A Handbook of Orchestration - Forgotten Books

CONTENTS

ApologiaForeword to StudentsList of Music to be used with this BookGeneral Introduction to the Subj ectExplanation of the Compass Charts

PART I THE SCORE (A graded course of study)

The String Orchestra

The Small Orchestra .

The Full OrchestraNotes for Advanced Students

PART I I THE INSTRUMENTS

Chapter I The String GroupChapter I I The String InstrumentsChapter II I The Wind GroupChapter IV : The Wind InstrumentsChapter V : The Percussion GroupChapter VI : The Percussion Instruments and the

Harp

Some Obsolete and rarely used InstrumentsOn the Study of Old and Foreign ScoresTable of InstrumentsBibliographyIndex

APOLOGIA

The paramount need in music teaching at the presenttime is the training of students as listeners . In order tolisten intelligently one must understand the language thatis spoken . The principal language of the music of to-dayis that of the Orchestra . An intimate knowledge of the

grammar of orchestration is, then , the necessary technicalequipment of the intelligent listener . The best way to

attain this knowledge is by writing orchestral scores, whichshould in no case be original composition , for one cannotlearn the grammar of a language and write poetry in itsimultaneously .

Twenty years experience of teaching orchestration on

these lines—by orchestrating piano-music already in

existence , without reference to other branches of musicaltheory—has convinced me that good listeners can be p roduced in this way ; and that all students, particularlysingers and pianists, can be aided thereby towards soundmusicianship . Incidentally , if a student is at the sametime working through the ordinary academic routine of

musical theory which results in composition ,by the time

he arrives at that goal he has already at hand the technicalknowledge of the Orchestra which enables him to transcribehis ideas directly to the Full Score .

My pupils have repeatedly urged me to put into bookform the notes that I give them , but hitherto I haverefrained from doing so because there are already so many

vii

viii APOLOGIA

good text-books published . But Orchestration is asubj ect which is always changing and growing

, so the

best book inevitably gets out-of-date in a short time .

This continual change is due to the development of Musicitself, which—like other art forms—tends all the time tobecome more complex , and more difficult to execute .

This gives rise to a constant demand for instrumentsmore capable of grappling with the technicalities of the

modern score . Instrument-makers rise to the occasion ,

and though the Strings are in the main static , the windand percussion instruments are constantly improved inmechanism . This

, then ,is my apology for adding another

manual to those already in existence .

In conclusion I wish to acknowledge my great indebtedness to Mr . Cecil Forsyth ,

whose exhaustive volume,

Orchestration,has been invaluable to m e . I trust that

every student who has worked through this little bookwith advantage and pleasure will pass straight on to the

great work in which Mr . Forsyth has formulated his vastknowledge of an intricate subj ect.

FLORENCE G . FIDLER .

FOREWORD TO STUDENTS

Students without any knowledge of Harmonyand Counterpoint are assured that

,although such

knowledge is of immense service in Orchestration

,it is not necessary until the scores become

well advanced . Good elementary orchestration only requires acquaintance with theelements of music (keys , time-signatures,etc . ) and a working knowledge of transposition .

The best method to follow is to study Harmony side by side with Orchestration

,thus

developing the tonal colour—sense simultaneously with that of structure and design . Theunfortunate method of postponing the study or

!

Orchestration until the final stage of a prolongedcourse of theoretical training in music is reachedis equivalent to forbidding a child to colourpictures until he can draw correctly .

The two Parts of this book are to be usedconcurrently

,and the student also requires

copies of the Piano music and orchestral scoreslisted on Page 7 . The graded course ofstudy is the result of long experience in teaching the subj ect . String writing

,correct but

not necessarily elaborate,must be mastered

2 HANDBOOK OE ORCHESTRATION

first,as it is the fundamental basis of all orches

tration . The student is advised to studythoroughly each Section (of Part I) beforegoing on to the next it is the quickest in the

end,and nothing is gained by trying to learn

all at once the details of many intsrum ents .

Concentration on one point at a time is the aimof this system

,which is only intended to start

the student on the right road— a road whichhas no endNo detailed description of the instruments has

been given as it is obvious that unless thestudent knows them already by sight and bysound he cannot hope to achieve much . Tonecolouring

,like picture colouring

,cannot be

taught in words,and any endeavour to describe

sounds generally results in absurdity or incoherence The ear can only be trained by constantlistening to an orchestra

,first of all concentra

ting on single instruments and on groups,and

then studying the more complex sounds of

their various combinations . The student mustnot be satisfied until he can hear mentallyevery score he reads or writes .

All statements relate to English methods andinstruments only

,and historic information has

been rigorously excluded . The growth and

development o f m usical instruments is a sub

FOREWORD TO STUDENTS 3

j ect of immense interest , but it has no bearingwhatever on the study of elementary orchestration

,and had better be deferred until later .

Students who wish to pursue this branch of thesubj ect are referred to the Bibliography at theend of this volume . The methods of the mostmodern composers are also omitted as being toocomplicated for the beginner

,who is assured

that if his foundations are sound he will findlittle difficulty in embellishing his scores laterwith the most recent ornamentation .

I t is unwise to obscure the plan of a text-booksuch as this by the introduction of controversialmatter : the direct ions and statements therefore have been made intentionally dogmatic .

Students who discover numerous exceptionsand side- issues must be generous enough toremember this .

