THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE · Graphology The writing system of a language. Graphological (or orthographic) study has two main aspects: the visual segments of the written

THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

This course surveys the This course surveys the historical development historical development of the English language of the English language from its Indo-European from its Indo-European

past to the present past to the present day.day.

Considering first the prehistoric Considering first the prehistoric changes from Proto-Indo-European to changes from Proto-Indo-European to Germanic, we will then study the Germanic, we will then study the structure and vocabulary of the earliest structure and vocabulary of the earliest English and subsequent changes in:English and subsequent changes in:• Spelling (Orthography) Spelling (Orthography) • Phonetics (Phonology)Phonetics (Phonology)• Grammar (Morphology & Syntax)Grammar (Morphology & Syntax)• VVocabularyocabulary (Lexis) (Lexis)• Semantics Semantics

through the major periods of the through the major periods of the English language:English language:

— — Old English (449 – 1066)Old English (449 – 1066) —— Middle English (1066 – 1475) Middle English (1066 – 1475) —— Early Modern English and Modern Early Modern English and Modern English (1475 – to the present day).English (1475 – to the present day). Brief attention will also be given to the Brief attention will also be given to the external history of the language.external history of the language.

Schedule:Schedule:

The firstThe first term (the 6 term (the 6thth) covers:) covers:

№ Titles Lectures Seminars Self-Independent

work

Activities

1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Introduction to the course. Generalities about language and language change. Linguistic Features of Germanic Languages

2 2 Discussion, tests

2. Language Families and Indo-European

2 2 Discussion, tests, essays, PowerPoint presentations

3. Chronological Divisions in the History of English

2 Discussion, tests, PowerPoint presentations

4. Old English. Historical Background

2 Discussion, tests, PowerPoint presentations

5. Old English Phonology. 4 2 2 Discussion, tests, PowerPoint presentations

6. Old English Written Records

2 tests, PowerPoint presentations

7. PowerPoint Presentations of the Old English Phonology (continued)

2 2 Written Projects, Presentation essays

8. Old English Grammar. The Noun. The Adjective. The Pronoun. The Numeral. The Verb

2 2 2 Discussion, tests, PowerPoint presentations

9. Principal Features of Old English Syntax. Old English Vocabulary. Word Building Means in Old English. Borrowings in Old English. Celtic Loan Words. Latin Borrowings.

2 2 Discussion, tests, PowerPoint presentations

Altogether 12 6 18

The second term (the 7The second term (the 7thth) ) covers:covers:

№ Titles Lectures Seminars Self-Independent

work

Activities

1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Middle English Period in the History of the English Language. The Scandinavian and the Norman Conquest Major Middle English dialects


2. Middle English Phonology. Diphthongs in Middle English. Main Changes of Vowels and Consonants in Middle English.


3. Middle English Grammar. Changes within the System of the Noun, the Adjective, the Pronouns. Numerals in Middle English. Rise of Articles.


4. Middle English Grammar. The Verb. The Adverb. Syntax in Middle English. Middle English Vocabulary.


5. New English Phonology. Main Historical Events. Great Vowel shift.


6. New English Grammar. The Nominal Part of Speech. The Verb. The Adverb. Development of Vocabulary. Specific Feature of Syntax


Altogether 12 8 21

Theme 1:Theme 1:INTRODUCTION TO INTRODUCTION TO

THE COURSE. SOME THE COURSE. SOME

THEORETICAL THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF ASPECTS OF

LANGUAGE HISTORY LANGUAGE HISTORY

Aims:Aims: To develop your appreciation and respect To develop your appreciation and respect

for the complexity and beauty of the for the complexity and beauty of the English language;English language;

To get familiar with basic linguistic and To get familiar with basic linguistic and methodological concepts and terms methodological concepts and terms relevant to studying the history of relevant to studying the history of English: language structure, variation, English: language structure, variation, use and change;use and change;

Understand the process of language Understand the process of language change and be able to illustrate this change and be able to illustrate this process in English.process in English.

