A History of the English Language LANGUAGE CHANGE
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A History of
the English
Language
LANGUAGE CHANGE
Key dates: periods of English
450-1150 Old English
1150-1500 Middle English
1500-1700Early Modern
English
1700-1900 Modern English
1900-presentLate Modern
English
An introduction
When analysing how language has
changed, the following need to be
considered for each period:
• Semantics
• Lexis
• Syntax
• Phonology
• Graphology
Languages that have influenced
English
• 5% Greek
• 7.5% Latin
• 40% Anglo Saxon
• 15% Norse
• 30% French
• 2.5% other languages
Old English
years 450-1150
OLD ENGLISH
Context • Celts had been invaded by the Romans which brought
Latin words into the language
• Germanic tribes then invaded England (5th century) and
established the Anglo Saxon Heptarchy (a collective name
applied to the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of south, east, and
central Great Britain) and introduced their language
• Celtic words are rare in modern English, although Celtic
languages do still remain: Welsh, Irish, Gaelic and Cornish
• The conversion of the Anglo Saxons to Christianity began
in the late 6th century – meaning a large amount of the texts
that have been found of this time are religious
• Vikings began to invade at the end of the 8th century. Their
Old Norse language resembled that of the Anglo Saxon
invaders and much of its vocabulary was absorbed
OLD ENGLISH
Words from Old EnglishWords used today
• Pronouns: I, you, he, she, it,
we, this, that, these, those
• Nouns: friend, husband,
anger, window, bull, cake,
dirt, sun
• Adjectives: happy, cold,
black, bloody, tight, low, ill
• Verbs: can, shall, get, give,
want, call
• Conjunctions: as, and, but,
so, then
• Prepositions: up, down, in,
on, to, by
• Adverbs: while, when, where
Archaic words
• Fulsome: rich, plentiful
• Onuppan: above
• Pudh: horrible
• Yore: years ago
• Fere: friend, companion
• Beseech: request, ask
• Nary: none, nothing
OLD ENGLISH
Key features of Old English
• No single, agreed system of spelling
• Heavy use of inflections (parts of words, usually endings, that indicate grammatical functions, e.g. ‘-eth’)
• Muscular quality to the words: short, direct and forceful
• Grammatical gender in nouns and adjectives
• Writing system involved runes as well as the Roman alphabet
• Use of kennings, e.g. ‘bone-house’ = body
• Flexible word order due to inflections
OLD ENGLISH RU
NE
S
Key dates for Old English
OLD ENGLISH
450 Beginning of the Old English period
1000Approximate date of the only surviving
manuscript of Beowulf
1066
Battle of Hastings – Norman Conquest
which brought in French to the language
(spoken by the most powerful people,
therefore was used in political
documents, administration and literature)
1150 Middle English period begins
Examples of textsThe following text is from the Anglo Saxon
Chronicle – a text from the 19th century
from Alfred the Great who decided to
compile important events.
‘Anno 449. Her Martianus and Valentinus
onfengon rice, and ricsodon seofon winter.
And on hiera dagum Hengest and Horsa,
fram Wyrtgeorne gelaþode, Bretta
cyninge, gesohton Bretene on þæm stede
þe is genemned Ypwines-fleot, ærest
Brettum to fultume, ac hie eft on hie
fuhton. Se cyning het hie feohtan ongean
Peohtas; and hie swa dydon, and sige
hæfdon swa hwær swa hie comon. Hie
þasendon to Angle, and heton him sendan
maran fultum. Þa sendon hie him maran
fultum. þa comon þa menn of þrim
mægþum Germanie: of Ealdseaxum, of
Englum, of Iotum.’
Translation…
Anno 449. In this year [lit here] Martianus
and Valentinus succeeded to [lit received]
kingship, and ruled seven years. And in
their days Hengest and Horsa, invited by
Vortigern, king of [the] Britons, came to
Britain at the place which is called
Ebbsfleet, first as a help to [the] Britons,
but they afterwards fought against them.