In addition to the use of this book,and the

music to be s tudied in connection with it,the

student should ( I ) attend every orchestralconcert possible

,and always sit where he can

see the players well ; (2 ) cultivate from thefirst the habit of playing from score he shouldplay all the scores he writes and as much as hecan of those chosen for study ; (3 ) copy out

one or more full scores from the set of separateorchestral parts ; (4 ) score some well-kno

2 HANDBOOK OF ORCHESTRATION

first,as it is the fundamental basis of all orches

tration . The student is advised to studythoroughly each Section (of Part I ) beforegoing on to the next it is the quickest in theend

,and nothing is gained by trying to learn

all at once the details of many intsrum ents .

Concentration on one point at a time is the aimof this system

,which is only intended to start

the student on the right road -a road whichhas no endNo detailed description of the instruments has

been given as it is obvious that unless thestudent knows them already by sight and bysound he cannot hope to achieve much . Tonecolouring

,like picture colouring

,cannot be

taught in words,and any endeavour to describe

sounds generally results in absurdity or incoherence The ear can only be trained by constantlistening to an orchestra

,first of all concentra

ting on single instruments and on groups,and

then studying the more complex sounds of

their various combinations . The student mustnot be satisfied until he can hear mentallyevery score he reads or writes .

All statements relate to English methods andinstrumen ts only

,and historic information has

been rigorously excluded . The growth and

development o f m usical instruments is a sub

FOREWORD TO STUDENTS 3

j ect of immense interest , but it has no bearingwhatever on the study of elementary orchestration

,and had better be deferred until later

Students who wish to pursue this branch of thesubj ect are referred to the Bibliography at theend o f this volume . The methods o f the mostmodern composers are also omitted as being toocomplicated for the beginner

,who is assured

that if his foundations are sound he will findlittle difficulty in embellishing his scores laterwith the most recent ornamentation .

I t is unwise to obscure the plan of a text-booksuch as this by the introduction of controversialmatter : the direct ions and statements therefore have been made intentionally dogmatic .

Students who discover numerous exceptionsand side—issues must be generous enough toremember this .

In addition to the use of this book,and the

music to be s tudied in connection with it,the

student should ( I ) attend every orchestralconcert possible

,and always sit where he can

see the players well ; (2 ) cultivate from thefirst the habit of playing from score he shouldplay all the scores he writes and as much as hecan of those chosen fOr study ; (3 ) copy outone or more full scores from the set of separateorchestral parts ; (4 ) score some well-kno

w

4 HANDBOOK OF ORCHESTRATION .

orchestral work from the piano arrangement,

and then compare his own version with thecomposer ’s original (5 ) study every full scorehe can get hold of

,when possible noting in a

piano version (with red ink and a privatelyinvented shorthand) the details of the scoring

(6) play some orchestral instrument , be it onlyTriangle or Bass Drum

,in order to obtain

practical experience in orchestral methods .

Apropos Of this it may be added that wind instruments are on the whole easier to play thanstrings

,and are more in demand in amateur

orchestras .

LIST OF THE MUSIC TO BE USED WITH

THIS BOOK

FULL SCORES

Beethoven . Symphony in Eflat, No . I I I (Eroica)!Mendelssohn Five Numbers from the M id

snmmer N ight’

s Dream M nsic .

(Scherzo,Intermezzo

,N octnrne

,

Wedding M arch,R i tp eltanz)

Tschaihowsky . Suite . Casse N oisette,Op . 71 .

Tschaihowshy . Symphony,No . VI (Pathe

’

tiqne)Op . 74 .

P IANO MUSIC

M endelssohn . Lieder ohne Worte (Any completeedition)

Beethoven . Piano SonatasBorch. P etites P ieces caracte

’

ristiqnes . Op . 49 .

Bk .I (Augener)Farj eon . N ight M usic . (Seven Pieces)

(Augener)Rachmaninoff . Serenade. Op .III

,No . 3 (This

is included in several albums of shortpieces)

Grieg . Humoresken,Op . 6 .

6 HANDBOOK OF ORCI—IESTRATION

ABBREV IATIONS

In order to save space in the text,the four

full scores are referred to as Eroica,M .N .D .

,

Suite,

and P ath. Sym . The page numbersare those of the min iature edition . (TheDonajowsk i Edition , now published by Messrs .

Feldman Sc Co . ) The initial M signifiesMovement . In the piano music the composer

'

s name only is given,with the number

of the piece in the collection .

GENERAL INTRODUCTION To THE

suEJECT

The Orchestra is divided into three GroupsStrings

,Wind

,and Percussion . Wind and

Percussion parts are never duplicated— that is,

there is only one player for each part Stringparts are performed by several players together .

The Strings form the body of the orchestra,

and can never be done without for very long .

This is because (1 ) they have the greatest rangein execution as regards rapidity

,expression

,

gradation of tone,and the facility with which

they can accomodate themselves instantly to anymusical idea (2 ) as they use their hands only,String players do not tire so quickly as doWind players

,and can play continuously :

(3 ) the tone of the Strings does not pall on theear so soon as the tone of the Wind .

Dr . Riemann has pointed out that whereasthe Strings must always give the form andgeneral character of the music

,the Wood Wind

adds a free statement of definite ideas,and the

Brass proclaims those ideas : to this may beadded the suggestion that the Percussionclinches the mat ter .


A little thought will show that musicalinstruments follow the general scheme ofNature ’sLaws big things have deep voices

,little things

have high voices : big things talk slowly,

little things talk quickly . So in the Orchestrathe larger the instrument

,the deeper its note

,

and the greater its difficulty in playing fast .