Points for discussion:Points for discussion: Subject and Aims of the History of Subject and Aims of the History of

English;English; Sources of Language History;Sources of Language History; Evolution of Language and Scope Evolution of Language and Scope

of Language History;of Language History; Statics and Dynamics in Language Statics and Dynamics in Language

History;History; Language Structure and Use.Language Structure and Use.

KEY WORDSKEY WORDS LanguageLanguage CommunicationCommunication SynchronicSynchronic DiachronicDiachronic InternalInternal ExternalExternal EnglishEnglish GermanicGermanic

StaticsStatics DynamicsDynamics Language Language

EvolutionEvolution LexiconLexicon Comparative Comparative

linguisticslinguistics External External

ReconstructionReconstruction Internal Internal

Reconstruction Reconstruction

Recommended Recommended LiteratureLiterature

ObligatoryObligatory David Crystal. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the David Crystal. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the

English Language.– Cambridge, 1994.— PP. 1-3English Language.– Cambridge, 1994.— PP. 1-3 Valery V. Mykhailenko. Paradigmatics in the evolution of Valery V. Mykhailenko. Paradigmatics in the evolution of

English. - Chernivtsi, 1999.- PP. 9-20English. - Chernivtsi, 1999.- PP. 9-20 T.A. Rastorguyeva. A History of English. - Moscow, 1983. T.A. Rastorguyeva. A History of English. - Moscow, 1983.

- PP. 14-23- PP. 14-23 L.Verba. History of the English language. - Vinnitsa, L.Verba. History of the English language. - Vinnitsa,

2004. - PP. 18-292004. - PP. 18-29

AdditionalAdditional:: Аракин В. Д. История английского языка. - М., 1985. Аракин В. Д. История английского языка. - М., 1985.

- - CC. 5-8. 5-8 Иванова И.П., Чахаян Л.П, Беляева Т.М. История Иванова И.П., Чахаян Л.П, Беляева Т.М. История

английского языка. - СПб., 2001.-английского языка. - СПб., 2001.- C C. . 108- 11108- 11ОО; 7-15; 7-15

‘‘The structure of language is The structure of language is nothing but the unstable balance nothing but the unstable balance

between the needs of between the needs of communication, which require communication, which require

more numerous and more specific more numerous and more specific units and man’s inertia, which units and man’s inertia, which

favoursfavours less numerous less less numerous less specific and more frequently specific and more frequently

occurring units.’occurring units.’ (A. Martinet)(A. Martinet)

Language is a Language is a fundamental human fundamental human means of face-to-face means of face-to-face communication, creative communication, creative activity, scientific inquiry activity, scientific inquiry and many other and many other purposes.purposes.

It is estimated that there are It is estimated that there are from 6.000 to 7.000 languages from 6.000 to 7.000 languages in the world. But the number of in the world. But the number of them is decreasing rapidly as them is decreasing rapidly as some languages disappear and a some languages disappear and a few others — English, Spanish, few others — English, Spanish, Chinese, Arabic and Hindi — Chinese, Arabic and Hindi — become more widespread as a become more widespread as a result of globalization.result of globalization.

The word “English” has a number The word “English” has a number of widely different meanings. For of widely different meanings. For instance, it describes the people instance, it describes the people from a particular part of Great from a particular part of Great Britain. It also refers to a Britain. It also refers to a particular language, the English particular language, the English language, and is this sense. language, and is this sense. English is Germanic in origin but English is Germanic in origin but roughly half of its words derive roughly half of its words derive from contacts with French & from contacts with French & Latin.Latin.

As we will see, English has As we will see, English has expanded from having a few expanded from having a few

speakers in one area to having speakers in one area to having many speakers in many many speakers in many

geographical areas.geographical areas.

The VERY way to define The VERY way to define English is through its English is through its origins and history.origins and history.

