to the source, which may be the artist’s website or a museum website.
Explain what you like about it and note what aspects of the artwork seem to communicate universally—that is, things you see that anyone would be able to understand. Then, note what aspects of the artwork seem to have a cul- tural meaning, if any, and share what the work says to you personally. Be sure to credit any sources you used to gain insight into the work.
In reply to others’ comments, note any aspects of the artwork they picked that resonate with you. Are you drawn to the visual vocabulary, the artist’s choice of medium, the concept, or a combination of the three? Why?
WHAT IS ART? A CASE STUDY WITH AUGUSTA SAVAGE To see the three essential aspects of art in action, let us use an important work by the sculptor Augusta Savage as a case study (figure 0.2). First, we are struck by the sculpture’s visual vocabulary. The great arm embraces and supports the figures in a smooth, diagonal line. Another diagonal rises from the palm of this hand; our eyes are drawn upward, from head to head, to the dramatic apex of Savage’s human harp. The figures have become the strings of the instrument—their voices appearing to build in strength with the repetition of taught vertical lines. The crouching figure,…
A P P R O A C H E S T O
S A N D I E G O
By Ferdinanda Florence
— T H I R D E D I T I O N
Bassim Hamadeh, CEO and Publisher
Carrie Montoya, Manager, Revisions and Author Care
Kaela Martin, Project Editor
Alexa Lucido, Licensing Associate
Kenneth Whitney, Interior Designer
Kassie Graves, Vice President of Editorial
Jamie Giganti, Director of Academic Publishing
Copyright © 2021 by Cognella, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprinted,
reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any
information retrieval system without the written permission of Cognella, Inc. For inquiries regarding
permissions, translations, foreign rights, audio rights, and any other forms of reproduction, please
contact the Cognella Licensing Department at [email protected].
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Cover images: Copyright © 2011 iStockphoto LP/JoKMedia.
Copyright © 2015 iStockphoto LP/michaeljung.
Copyright © 2015 iStockphoto LP/michaeljung.
Copyright © 2016 iStockphoto LP/baona.
IMG 2: Copyright © 2016 Depositphotos/Anthonycz.
IMG 3: Copyright © 2016 Depositphotos/jemastock.
Printed in the United States of America.
3970 Sorrento Valley Blvd., Ste. 500, San Diego, CA 92121
iii
What Is Art? xi
What Is Art? A Case Study with Augusta Savage xiii
Vocabulary in Introduction xvii
0 1 Art and Culture: The Choice between
Abstraction and Illusionism 01 Beyond the Literal: Abstract Art for the Supernatural 03
Shared Concept, Contrasting Visions: The Theme of Death in Three Cultures 07
The Western Path to Illusionism: From Classical to Medieval to Renaissance 12
Realism versus Reality: Illusionistic Art and Deceiving Truths 14
Vocabulary in Chapter 1 18
02 Culture and the Vocabulary of Space in Two Dimensions 20 Picturing A 3d World in 2d: Landscape in Traditional Eastern and Western Art 20
Traditional Western Space: Perspective and the Italian Renaissance 24
Traditional Eastern Space: Oblique Projection and Pattern 30
Negative Space 35
A P P R O A C HE S T O A R T: A N e w In t r o d u c t io n t o A r t His t o r y
Trading Spaces: Eastern Use of Western Space, Western Use of Eastern Space 37
New Vocabulary in Chapter 2 40
03 Approaches to Abstraction 42 Traditional Approaches to Abstraction 42
Modern Approaches to Abstraction 47
Modern Appropriation of African Art 54
Unity and Variety 57
New Vocabulary in Chapter 3 63
0 4 Beyond Pictures: Nonobjective Art 65 Abstract Expressionism and Nonobjective Art 65
Nonobjective Body Art in Traditional Cultures 69
The Garden and the Tea Bowl: Zen Buddhism and Nonobjective Japanese Art 70
Nonobjective Art and the White Walls of the Modern Art Gallery 72
Minimalism and Conceptual Art 74
Nonobjective Earthworks: Christo and Jeanne-Claude 76
Nonobjective Art and the Issue of “Crafts” 79
New Vocabulary in Chapter 4 86
05 Line and Drawing 87 Line Direction 88
Line Shape (Organic or Geometric) 91
Line Texture 93
Expressive versus Analytical Line Vocabulary: Art Nouveau and Bauhaus 95
Drawing Media and Line Vocabulary 99
“Just a Sketch”: The Traditional Western Approach to Drawing 102
Women Artists and Drawing as a Fine Art Medium 104
New Vocabulary in Chapter 5 107
06 Light and Space 109 The Relationship between Light and Space 109
The Universal Vocabulary of Light and Space 110