The largest and the smallest instruments havethe least power of expression

,and ( in the

Wind Group particularly) it is the middle sizedinstruments that are the best suited to solowork .

The modern arrangement of the parts in aFull Score is Wood Wind at the top

,then

Brass,then Percussion

,with the Strings at the

foot,the instruments of each group

,being

placed,roughly

,in their order of pitch . As

String writing must be studied first it is necessary to begin the study of the Score at thebottom . The Violoncello and Double Bassparts must

,now

,always be written on separate

staves and this arrangement of five stavesfor the Strings rigidly adhered to until suchtime as extra ones are required for the sub

division of parts . The two parts of each pairof Wind instruments are always placed on the .

same stave,and care must be exercised in the

matter of tails and res ts the tails of all notes

GENERAL INTRODUCTION 9

to be played by the Firs t being upward,and

those of the Second downward,irrespective of

their positions on the Stave . Double restsmust be inserted

,except in those bars where

both are silent it is allowable,however

,

(I ) when only one of the pair is playingfor a long time

,to write Im o or 2do at

the beginning of the passage,and (2 ) when both

are in unison for some time,to write the term

unis in order to save space .

Orchestral writing must invariably be amatter of artistic nicety and exacti tude, withno details left vague or unexplained . Thesuccess of a score depends very greatly on theclarity of its independent parts

,every one of

which should be complete in itself,having its

own phrasing,expression marks

,etc . I t is

wise to rule the bar- lines for the whole scorebefore beginning to work

,and to write in all

the clefs,key-signatures

,etc . also to number

the bars and those of the piano copy of the

piece to be scored . I t is not necessary to begina score at the beginning

,the better plan being

to work the easiest parts first : in every casethe whole plan of the score should be sketchedout before any details are filled in .

Every pupil demands to be told sooner or

later why he is troubled with transposing

i o HANDBOOK OF ORCHESTRATION

instruments . Briefly,the reason is this

the case of these instruments the choice liesbetween making things easy for the wri ter of

the score and the conductor of the orchestraon the one hand

,and on the other making

things easy for the players of the parts,either

by similarity of fingering to that of a kindredinstrument (as in the case of the Cor Anglais ) ,or by the avoidance of leger lines (as in DoubleBass ) , or by a less strenuous mental effort (asin Horn ) there is only one writer and one

conductor to a number of players,and both

writer and conductor are entirely at the mercyof the players therefore it pays in the long runto make things as easy as possible for them atthe expense of everybody else . Moreover

,as

Professor Prout points out,every student

must learn to read parts written in the acceptedfashion

,or the whole of orchestral literature

will be closed to him,and there is nothing

gained by reading scores in one way and writingthem in another .

The choice of key is not so important amatter as it formerly was

,but all instruments

are more resonant and have easier parts in thosekeys which have few sharps or flats . Otherthings being equal it is better to take a flat keythan a sharp one . Horn and Trumpet players

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EXPLANATION OF COMPASS CHARTS .

The notes on the stave at the top of theChart represent the real sound of each noteshown beneath : all other notes In the Chartare those written for the respective instruments .

STRINGS . The four open strings of eachinstrument are numbered and written in semibreves ; the suggested top stopped note as aminim . The lowest artificial harmonic obtainable and the highest advisable appear as

crotchets with a diamond-shaped note above .

Natural harmonics are marked as black dotswithout tails ; it must be understood thatothers are scientifically possible but undesirablein an orchestral score . I t will be noted that ineach case the sound of the lowest artificialharmonic can also be obtained as a naturalharmonic . The same relative harmonics aregiven to the Viola as to the other Strings

,

but the student is referred to the Section on theViola in Part I I

, (Par .

WIND. The system followed is to regard thesemibreve as representing the most perfect note

,

and the demisemiquaver as the most imperfect,

and to Show the intervening gradation bymeans of the relative note -values so the best

EXPLANATION OF COMPASS CHARTS I3

part of each instrument is that enclosed betweentwo semibreves . The Pedal Notes of the TenorTrombone are shown with diamond- Shapedheads and the letter P over each . Four separatestaves are allotted to the Trumpet

,because its

notation is not yet standardised : there is of

course no instrument called Trumpet in Cbut a moderate compass without transpositionhas been included under this title as a guide tobeginners

,who invariably find the Trumpet

the most difficult of the transposing instrumentsto write for at first . The two notes in bracketsin Double Bassoon are only to be found on

certa in makes O f instrument .

PERCUSSION . The extreme notes of the fourKettledrums in common use are given : thesize of the Middle Drum varies

,so both sorts

are represented . In Harp,Glockenspiel

,etc .

the system of graduated note-values (as inWind ) is followed . The smallest Glockenspielcompass is quoted : but all these mechanicalinstruments are so various in kind

,and so

continually changed and improved that no

final word on their construction is p ossiblI t must be understood that these Charts are

only intended to serve as a rough guide to thebeginner . The compass (especially the upwardcompass ) of most musical instruments is indeter

T4 HANDBOOK OF ORCHESTRATION

minate,depending to a great extent on the make

and quality of the instrument,the ability o f

the player,and the conditions of the m om en t .

Extreme notes are always best avoided .

PA RT 1 THE SCO RE.

GRA DED COURS E O F STUDY.

CHAPTER I : The String Orchestra

CHAPTER I I : The Wood Wind

CHAPTER I II : The Small Orchestra

CHAPTER IV : The Full Orchestra

CHAPTER V : Notes for Advanced Students


PA RT l THE SCO RE

A G RADED COURS E O F STUDY.