The king commanded them to fight against
[the] Picts; and they did so, and had
victory wherever they came. Then they
sent to Angeln, and told them to send
more help. They then sent to them more
help. Then the men came from three tribes
in Germany: from [the] Old Saxons, from
[the] Angles, from [the] Jutes.OLD ENGLISH
Middle
Englishyears 1150-1500
MIDDLE ENGLISH
Context • This period followed the Norman invasion which brought a lot of French into the
language. This is because William, Duke of Normandy, crowned himself the king
of England but only spoke French. This meant English was considered as only
suitable for lower classes
• As a result of the Black Death, however, (1348-1351) there was a need for
working class labourers. These people all spoke English, which led to a rise in the
language
• The printing press arrived near the end of the period (1476) from William Caxton.
He printed all kinds of texts and in the following 150 years around 20,000 books
were printed. This led to improved literacy rates and lowered price of books.
Printers were able to choose which grammar and spellings to use, leading to a
more standardised language
• The accessibility of texts led to an increased interest in literature
• The society was very religious at the time (influencing attitudes and also the texts
written at the time)
• There was a lack of medical knowledge, so illness was a constant threat
• Exploration of the New World brought new words from across the empire,
including coffee, yoghurt, kiosk (Turkish) and bizarre, chocolate, vogue (French)
MIDDLE ENGLISH
Key features of Middle English• Non-standard / inconsistent spelling
• Biblical-sounding syntax and imagery
• Grammatical conversions: verbification, prefixation, suffixation, compounding
• The spelling of words resembles the literal pronunciation, influenced by the Bible which was meant to be a spoken text
• Prepositional semantic shifts
• Lack of ‘do’ constructions for questions / negatives (e.g. ‘enter not’, ‘sit not’
• Capitals used for proper nouns but also for important common nouns
• Emergence of ‘;’ although not yet standardised
• Changing vowel sounds (as the Great Vowel Shift began)
• French words: more elegant and refined with softer sounds and different stress on the endings of words
• Loss of many inflections, making word order more important
• Context can be used to decipher the meaning of unfamiliar words in texts of this period (unlike Old English where words are difficult for modern readers to understand)
MIDDLE ENGLISH
Key texts
• Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales
– Written from 1387, using romantic language
(Latin and French). The influence of this is
shown through other literary texts produced
after the tales were published
• Gawain and the Green Knight
• Written religious texts
MIDDLE ENGLISH
Key dates
1171
Henry II declares himself overlord of
Ireland, introducing Norman French and
English to the country
Around this time the University of Oxford is
founded
1476 William Caxton’s printing press arrives
1500Henry VIII cuts the link between Rome and
the Church of England
MIDDLE ENGLISH
Examples of texts
Chaucer
‘A knyght ther was, and that a worthy man,
That fro the tyme that he first bigan
To riden out, he loved chivalrie,
Trouthe and honour, fredom and curteisie.
Ful worthy was he in his lordes werre,
And therto hadde he riden, no man ferre,
As wel in cristendom as in hethenesse,
And evere honoured for his worthynesse.
At alisaundre he was whan it was wonne.’
Translation…
A knight there was, and he a worthy man,
Who, from the moment that he first began
To ride about the world, loved chivalry,
Truth, honour, freedom and all courtesy.
Full worthy was he in his liege-lord’s war,
And therein had he ridden (none more far)
As well in Christendom as heathenesse,
And honoured everywhere for worthiness.