Italian Renaissance Light and Space 111
Northern Renaissance Light and Space 115
Baroque Light and Space 117
Light, Space, and Modern Art 120
Installation 122
0 7 The Choice Between Idealism and Verism,
and the Power of Print 127 Idealism and Verism: Universal Criteria 128
Idealism and Verism: Cultural Criteria 130
The Social and Political Power of Verism 131
Verism and the Power of Printmaking 134
C o n t e n t s
A P P R O A C HE S T O A R T: A N e w In t r o d u c t io n t o A r t His t o r y
Verism and Photography 135
Techniques of Printmaking 141
08 Classicism: Art, Architecture, and Propaganda 149 Ancient Roman Propaganda 149
The Classical Female as Allegory 152
The Impact of the Enlightenment 152
Neoclassicism and the French Revolution 154
The United States: Classicism, Racism, and Manifest Destiny 157
The United States and Classical Nudity 159
Classicizing Architecture and Propaganda 162
Modern Classicism and Propaganda 167
New Vocabulary in Chapter 8 172
09 The Public Memorial and the Vocabulary of Time 173 The Challenges of a Public Memorial 173
Idealism versus Verism: A Tale of Two Lincolns 176
Timeless Vocabulary: The World War II Memorial 178
The Vocabulary of Time’s Passing: The FDR Memorial 181
The Challenge of Catharsis: The Vietnam Veterans Memorial 183
Catharsis and Compromise: The 9/11 Memorial 186
vii
Catharsis, Change, and Contemporary Issues: The National
Memorial for Peace and Justice 192
New Vocabulary in Chapter 9 196
10 Color and Painting 197 Color Mixing and Color Harmonies 198
Symbolic Color 206
Painting Media 212
New Vocabulary in Chapter 10 218
1 1 Patronage and Artist Agency 220 Power, Patronage, and the Artist’s Vocabulary 221
Women and Patronage 222
Addressing Modern Times 232
New Vocabulary in Chapter 11 240
12 Controversies and Art 241 Expectations about the Modern Artist 242
Questioning Expectations: Dada and Pop 245
Controversy and Nonobjective Art 247
Nudity and “Obscenity” 249
C o n t e n t s
A P P R O A C HE S T O A R T: A N e w In t r o d u c t io n t o A r t His t o r y
Context, Race, and Agency 255
Irony and the Sacred 258
Controversy, Technology, and Social Media 265
New Vocabulary in Chapter 12 268
Index of Artists 269
Appendix: Art Timelines 273
ix
INTRODUCTION
When you receive a gift, it’s customary to thank the giver and perhaps say, “I appreciate that!” But you may or may not like the gift. You might prefer a different color or size. You might like
the color and hate everything else about it! What does that mean, then, to “appreciate” a gift? We often say about gifts that “it’s the thought that counts.” So, the key to appreciating art is to understand the thought that goes into the making of it. This is where things get tricky. We can rightly question whether we can ever truly know what was in the mind of the artist when they made the artwork. Though artists give a great deal of thought to their work, they don’t necessarily think consciously about their work while they are working.
The job of art experts (such as art historians and critics) is to infer and interpret all the thoughts that drove a particular artwork’s creation—not just the thoughts in the artist’s mind (conscious and subconscious), but also the driving concerns of those who paid for the art and gave direction to its making (known as patrons). Indeed, it is the thought that counts. What, then, are the thoughts that drive art making?
Brain science is a field of great advances and of many still unanswered ques- tions. We are still trying to figure out how the brain works and how creativity happens. There is no question, however, that successful art making requires coordinated brain functioning. It was traditionally argued that the driving force behind creativity lay in the “right brain.” The right side of the brain was believed to be more adept at making the kinds of decisions that creative work demands; it could see the “big picture” and make connections between distant, scattered threads. The “left brain,” in contrast, was believed to be better at linear thinking—following a chain of thought down the line, step by step.1 Different parts of the brain are certainly responsible for specific skills.
1 Though now repudiated as pseudoscience, this left brain-/right brain-domi-
nance model is hard to shake, as it provides such a useful (if oversimplified) way
of talking about complex brain functions. The phrase “right-brain thinking” pro-
vides a tidy short-hand for creative, free-form problem solving, while “left-brain
thinking” clearly speaks of a less creative, more literal or mechanical approach.