CHAPTER I . THE STRING ORCHESTRA

SECTION I

STUDY . Part II,Ch . I

,1 -

5 ; and Chap . I I,

See . I . Refer also to Sections 2,

3 , 4,

Eroica ; M . 2 (Funeral March ) Stringparts only .

SCORE . hi endetssohn,No . 48 (Op . 102

,No . 6 )

for Strings .

No . 9 (Op . 30,No . 3 ) for Strings ,

omitting the First and last barswhich contain arpeggios .

NOTES . I Rule MS . music-paper into linesof five staves each

,j oining them with a brace

on the left-hand . Allot one stave to eachinstrument

,placed in order of pitch

,as follows

First Violin,

Second Violin,

Viola,

Violoncello,

Double Bass .


The two violins like women ’s voices,Sing in

two parts ; the second is the one whichplays the lower part .

2 . Each of the five parts must be completein itself

,having its own clef

,key-signatures

and expression marks ; but directions whichaffect the time of the whole (such as A llegro,ralt) . need only be inserted at the top of thescore . (Eroica ,

3 . I t is not necessary to keep every instru »

ment playing continuously . (Eroica ,100,

117121 )4 . Any note can be given to any instrument

provided it is within its compass : the FirstViolin need not always be at the top . (Eroica ,

118)5 . The tune Should bear the same position

in regard to the whole as in the original : thebass may never be altered

,except in octave ;

it must always remain at the bottom of theharmony .

6 . Notes may be doubled in two or moreparts . (Eroica ,

105 ,

7 . Nothing may be added to the harmonye .g . a common Chord must remain a commonchord

,and have no seventh added to it .

8 . The instrument that begins a sentenceshould finish it

,as in speaking .

THE STRING ORCHESTRA 19

SECTION I I

STUDY . P art I] , Ch . I . 6-10 ; and Chap . I I,

Sec . 3 .

Eroica M . 3 (Scherzo) String parts only .

SCORE . Borch,No . 2

,Sarabande

,for Strings .

M endelssohn,No . 45 (Op . 102

,No . 3 )

for Strings .

NOTES . I . Plan out a scheme for the whole scorebefore beginning to write . The best way is toplay it

,marking on the piano copy meanwhile

the proposed distribution of parts .

2 . Every short piece has one big climax :this should be found

,written Tutti ( everybody

playing) , worked up to and away from .

3 . A score Should be sometimes thick withmany instruments playing

,and sometimes thin

with only a few,according to the nature of the

music .

4 . Learn from the first to regard a scorehorizontally as well as vertically

,and make

each part interesting in itself . The besttest to apply is to play or hum it through byitself without reference to the others this willShow

,among other things

,that a phrase which

finishes on the beat has the smoothest effect .

5 . To discover how fas t pizzicato can beplayed on a violin

,hold a piece of string between

20 HAIIDBOOK OF ORCI—IESTRATION

the teeth and the left hand,and twitch it with

the first finger of the right hand,meanwhile

Singing mentally the passage in question : i tcannot be done beyond a certain speed

,which

is still less in the case of the larger Strings .

(Part I I , Chap . 1,

3 . When doubling the notes of a chorddivide them as equally as possible if there bea remainder strengthen the root of the Chord ,and then the third .

7 . Try always to convey the spirit of themusic itself . I f a piece is graceful and flowing

,

write the orchestral parts in long slurred smoothpassages ; if it is j erky and lively, use Shortnotes and p izzi cato . The music is to be translated from one language to another

,far richer

in expression ; and the best translations are

those which keep the spirit rather than theletter of the original .

SECTION I I ISTUDY . P art II

,Chap . 1

,1 1 -13 ,

and Chap .

1 1,Secs . 2 and 4 .

E roica,M . IV ; String parts only .

Suite,Overture M iniature ; String

parts only .

SCORE. M endelssohn

,NO . 10

, (Op . 30,No . 4)

for Strings .

Beethoven,Sonata in E

,No . 9 , M 1

for Strings .

THE STRING ORCHESTRA 2 1

NOTES . 1 . I t is most important to have afi rm harmonic bass when there are many partsabove it to support . When a Short note isgiven in the piano part a long sustained noteshould often take its place in the score . Theguide to this is the use of the piano pedalin every case where the pedal holds a low notewhile the left-hand plays a middle part

,the

bass of the orchestra Should hold on likewise .

A p izzicato bass passage is good for rhythm,

but it is not often in itself a sufficiently strongfoundation unless another instrument has thesame note sustained .

2 . Sustained tone in the middle parts isoften required

,and to this too the pedal is the

surest guide . I f in the piano part the handsare widely separated

,leaving a space in the

middle of the instrument withou t notes,this

space Should be filled up by means of thesub-division of the Strings into several parts .

3 . I t is necessary to detach the mind fromthe limitation O f the piano and of the pianist ’stwo hands and ten fingers

,and to write accord

ing to the greater wealth of material which anorchestra supplies . I f 3 passage is loud

,full in

tone,a nd broad in style

,parts should be thick

ened and notes doubled . The orchestra canplay that which is impossible to the pianist .


4 . The common form of piano four-notearpeggio (Beethoven Sonata ,

Bar is bestreproduced in Strings by reiterated semiquaversor bowed tremolo

,the chords being spread and

divided between several instruments,and the

parts sub-divided if,

necessary . (Eroica , 97,1 14,

and the final P resto) .