MIDDLE ENGLISH
Early
Modern
Englishyears 1500-1700
EARLY MODERN ENGLISH
Context • The printing press (established in the Middle English period)
meant spellings became more fixed and established
• Science became a key factor in language change as more discoveries were made. Many words introduced through scientists were ‘loan words’ which had been borrowed from other languages as people struggled to name their discoveries
• Religion was still just as important in society as it had always been (during this period the protestant reformation occurred, which also could have informed the language / attitudes )
• Exploration and colonisation also affected the use of language and meant more words were picked up
• The Renaissance led to a growth in interest in classical culture, contrasting to the ‘intellectual sterility’ of medieval times
• Latin was still spoken and was influential of the English language, aided by the Renaissance
EARLY MODERN ENGLISH
Words of Latin origin
• Ambiguous
• Colossal
• Emotion
• Exaggerate
• History
• Immense
• Intellect
• Magnificent
• Monopoly
• Nation
• Opponent
• Quotation
• Ultimate
• Vacuum
EARLY MODERN ENGLISH
Shakespeare (1564-1616)
• Shakespeare made a huge impact on the English language, leading to a more romantic style of literature, with French and Italian influences (as well as creating his own words)
• He reduced inflections on endings of words, which led to grammatical conversion (particularly making verbs from nouns), e.g. ‘season your admiration’, ‘destruction shall dog them at their heels’, ‘I, who at Phillipi, the great Brutus ghosted’
• He also introduced idiomatic expressions into normal language, e.g. ‘in my mind’s eye’, ‘a tower of strength’, ‘be cruel only to be kind’, ‘love is blind’
• His use of hyphenated compounds also proved influential, often to form new words e.g. ‘faire-play’, ‘ill-tuned’, ‘pell-mell’
EARLY MODERN ENGLISH
The King James Bible (1611)
• King James appointed a panel of university scholars to develop a single Bible translation for use across the country
• They listened to the translations being read out loud to assess rhythm and balance – it is intended as a spoken document
• Unlike Shakespeare’s language, the King James Bible reserves an archaic style (e.g. keeps ‘digged’ instead of ‘dug’ and ‘gat’ instead of ‘got’
EARLY MODERN ENGLISH
Key features of Early Modern
English• The grammar reflected the transition between Middle English and contemporary English
• Spelling and punctuation started to become more standardised (inconsistencies remained
but gradually began to disappear)
• Shakespeare’s work utilised unusual words, some inflections (such as ‘–est’ and ‘–eth’)
were favoured while others completely rejected, and pronouns ‘thou’, ‘thee’ and ‘thy’ were
used in his work
• The use of inflections was reduced (aided by Shakespeare’s works, mentioned above)
• Phonology was influenced by the Great Vowel Shift. This is where the pronunciation of
long vowel sounds transformed to become similar to the pronunciation we have today
• Latin and French influences on spelling still remained: ‘v’ and ‘u’ were interchangeable
• Many prefixes (anti-, post-, pre-) and suffixes (-ate, -ic, -al) were taken from Latin. Latin
words are often lengthy and sound weighty and learned
• Word order became more fixed: subject > verb > object
• Literature flourished due to the Renaissance and the accessibility of texts
• Shakespeare and Bibles / Book of Common Prayer increased the normality of idioms
• There is evidence of class correlation with standard English (higher classed and better-
educated people speaking the standard language)
• Different tense usage (e.g. ‘glad we are got acquainted)
EARLY MODERN ENGLISH
Key dates
1450-1650The Great Vowel Shift occurred, where the pronunciation of vowel
sounds changed and two were dropped completely
1509 Henry VIII reigned the throne
1534 Tynedale’s Bible was released – the first English version of the Bible
1549The first version of the Book of Common Prayer of the Church of
England was published
1558Elisabeth I reigned the throne, which will have had a significant
impact on attitudes towards women in society
1564-1616Shakespeare was alive – very significant contributor to the English
language
1611 The King James Bible was published
1622 Weekly News, the first English newspaper, published in London
1721Samuel Johnson formed the most influential dictionary in the English
language (meaning it was finished in the Modern English period)
EARLY MODERN ENGLISH
Examples of texts
Extract from Shakespeare’s The Tempest
‘Where should this music be? I’the air or the earth?
It sounds no more; and, sure, it waits upon
Some god o’the island. Sitting on a bank,
Weeping again the King my father’s wreck,
This music crept by me upon the waters,
Allaying both their fury and my passion (line 395)
With its sweet air. Thence I have followed it –
Or it hath drawn me rather. But ’tis gone.