The English language of today reflects many The English language of today reflects many centuries of development. As F. Engels wrote: centuries of development. As F. Engels wrote: "Substance and form of one's own language, "Substance and form of one's own language, however, become intelligible only when its origin however, become intelligible only when its origin and gradual evolution are traced, and this cannot and gradual evolution are traced, and this cannot be done without taking into account, first, its own be done without taking into account, first, its own extinct forms, and secondly, cognate languages, extinct forms, and secondly, cognate languages, both living and dead" (Anti-Duhring. ML, 1959, p. both living and dead" (Anti-Duhring. ML, 1959, p. 441).441).

the aim of this course is to provide the student with a knowledge of linguistic history sufficient

to account for the principal features of PDE(Present-day English)

The evolution of its grammatical

system

Language History

The history of its phonetic structure and spelling

The growth of its vocabulary

Morphology Syntax

1. Subject and Aims of the History of English

A. The history of its phonetic structure and spelling

The written form of the English word The written form of the English word is conventional rather than is conventional rather than phonetic. The values of Latin letters phonetic. The values of Latin letters as used in English differ greatly as used in English differ greatly from their respective values in other from their respective values in other languages, e.g. French, German or languages, e.g. French, German or Latin.Latin.

bit - [bit]three letters

-three sounds

full correspondence between Latin letters and English sounds

bite - [bait]four letters

-three sounds

no correspondence between the vowels ant their graphic representation: the final e is not pronounced, but conventionally serves to show that the preceding letter has its English alphabetic value which is [ai], not [i] as in other languages

The history of English The history of English sounds and spelling sounds and spelling

accounts for these and accounts for these and similar peculiarities.similar peculiarities.

This resulted in a growing This resulted in a growing discrepancy between letter discrepancy between letter

and sound and in the and sound and in the modern peculiar use of Latin modern peculiar use of Latin

letters in English.letters in English.

B. The evolution of the grammatical system

Supplies explanations for general regular features

Supplies explanations forits specific peculiarities

and exceptions

e.g.

— Indefinite Tenses

— Perfect Tenses

— Subjunctive Mood

e.g.— modal verbs do not take -s in the 3rd person singular;— some nouns add -en or change the root vowel in plural instead of adding -s (e.g. oxen, feet)

C. The growth of its vocabularyAnother illustration may be drawn from the vocabulary. Since English belongs to the Germanic group of languages, it would be natural to expect that it has many words or roots in common with cognate Germanic languages: German, Swedish, Danish and others. Instead, we find many more words in. Mod E having exact parallels in the Romance languages: French, Latin, Spanish.

English Other Germanic languages

Romance languages

Give G geben Sw giva

-

Peace (OEfrid1) G Frieden SWfred Dutch vrede

Fr paix L pace IL pace Sp paz

Army (OE here1) G HeerSw har

Fr armee It armata

The first word - give - is of native, Germanic origin, which is confirmed by the parallels from other Germanic tongues; the other words — peace and army — are borrowings from Romance languages (note that in OE the respective words were Germanic.) In present day English the proportion of Romance roots is higher than that of native roots. The history of English will say when nnd how were made and will thus account for the composition of the modern vocabulary.

A LANGUAGE CAN BE CONSIDERED FROM 2 APPROACHES

Synchronic Diachronic

Regard the language as fixed in time (phonetics grammar or lexis)

Every linguistic fact (e.g. phonetics) interpreted as a step in the never-ending

evolution of language

E.g. English of the age of W. Shakespeare(XVI – XVII c.)

The age of J. Chaucer(XIV c.)

The age of J. Fowles(XX c.)

e.g. the development of the sound “æ” in different periods of the English language

e.g. OE, ME and NE

2. Language History Sources2. Language History SourcesWritten records of different Written records of different

periodsperiods

The earliest records in other Germanic

Languages go back to the 3rd or 4th C. AD

The earliest written texts in English are dated

in the 7th c.