5 . I f a long passage,or scale

,or arpeggio

,

proceeds through several octaves,and is cut up

between different instruments,the smoothest

effect can be obtained by careful dovetailing ofthe j oins

,leaving no moment of silence . One

or more notes should overlap ; a good plan isto end one part and start the next simultaneously on the beat . Scherzo

,p .



M .N .D . Wedding .M arch,Vv

’

ood and

String parts only .

Suite,All Flute parts

,but particularly

those of the Danse des Mirlitons .SCORE . M endelssohn

,No . 12

, (Gondelliedl forone Flute and Strings : andNo . 20

, (Op . 53 ,No . 2 ) for one

Flute,one Oboe

,and Strings .

SECTION IV

STUDY . P art II Chap . IV,Sec . 5 ,

The Clarinet .M .N .D .

,Scherzo

,Wood and String

parts only .

Suite,all Clarinet parts .

SCORE . M endelssohn,No . 36 (Op . 67 ,

No . 6 )for one Clarinet and Strings .

M endelssohn No . 28,for Wood Wind

only ( two Flutes , two Oboes , twoClarinets and two Bassoons . )

NOTES . 1 . Wind Instruments must be writtenfor vocally

,as if for the human voice

,and

doubtful points can often be solved by referenceto the singer ’s point of View . For instance

,i t

is as bad to keep a Wind for long on its highestnotes as it would be in the case of a Singer :and a Wind player must have time to breathej ust as a singer must .

THE WOOD WIND 25

2 . In writing for one Wind instrument andStrings it is impossible to avoid treating itmore or less as a solo part . But when scoringfor many Wind together it is a good plan toaccompany a Wind solo with Strings

,and a

String solo with Wind,in order to get the varied

tone-colour .

3 . In writing a Tutti of the eight WoodWind and Strings the harmony should be com

p lete in itself in each group ,so that the Strings

by themselves would sound well,and the Wind

equally well .

4 . I f a chord of three or four notes is intendedto sound as one whole

,with the tone well

blended,the best way to get this effect is by

giving it to Strings entirely or to Wind entirely .

Four-note chords in Wood blend best when giveneither to Flutes and Clarinets

,or to Oboes and

Bassoons . Six—note chords blend well withthe Flutes and Clarinets crossed and the Bassoons below .

5 . There is little gained by giving a solo tothe Second player in a pair of W ind instruments . The Second ’s purpose in the Orchestrais ( 1 ) to strengthen the part in a loud passage ,(Eroica ,

155 ) (2 ) to add notes to the harmony

(Eroica ,15 ) (3 ) to play a duet with the First ,

such as a passage of thirds or sixths, (Eroica ,

2 6 HANDBOOK OF ORCHESTRATION

13 , 3 1 ) (4 ) to relieve the First when he needsrest (E roica ,

189 and onwards , and

(5 ) to lead up to a passage by the First .

6 . I t the tune is doubled,the accom p ani

ment must be correspondingly thickened to

preserve balance . I f the tune is taken up anoctave the gap between must be fi lled . Intaking the scoring up in this way it is generallywise to carry the bass down

,and thus

,by

contrary motion,to avoid top -heaviness .

7 . In regard to the last score in Sec . IV .

(Wood Wind only ) it may be pointed out thatthere are three general ways of obtaining goodbalance in a Wood Tutti : ( 1 ) by making theorder of parts coincide with the order of instruments on the score (2 ) by crossing and interweaving the parts ; and (3 ) by placing theparts of one pair of instruments in between theparts of another pair .

CHAPTER I I I . THE SMALL ORCHESTRA

SECTION I

NOTE . The term Wood,

used alone , denotes the eigh tin strum ents in ordinary use— two Flutes , two Oboes , twoC larinets

,two Bassoons . The term “

Drums used alonerefers to the Kettledrums . For the explanation of the

Horn and Trumpet transpositions of the four model scores ,see page 126 .

STUDY . P art II,Chap . IV

,Sec . 8

,The Horn .

M .N .D . N octurne.

Suite,M arch

,No . 2

,Wood

,Horn and

String parts only .

SCORE . M endelssohn,No . 22

,for two Horns

and Strings .

Beethoven,Sonata IX

,M . 2 for Wood

and Four Horns .

M endelssohn,No . 29 ,

for Wood,two

Horns and Strings .

Borch,No . 3 ,

for one Oboe,two Horns

and Strings .

Beethoven,Sonata VI

,M . 2 for Wood ,

four Horns and Strings .

1 . In writing a Tutti it is wise to


make the four Horns complete the harmony inthemselves

,as already done in the case of

the Strings and the Wood .

2 . I t is a good plan to test the correctness oftransposed parts by playing them

,first from

the piano original and then from the score,

when the ear should detect any inaccuracy .

SECTION I I

STUDY . P art I I,Chap . IV

,Sec . 4 . The Cor

Anglais .

Suite,Trepak and Danse A rabe

Wood,Horn and String parts only .

SCORE . Farj eon ,No . 5 ,

for two Flutes,Cor

Anglais,two Clarinets

,two Bas

soons,two Horns

,and Strings .

Borch,No . 1

,for Wood

,Cor Anglais ,

four Horns and Strings .

Rachmaninofl,Serenade ,

for Wood,two

Horns and Strings .

M endelssohn,NO . 34 ,

for Wood,two

Horns,and Strings .

NOTE . In every orchestral piece there are ,roughly generalising

,three component parts ,

( 1 ) the tune , (2 ) a moving accompaniment ,and (3 ) a veiled background of sustained tone .