Augusta Savage, Lift Every Voice and Sing
exhibited at 1939–40 New York World’s
Fair. Plaster. Photo by Carl Van Vechten.
Copyright © 1943 by Mine Okubo.
Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
A P P R O A C HE S T O A R T: A N e w In t r o d u c t io n t o A r t His t o r y
However, scientific studies of people’s brains in action show a dynamic dance of dual hemispheres, as the left and right brains work interdependently to solve creative problems.
The job of the “art appreciator,” then, is to understand just what problems are being solved and how. Then appre- ciating is easy! You are not expected to like every work of art that you see—that wouldn’t be realistic or fair—but you can still appreciate every work that you see, on some level. (And once you are able to uncover the reasons behind the artwork, you will find a lot more to like.) That is a gift well worth having. I think of it as a kind of superpower—one that is essentially free, accessible to all, and that lasts a lifetime.
WHAT IMPACTS HOW WE SEE AND MAKE ART? There are three main factors that determine how art is made and also determine how any given viewer interprets (sees or “reads”) the artwork. These factors are operating whether we are aware of them or not, and whether we acknowledge them or not! As viewers, we often see far more than we think we see, and make inferences and assumptions that can be confirmed or challenged, the deeper we look into a work of art.
FIGURE 0.1 Mine Okubo, Untitled (Children at play, Topaz Relocation Center, Utah, circa 1942–43, watercolor on paper. Oakland Museum of California.
C op
yr ig
Image omitted due to copyright restrictions.
Universal Experience These are the basic, human experiences understood by virtually all people. Being cheered by the sun, being afraid of the dark, telling an angry face from a sad or happy face—the knowledge of simply being human affects both art making and art viewing. Take, for example, the watercolor painting by Mine Okubo of children playing (figure 0.1). Anyone from a sixth-century Viking to a twenty-fifth-century space traveler could recognize that little children are standing in a circle with buildings behind them.
Cultural Influence The influence of one’s own culture is sometimes hard to recognize; something that you might consider “universal” is actually not shared by all cultures, but rather just something considered “normal” for your culture. Our cultural background—shaped by where and when we were born and the society in which we grew up—acts as a sort of filter through which we see the world. This influences us as artists, and as viewers. We look at the world through a pair of “culture glasses”; although we can (and should) learn about other cultures and empathize with others as human beings, we cannot fully remove our “glasses” when we look at others—or their art. Both being aware of our own cultural filters and understanding how culture influences vision are essential skills for art appreciation.
In Untitled, figure 0.1, our universal, human understanding tells us that the taller figures are adults, tending to the children. However, most viewers would further assume that the children are playing (rather than, say, gathered for a sacred ritual). Further, most viewers today would assume the adults are women, even though their faces and figures are undefined. This assumption comes from our knowledge of traditional gender roles, which ascribe characteristics like dresses, aprons, and child-rearing to women.2
Personal, Individual Perspectives We are each a product of our culture. However, you are an individual, and your individual experiences—combined with a unique brain, a unique body, a unique combination of genes inside—give you unparalleled perspectives on your world. You are shaped by your environment, but your vision is always, essentially, personal.
Much as Okubo’s Untitled speaks universally about childhood and play, it was a decidedly personal subject for the artist. We know that she witnessed this scene, and many other moments from day-to-day life, living behind the barbed wire of an internment camp in Utah. Okubo documented her experiences as an interned Japanese-American in her illustrated book, Citizen 13660. Knowing Okubo’s personal history, we see clearly the contrast between the joyful chil- dren in Untitled, and the grey, joyless barracks, barren landscape, and indifferent sky. With this knowledge, the viewer may begin to look more deeply into this painting and question if indeed all the children here are blissfully unaffected by their surroundings. The boy in the lower right corner stands apart from the others, his arm held—or grabbed—by a woman in a blue skirt; perhaps he is acting out and misbehaving, or perhaps he is shy and afraid. How you, as a viewer, respond to this scene depends a great deal on your own personal experiences and worldview.
WHAT IS ART? There are three essential aspects to art. From theater sets to fashion design to sculpting, at the highest level of visual creativity, these three aspects work in perfect concert to give the viewer a meaningful (and hopefully memorable) experience. Such an experience invites viewers to make connections, either consciously or subconsciously, between their world and the artist’s world.