Work of ancient historians & geographers, especially Roman, Greek & German

Julius Caesar “Commentaries on the Gallic War”; 1c. BC;

Pliny the Elder “Natural History”; 1 c. BC;

F. Engels “On the History of the Ancient Germans”

3. Language History3. Language History(Theoretical questions)(Theoretical questions)

Evolution of Language & Scope of Language History

Linguistic & Extralinguistic Factors Statics & Dynamics

in language

The Evolution of language The Evolution of language (historical development) (historical development) has two structures:has two structures:

a. Internala. InternalThe internal or structural development of The internal or structural development of the language system is presented in the language system is presented in accordance with the division of language accordance with the division of language into linguistic levels:into linguistic levels: The phonetic & phonological levelsThe phonetic & phonological levels The morphological levelThe morphological level The syntactic levelThe syntactic level The lexical levelThe lexical level

b. Externalb. External

— — The spread of the language in The spread of the language in geographical and social space; the geographical and social space; the differentiation of language into differentiation of language into functional varieties (geographical functional varieties (geographical variants)variants)

e.g. e.g. British EnglishBritish English

American English American English

Australian EnglishAustralian English

Canadian EnglishCanadian English

— — Dialects (e.g. Cornish, Welsh, Irish)Dialects (e.g. Cornish, Welsh, Irish)

— — Contacts with other languagesContacts with other languages

Comparative linguistics of Comparative linguistics of the 19the 19thth century century

The founders Franz Bopp, a German scientist Rasmus Rask, a Danish scientistJocob Grimm, a German scientist

The main method comparison

The main procedures comparison of different languages; establishment of correspondences in cognate languages; establishment of similarities and differences in cognate languages reconstruction of initial forms (archetypes);comparison of forms at different stages of development;comparative description of a language

The main motions comparison, archtype, parent language, cognate languages, genealogical classification, language family (branch, group, subgroup)

LINGUISTIC & EXTRA LINGUISTIC FACTORS

Stable (statics)

Changeable (dynamics)

Permanent universal properties to be found in all the languages at any period of timee.g. the division of sound into vowels and consonants, the distinction between the main parts of speech and the part of the sentence

Some grammatical categories undergo little alteration e.g. degrees of comparison of adjective

Some grammatical categories undergo profound alteration

Case or gender of noun

They exist in synchrony and diachrony

4. Statics and Dynamics in 4. Statics and Dynamics in Language HistoryLanguage History

5. Language Structure 5. Language Structure and Useand Use

One of the alternative theories on language history studying has been proposed and developed by Professor David Crystal, one the world's foremost experts on the subject of language. Let’s analyse his approach to the internal and external processes in the history of English.

LANGUAGE

The Two Facets of The English Language: Structure and Use

A. Language StructureA. Language Structure

TextTextA coherent, self-contained A coherent, self-contained unit of discourse. Texts, unit of discourse. Texts, which may be spoken, which may be spoken, written, or signed, vary written, or signed, vary greatly in size, from such greatly in size, from such tiny units as posters, tiny units as posters, captions, and bus tickets, captions, and bus tickets, to such large units as to such large units as novels, sermons, and novels, sermons, and conversations. They conversations. They provide the frame of provide the frame of reference within which reference within which grammatical, lexical, and grammatical, lexical, and other features of English other features of English can be identified and can be identified and interpreted.interpreted.

SignSignA visual language used A visual language used chiefly by people who chiefly by people who are deaf. This book are deaf. This book refers only to those refers only to those signing systems which signing systems which have been devised to have been devised to represent aspects of represent aspects of English structure, such English structure, such as its spelling, as its spelling, grammar, or grammar, or vocabulary.vocabulary.

GraphologyGraphologyThe writing system of a The writing system of a language. Graphological language. Graphological (or orthographic) study (or orthographic) study has two main aspects: has two main aspects: the visual segments of the visual segments of the written language, the written language, which take the form of which take the form of vowels, consonants, vowels, consonants, punctuation marks, and punctuation marks, and certain typographical certain typographical features; and the various features; and the various patterns of graphic patterns of graphic design, such as spacing design, such as spacing and layout, which add and layout, which add structure and meaning structure and meaning to stretches of written to stretches of written text.text.