THE SMALL ORCHESTRA 29

This third part is not found in piano music,

except to some extent by the use of the pedal

(again the surest guide to its inclusion ) and inscoring it has to be invented : without it ascore sounds thin and poor in quality . Inhearing an orchestra this unostentatious bodyof sound

,acting as a foil to the moving parts

,

should be listened for carefully . The bestpart of each instrument to use for the background is its most neutral part ; notes whichare very high

,very low

,or in any way consp ic

uous should be avoided ; the crossing of sus

tained parts is often a useful plan to follow .

SECTION I I I

STUDY . P art II,Chap . V Chap . VI

,Secs .

1, 4 , 5 ,

Percussion Instruments .

P ath. Sym . M . I I I .

Suite ; all Percussion parts .

SCORE . Farj eon ,No . 2

,Slumber Song ,

for Wood,

four Horns,Drums and Strings .

Grieg . No . 4 ,for Wood

,two Horns

,

Drums,Triangle

,Cymbals

,and

Strings .

Beethoven,Sonata

,N o . 8

, (Path!tique )the last twelve bars of the FirstMovement to be scored as acrescendo tutti .


NOTES . 1 . Monotony Should always be a

voided . An idea,say ,

for accompanying asolo

,may be quite good in itself

,but if persisted

in for a long time,i t becomes wearisome to the

bearer no one thing should be done continuously .

The best guide to the points Where it is W ise toto change the style is the phrasing of the originalpiano music being scored

,a new phrase generally

needing a new mode of expression .

2 . AS stated in Part I I,the Drum note must

always be a part of the harmony,though it need

not necessarily be the bass . When it is not thebass

,the Bass or Cello should be below it .

3 . The easiest way of producing a generalcrescendo is to make each instrument play loudera more artistic method is by the gradual andregular addition of instruments to the score .

The exercise given ( from a Beethoven Sonata)should commence with the Strings only

,and

conclude with the Tutti of all the instrumentsstudied up to this point

,the Wind and Percussion

being added gradually .



Score . Farj eon ; No .3 ,I'Vill o

’

the I'Visp ,for

Piccolo,Flute

,Triangle and Strings .

Borch,No . 4 ,

for Wood,Bass Clarinet

,

Double Bassoon,four Horns

,Drums

,

Triangle,Cymbals and Strings .

Grieg ,No . I

,for Full Orchestra .

SECTION I I I

P art II, Chap . VI,Sec . I I . The Harp .

Suite. Valse des Fleurs .

Score . Beethoven . Sonata I I I,M3 ,

for Woodand Harp .

Farj eon ,N o . 3 ,

In the M oonlight,

for Full Orchestra,with Cor Ang

lais,Bass Clarinet

,Double Bassoon

and Harp .

Grieg ,No .2

,for Full Orchestra .

The student who has worked steadilythrough this Part Should now be able to selecthis own material for scores . AS a general ruleit will be found that music most distinctlypianistic is the worst for the purposeChopin and Schumann provide little or nomater i al

,but nearly everthing that Beethoven

wrote can be scored . A list is added of pieces thathave been scored by pupils w ith success

,and is

given merely as a suggestion . In every case where

THE FULL ORCHESTRA

there is already a solo part,the accompaniment

only should be scored,thus creating a concerto .

Pianists would do well to score music whichthey play ; singers , the accompaniments of

their songs . In songs where several versesare alike

,the best practice lies in scoring each

verse differentlyDEBUSSY . The Children

’

s Corner Suite .

DVORAK . Aus dem Bdhmer Walde Bk . 1 .

(P iano four hands )KALIWODA . N octurnes for Viola and Piano .

EM IL KREUZ . Song ,A Lake and a Fairy

Boat.

L ISZT . Songs , D ie Loreley and E s war ein

K Onig in Thule .

MACKENZIE . Part song,Come

,sisters

,

com e ! (Novello . )PAUL PUGET . Song ,

Chanson de Route,

(from Chansons pour E lle) .RACHMANINOFF . Album of Short Pieces .

SCHARWENKA . Bilder aus dem Suden

(Piano , four hands)SCHUBERT . Piano Sonatas .

SITT . Fantasiestitch in F M inor for ViolaOp . 53 No . 1 .

SVENDSEN . Romance in G,for Violin .

WALFORD DAVIES . Part-song,The Cloud

(Sidney Riorden ) .

CHAPTER V . NOTES FOR ADVANCED STUDENTS

SECTION I . Tutti Writing

1 . There should be economy in Tutti writing :the ear soon tires of noise and the good effect of aTutti is in inverse proportion to its length andits frequency .

2 . The general rule given that each Groupin a Tutti should make complete harmony initself holds good in nearly every case . TheWood being the least powerful Group cannotbe heard individually in any large Tutti exceptthe high Flute register and the Piccolo . Thebest plan to follow therefore is to write firstthe String and the Brass parts and then usethe Wood for filling in the gaps .

3 . A Tutti can be made thick by a multi

p licity of parts or thin by a limited numberof parts doubled by many instruments . Whenthe total compass is wide thick scoring is anecessity

,as wide gaps in the middle always

sound badly . In a unison-octave passage theparts should be equally divided between theoctaves , when any individual instrument geting out of its compass can leap up or down anoctave without disturbing the general effect .

NOTES FOR ADVANCED STUDENTS 35

4 . The tone-colour of a Tutti dependsmostly on the register in which the individualinstruments are placed . The most brilliancecan be obtained by putting them high ; asombre grave tone by putting them low .