2 Note that a viewer need not hold certain cultural viewpoints in order to recognize them. In this example, one need not
personally value or uphold traditional women’s roles in order to guess that the adult figures are women.
xiIn t r o d u c t io n
A P P R O A C HE S T O A R T: A N e w In t r o d u c t io n t o A r t His t o r y
Visual Vocabulary The visual vocabulary works much like a verbal vocabulary; you have the visual elements (such as line, light, color, etc.) that act like the “parts of speech” in language (noun, verb, adjective). The visual elements are arranged in a composition in a logical, persuasive order—the way that the components of language are arranged to communicate effectively, to “make sense.” The different ways in which the elements can be arranged are called the principles of design (such as unity and balance). The visual vocabulary also includes the style of the art—whether it looks “real” and detailed or simplified and distorted. The visual vocabulary acts like a computer operating system, the Linux or Windows of the artwork, running behind the scenes to enable and optimize visual performance.
Media The media are the materials of the artwork and the physical process of making and shaping those mate- rials. An example of a medium is watercolor on paper, as we see in Mine Okubo’s work (figure 0.1). Most watercolor artists work on paper, and many begin with a light pencil sketch with few details. It’s likely that Okubo chose watercolor as a medium because it is easy to transport and rewards quick and decisive mark making; here, it enabled the artist to capture the rapid movements of the children in the waning afternoon light.
Concept In essence, the concept is the idea behind the work—the artist’s interest or intended point. The concept is what the artist believes is essential about the work; this might be as simple as a feeling or as complex as a political agenda. The artist must be clear about what they are trying to do. Without clarity, the artwork “falls down” for the viewer. Note that lack of clarity is not the same as ambiguity. Ambiguity can present an interesting challenge for the viewer, forcing the viewer to struggle with what they believe or want to see.
In the best art, these three aspects—visual vocabulary, medium, and concept—act in concert, working together to communicate meaning to the viewer. The choice of medium and visual vocabulary each rein- force the concept, just as the medium and visual vocabulary must complement each other. Concept is no more or less important than the other two aspects of art; however, it can often be the most challenging aspect for artists to marry with the others. In college classes, art students are often asked (especially in more traditional academic programs) to focus on the first two aspects, learning the visual vocabulary and experimenting with a range of art media. At this level, art students learn to control the media, to get the best results and see which medium is most agreeable for the kind of art they wish to make. Students try to create engaging visual compositions, applying theoretical knowledge of elements and principles to actual practice. Their training involves developing the physical and mental discipline necessary to create art: learning proper work habits and procedures, developing hand-eye coordination, and paying close attention to the world around them. Over time, students will develop their conceptual voice and be able to articulate more fully what their work is “about.”
D I S C U S S I O N : What’s Behind the Artwork? Find a picture of a work of art that you like. It might be a photograph, sculpture, painting, or some other medium. Identify the work by artist, title, date, and medium. If you found the work online, without searching an art database, it might be difficult to get this information. (This is why museum websites are so useful; since the artwork belongs to the museum, they know all about it and are glad to tell you!
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In contrast, if you find a work posted on some blog somewhere, it’s likely copied from another website, which copied the art from another website. The Internet is filled with examples of copying without attributing; it’s the World Wide Web of plagiarism!) If you can’t find the identifying information right away, don’t give up; a little Googling around might get you to the source, which may be the artist’s website or a museum website.
Explain what you like about it and note what aspects of the artwork seem to communicate universally—that is, things you see that anyone would be able to understand. Then, note what aspects of the artwork seem to have a cul- tural meaning, if any, and share what the work says to you personally. Be sure to credit any sources you used to gain insight into the work.
In reply to others’ comments, note any aspects of the artwork they picked that resonate with you. Are you drawn to the visual vocabulary, the artist’s choice of medium, the concept, or a combination of the three? Why?
WHAT IS ART? A CASE STUDY WITH AUGUSTA SAVAGE To see the three essential aspects of art in action, let us use an important work by the sculptor Augusta Savage as a case study (figure 0.2). First, we are struck by the sculpture’s visual vocabulary. The great arm embraces and supports the figures in a smooth, diagonal line. Another diagonal rises from the palm of this hand; our eyes are drawn upward, from head to head, to the dramatic apex of Savage’s human harp. The figures have become the strings of the instrument—their voices appearing to build in strength with the repetition of taught vertical lines. The crouching figure,…
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