PhonologyPhonologyThe pronunciation system The pronunciation system of a language. of a language. Phonological study has Phonological study has two main aspects: the two main aspects: the sound segments of the sound segments of the spoken language, which spoken language, which take the form of vowels take the form of vowels and consonants; and the and consonants; and the various patterns of various patterns of intonation, rhythm, and intonation, rhythm, and tone of voice, which add tone of voice, which add structure and meaning to structure and meaning to stretches of speech.stretches of speech.

LexiconLexiconThe vocabulary of a The vocabulary of a language. Lexical study language. Lexical study is a wide-ranging is a wide-ranging domain, involving such domain, involving such diverse areas as the diverse areas as the sense relationships sense relationships between words, the use between words, the use of abbreviations, puns, of abbreviations, puns, and euphemisms, and and euphemisms, and the compilation of the compilation of dictionaries.dictionaries.

GrammarGrammarThe system of rules The system of rules governing the governing the construction of construction of sentences. Grammatical sentences. Grammatical study is usually divided study is usually divided into two main aspects: into two main aspects: syntax, dealing with the syntax, dealing with the structure and connection structure and connection of sentences; and of sentences; and morphology, dealing morphology, dealing with the structure and with the structure and formation of words.formation of words.

B. Language UseB. Language Use

Social variationSocial variationSociety affects a language, in the sense that any Society affects a language, in the sense that any important aspect of social structure and function is important aspect of social structure and function is likely to have a distinctive linguistic counterpart. likely to have a distinctive linguistic counterpart. People belong to different social classes, perform People belong to different social classes, perform different social roles, and carry on different different social roles, and carry on different occupations. Their use of language is affected by occupations. Their use of language is affected by their sex, age, ethnic group, and educational their sex, age, ethnic group, and educational background. English is being increasingly affected background. English is being increasingly affected by all these factors, because its developing role as by all these factors, because its developing role as a world language is bringing it more and more into a world language is bringing it more and more into contact with new cultures and social systems.contact with new cultures and social systems.

Temporal variationTemporal variation

Time affects a language, both in the long term and short Time affects a language, both in the long term and short term, giving rise to several highly distinctive processes and term, giving rise to several highly distinctive processes and varieties.varieties.

Long term: English has changed throughout the centuries, Long term: English has changed throughout the centuries, as can be seen from such clearly distinguishable linguistic as can be seen from such clearly distinguishable linguistic periods as Old English, Middle English, and Elizabethan periods as Old English, Middle English, and Elizabethan English. Language change is an inevitable and continuing English. Language change is an inevitable and continuing process, whose study is chiefly carried on by philologists and process, whose study is chiefly carried on by philologists and historical linguists.historical linguists.

Short term: English changes within the history of a single Short term: English changes within the history of a single person. This is most noticeable while children are acquiring person. This is most noticeable while children are acquiring their mother tongue, but it is also seen when people learn a their mother tongue, but it is also seen when people learn a foreign language, develop their style as adult speakers or foreign language, develop their style as adult speakers or writers, and, sometimes, find that their linguistic abilities are writers, and, sometimes, find that their linguistic abilities are lost or seriously impaired through injury or disease. lost or seriously impaired through injury or disease. Psycholinguists study language learning and loss, as do Psycholinguists study language learning and loss, as do several other professionals, notably speech therapists and several other professionals, notably speech therapists and language teachers.language teachers.

Regional variationRegional variation

Geography affects language, both within a country Geography affects language, both within a country and between countries, giving rise to regional accents and between countries, giving rise to regional accents and dialects, and to the pidgins and Creoles which and dialects, and to the pidgins and Creoles which emerged around the world whenever English first emerged around the world whenever English first came into contact with other languages.came into contact with other languages.