I f quantity of sound merely is desired eachshould have its easiest and most resonantnotes— Strings with open strings , Brass withopen notes

,and —needless to say- unlimited

Percussion .

5 . In building up a crescendo by additions,

the Wood again cannot be considered by themselves

,as they are neither strong enough nor

subtle enough to influence the scheme . I t iswise to begin with the Strings , then to add theWood and Brass in unisons

,in pairs

,and to

keep back the Percussion for the climax .

6 . A good arrangement for the top Woodparts in a brilliant Tutti is to use the Piccolofor the top notes , double it in the octave withboth Oboes , fill in between with the Flutes

,

and double the Flutes in the lower octave bythe Clarinets .

SECTION I I . Harmony

1 . Although quite satisfactory orchestration can be done by means of common senseand musical feeling without any knowledge

CHAPTER V . NOTES FOR ADVANCED STUDENTS

SECTION I . Tutti Writing

1 . There should be economy in Tutti writing :the ear soon tires of noise and the good effect of aTutti is in inverse proportion to its length andits frequency .

2 . The general rule given that each Groupin a Tutti should make complete harmony initself holds good in nearly every case . TheWood being the least powerful Group cannotbe heard individually in any large Tutti exceptthe high Flute register and the Piccolo . Thebest plan to follow therefore is to write firstthe String and the Brass parts and then usethe Wood for filling in the gaps .

3 . A Tutti can be made thick by a multi

p licity of parts or thin by a limited numberof parts doubled by many instruments . Whenthe total compass is wide thick scoring is anecessity

,as wide gaps in the middle always

sound badly . In a unison-octave passage theparts should be equally divided between theoctaves , when any individual instrument geting out of its compass can leap up or down anoctave without disturbing the general effect .


4 . The tone-colour of a Tutti dependsmostly on the register in which the individualinstruments are placed . The most brilliancecan be obtained by putting them high ; asombre grave tone by putting them low .

I f quantity of sound merely is desired eachShould have its easiest and most resonantnotes— Strings with open strings , Brass withopen notes

,and— needless to say— unlimited

Percussion .

5 . In building up a crescendo by additions,

the Wood again cannot be considered by themselves

,as they are neither strong enough nor

subtle enough to influence the scheme I t iswise to begin with the Strings , then to add theWood and Brass in unisons

,in pairs

,and to

keep back the Percussion for the climax .

6 . A good arrangement for the top Woodparts in a brilliant Tutti is to use the Piccolofor the top notes

,double it in the octave with

both Oboes , fill in between with the Flutes,

and double the Flutes in the lower octave bythe Clarinets .

SECTION I I . Harmony

1 . Although quite satisfactory orchestration can be done by means of common senseand musical feeling without any knowledge


of Harmony , yet it follows that the mostadvanced work requires to be founded on asound harmonic basis . Just as in a pictureno amoun t of skill in colouring will hide baddrawing , so no score sounds clear and satisfying unless the part—writing is good in itself ,and the tone well balanced between the partsO f each chord .

2 . The best guide for the good spacing ofchords is the natural harmonic series

,which

,

starting from the octave at the bottom,rises by

regularly decreasing intervals . So it followsthat the bass instruments Should be widelysp aced

,and the treble instruments closely

pressed together . In String divisions therefore it is generally wiser to divide the upperthan the lower Strings .

3 .The natural and legitimate use of the

lowest bass instruments of each Group (DoubleBass

,Double Bassoon

,and Bass Tuba) is to

give the lowest oc tave in the harmonic series ,and in a powerful Tutti they cannot be betteremployed

.Close harmony of middle parts

Should not lie below G at the top of the bass

stave .

4 .Brass harmony

,except for the four

Horns alone,should always be widely spread .

VOOd harmony ,on the contrary

,sounds better



when a Wind solo is accompanied by Strings

(4) by the crossing of parts , as when the Cellois put above the Violins

,or the Oboe above the

Flutes .

3 . In music writ ten for the Piano the melodyis almost always at the top of the harmony

,and

next in order of frequency it lies in the bassleast often is it found in the middle parts .

But in the Orchestra the greatest wealth of

material lies in the middle,round about Middle

C, (which note exists on every instrumentexcept the Piccolo

,Kettle-drums

,and the very

lowest Wind ) , and ,as has been pointed out ,many

instruments are at their best in the middle of theircompass . I t follows that orchestral melodymost generally lies in the middle of the harmony

,

and the accompaniment has to be consideredaccordingly Melodies which lie otherwise

,

extremely high or extremely low,are best

doubled in the octave,or even in two octaves .

3 . I t is seldom wise to give a solo passageto two similar Wind instruments . I f thatmechanical precision which is inevitable whentwo players have to keep together is theeffect required then the added fulness and

roundness of tone may be an advantage ;but most Wind solos are of a delicate nature ,and such solos should always be confined to one


p layer of each kind of instrument .

4 . When a phrase or passage is repeated itshould have more tone the second time thanthe first

,either by the use of stronger instru

ments,or by the addition of others .

5 . For purely dynamic effects the S tring andBrass instruments are the most responsive ;but the finest dim inuendo and the softestpianissimo can be obtained on the Clarinet .With this exception the Wood Wind Groupis the least subtle in this particular way , thoughit furnishes the greatest variety of colour .6 . The effect produced by the re-entry of

Instrument or Group depends mostly on the

length of its previous silence .