No, it begins again.’
EARLY MODERN ENGLISH
Modern
Englishyears 1700-1900
MODERN ENGLISH
Context
• The industrial revolution influenced the English language
as new ideas and contraptions were being invented,
along with a range of new fields people could work in
• English started to become an international language at
this point. New varieties such as American English and
Indian English began to form. The expansion of the
British Empire (19th century) and growing ‘superpower’
status of the US (20th century) also influenced our
language, as evident in the Americanisms in everyday
modern use
• Cultural issues at this time included women’s and
children’s rights. Religion also continued to play an
important role in societyMODERN ENGLISH
Key features of Modern English
• Spelling became much more consistent and standardised
• Regional differences in language lessened
• A leap in quality of education, literacy and communicationmeant English became much more standardised as a whole
• Americanisms and American spellings (e.g. or/our and re/er endings) started to form
• Newly coined words were used more heavily and quickly
• Use of auxiliary verbs became mandatory in interrogative sentences, e.g. ‘did he go running?’
• Archaic possessive pronouns were still in use in earlier examples of texts, e.g. ‘thy’ and ‘thou’
MODERN ENGLISH
Johnson’s dictionary (1755)
• Samuel Johnson published his dictionary in
1755
• It was not the first dictionary but was the
most thorough and authoritative, giving
advice on usage and different senses of
words as well as definitions.
• The dictionary provided clear, prescriptive
standard spellings, though this took several
decades to filter through to everyday use
MODERN ENGLISH
Key dates
1755 Johnson’s dictionary is published
1760-1820/’40 Industrial revolution
1800’s
Expansion of the British Empire brings
other words into our language as well as
taking English words into others
1828
Webster publishes books on grammar,
creating standards for grammar as well as
spelling
MODERN ENGLISH
Late
Modern
Englishyears 1900-present
LATE MODERN ENGLISH
Context• Technology has become one of the main influences of modern
language, as well as pop culture (celebrity obsessions, tabloids, gossip
publications)
• ‘Text speak’ such as ‘lol’ and ‘omg’ has filtered through into everyday
usage, including spoken language
• The Internet, texting, new gadgets (iPads, Kindles) come with entirely
new lexical sets as well as jargon and specialist language
• Attitudes in society change: the importance of belief and religion has
lessened (we are in more of a secular society). Attitudes towards
females and sexuality are slowly shifting. World wars, terrorism and
environmental threats also impact values and attitudes in society
• English is now very much a global language, with many influences and
new words being created constantly
• Regional differences in England have lessened, aided by widespread
education, standardisation of language and the media (where the
Internet has increased accessibility to types of language)
LATE MODERN ENGLISH
Key features of Late Modern
English
• Standard spelling and grammar systems
• Acronyms have become a normal part of language, e.g.
‘omg’, ‘lol’, ‘fomo’, ‘wtf’
• Grammar rules can be flouted more easily, e.g.
experimenting with syntax and fronted conjunctions. The
grammar can be used to suit the formality of the text
• Slang and jargon is heavily used
• In the written word, informality is much more common,
especially in journalism where fronted conjunctions and
the use of bullet points are normal, particularly in online
news articles (appealing to on-the-go readers)
LATE MODERN ENGLISH
Key dates
1914-1918 World War I
1922 BBC founded
1928 Oxford English Dictionary is published
1939-1945 World War II
1961Webster’s Third New International Dictionary is
published
1988 The Internet is released to the public
1994Text messaging is introduced, and the first modern
blogs go online
2006
Twitter is formed, leading to impulsive online
expressions, fast-spreading news and a constant (but
concise) vent for users’ thoughts
LATE MODERN ENGLISH
Major influences on modern
language development and
variation• The media
• Technology
• Social media and communication
• Travelling and migration
• Texting
• Jargon and slang
• Education
• Worldwide language
LATE MODERN ENGLISH
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