IntranationalIntranational regional varieties have been regional varieties have been observed within English from its earliest days, as seen observed within English from its earliest days, as seen in such labels as 'Northern', 'London', and 'Scottish‘.in such labels as 'Northern', 'London', and 'Scottish‘.

InternationalInternational varieties are more recent in origin, varieties are more recent in origin, as seen in such labels as 'American', 'Australian', and as seen in such labels as 'American', 'Australian', and 'Indian' Regional language variation is studied by 'Indian' Regional language variation is studied by sociolinguists, geographical linguists, dialectologists, sociolinguists, geographical linguists, dialectologists, and others, the actual designation depending on the and others, the actual designation depending on the focus and emphasis of the study.focus and emphasis of the study.

CONCLUSIONCONCLUSIONThe history of English is a fascinating field of The history of English is a fascinating field of study in its own right but it also provides a study in its own right but it also provides a valuable perspective for the contemporary valuable perspective for the contemporary study of the language. The historical account study of the language. The historical account promotes a sense of identity and continuity promotes a sense of identity and continuity and enables us to find coherence in many of and enables us to find coherence in many of the fluctuations and conflicts of present-day the fluctuations and conflicts of present-day English language use. Above all it satisfies the English language use. Above all it satisfies the deep-rooted sense of curiosity people have deep-rooted sense of curiosity people have about their linguistic heritage. People like to about their linguistic heritage. People like to be aware of their linguistic roots. be aware of their linguistic roots.

HOME ASSIGNMENTS: HOME ASSIGNMENTS: Comment on the following quotations from Comment on the following quotations from

the works of prominent modern linguists and the works of prominent modern linguists and speak on the problems of linguistic change:speak on the problems of linguistic change:

a) ‘One may say with R. Jakobson, a little a) ‘One may say with R. Jakobson, a little paradoxically, that a linguistic change is a paradoxically, that a linguistic change is a synchronic fact.’;synchronic fact.’;

((A. SommerfeltA. Sommerfelt))b) ‘Visible change is the tip of an iceberg. b) ‘Visible change is the tip of an iceberg.

Every alteration that eventually establishes Every alteration that eventually establishes itself had to exist formerly as a choice. This itself had to exist formerly as a choice. This means that the seedbed for variation in time is means that the seedbed for variation in time is simply the whole landscape of variation in simply the whole landscape of variation in space.’;space.’;

((D. BolingerD. Bolinger))

c) That two forms, the new and the old, can c) That two forms, the new and the old, can occasionally exist in wholly free variation is a occasionally exist in wholly free variation is a possibility that has not yet been disprove but, as possibility that has not yet been disprove but, as Bloomfield rightly remarked “when a speaker Bloomfield rightly remarked “when a speaker knows two rival forms, they differ in knows two rival forms, they differ in connotation, since he has heard them from connotation, since he has heard them from different persons under different different persons under different circumstances.”; circumstances.”;

(M. Samuels)(M. Samuels)d) ‘All the big trouble spots of the world in d) ‘All the big trouble spots of the world in

recent decades have been monolingual countriesrecent decades have been monolingual countries—Cambodia, Vietnam, Rwanda, Burundi, —Cambodia, Vietnam, Rwanda, Burundi, Yugoslavia, Northern Ireland.’Yugoslavia, Northern Ireland.’

(D. Crystal)(D. Crystal)

Questions for Self-ControlQuestions for Self-Control

What factors of the language What factors of the language development are called linguistic? development are called linguistic?

What factors of the language What factors of the language development are called development are called extralinguistic? extralinguistic?

Give examples of some extralinguistic Give examples of some extralinguistic factors. factors.

What does “diachronic study” mean? What does “diachronic study” mean? What does “synchronic study” mean? What does “synchronic study” mean? What languages are called synthetic? What languages are called synthetic? What languages are called analytical? What languages are called analytical?

THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE · Graphology The writing system of a language. Graphological (or orthographic) study has two main aspects: the visual segments of the written

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