7 . Entries and Exi ts should never bewritten in a middle tone except in the case ofbackground work . A more definite softnessor loudness is required at the beginning and theend of everything .

8 . One can never afford at any time to beunrhythmical , least of all at the beginning of

any fresh movement the rhythm then shouldbe slightly exaggerated in order that the

hearer can feel the swing instantaneously ;it should not take him

'

five or six bars to decidein what time the music is written .

9 . Grace notes of every kind,being a

perform it .

middle of thq >hrase.


Piano effect,are best avoided in Orchestration

i f used they should not be doubled . In Windthey are only playable in those conj unctionswhere shakes and tremolo are possible .

SECTION IV . Accompaniment

1 . Accompaniments to songs and instru

mental solos need special attention . Thesoloist must have suffi cient sup p ort , but mustnever be over—powered . A Tutti can only beused when the solo is silent

,when it is

effective as affording contrast . Wind shouldbe kept in the neutral registers

,except for

subordinate solo passages . The bulk of theaccompaniment should always be given toStrings

,even in a Violin Solo .

2 . I f the solo part is florid,the accom p ani

ment should be simple and the scoring thin .

I f the sole is smooth with long sustained notes,

then the accompaniment should be florid witha full tone

,otherwise it lacks interest .

3 . In a song the accompaniment should liefor the most part in a different register from theso lo ; the man

’s voice Should have a highaccompaniment

,while the woman

’

s requiresa low one .

4 . During the solo passages it is unwise todouble Wind in the unison

,or to have a heavy


sustained Double Bass part : Percussion mustalso be sparingly used .

5 . The doubling of the solo part in theOrchestra is sometimes effective for an isolatedpassage

,but Should never be prolonged .

6 . Very short snappy chords only soundwell when loud ; in a soft passage separateChords Should be written in fairly long notes .

This applies particularly to Strings .

7 . While remaining subordinate to the solo ,every accompaniment should be made interesting in itself , and acceptable to the players whoperform it .

SECTION V . Balance,Combinations

,and

Tone -Colour

1 . Tone-Colour should be varied continually,

but without fussiness . For beginners,Pro

fessor Prout’

s rule is a wise one,Change the

colour about every sixteen bars and never in themiddle of the phrase .

2 . The study of combinations is unlimitedand can be taught by no text-book the knowledge is only obtained by training the ear torecognise the sound of each combination— to

know , how ,for instance

,the Flute and Oboe in

unison sound,the Viola and Bassoon in octaves

,

and so forth .


3 . The exact power of the Strings dependsobviously on their numerical strength at themoment ; but , speaking roughly ,

i t may besaid that all the First Violins playing arco

balance one Wood instrument in piano,and two

in forte .

4 . I f both Violins are in unison w ith Viola,

the latter adds fulness to the body of tone,but

cannot be heard individually .

5 . Except in the case of the two Violinparts

,i t is seldom advisable to put two Strings

of the same kind in octaves .

6 . Wood blends equally well w ith Stringsor Brass if used to double St rings , the tone isthickened ; if to double Brass , the tone is Sweetened .

7 . All combinations of Strings and Woodare good

,but the Strings generally drown the

Wood .

8 . Strings and Brass rarely blend well,

though a passage for four Horns doubled byViolas and Cellos divisi has an extremely goodeffect .

9 . A useful combination is Wind sustainedand Strings pizzicato

,one giving sonority and

the other lightness to the whole .

10. One String part in unison with oneWood (for instance , Viola and Bassoon ) pro



17 . Smaller Brass and Wood combinationsrequire care . I f Wood and Horns are inoctaves two Flutes

,Oboes

,or Clarinets are

needed to balance one Horn ; and three or

four to balance two Horns . In the case ofWood and Trumpets three Wood are requiredto balance one Trumpet when the latter is inthe lower octave

,but two are sufficient when

the Trumpet is in the higher octave . A Trumpetpassage that gets too high can be best transferred to Oboes and Clarinets in unison ; inthis case if the accompaniment to the Trumpetwas Wood

,it should be transferred to the

Horns . I t is wiser to avoid combinations ofWood and Trombones . Muted Trumpets blendwell with Oboe and Cor Anglais . StoppedHorns blend well with the chalum eau of theClarinet .

18 . All Wind instruments , when playingsoftly

,have about the same power , though

Trumpets and Trombones should be markedPP when the others are marked P . But inforte and fortissimo some adj ustment is requiredto procure good balance . Then Trumpets ,Trombones and Tuba have about the samestrength Cornets have rather less Horns areabout half as strong as the larger Brass . I t isbest

,therefore

,in loud passages to put two


Horns in unison to balance one Trumpet or

one Trombone , and two of any Wood Wind tobalance one Horn .

19 . When only two Horns are in use a commonarrangement is to build four-part harmonywith the two Horns and the two Bassoons .

They balance perfectly in p iano,but in forte

the Horns are apt to drown the Bassoons unlessmarked mf or mp . There are two methods ofarranging this combination (1 ) by crossing thefour parts

,giving the consonant intervals to

the Horns,and the dissonant intervals to the

Bassoons ; and (2 ) by giving the Horns anoctave at the top and bottom of the chord

,and

putting the Bassoon parts in between ; thereverse of this would be bad . Such a passageis of course best when placed in the neutralregisters of both instruments .

20. I t is always good to give sustained partsto Brass and moving parts to Wood .

2 1 . A useful method of procuring a glittering top part is to put the Flute and Piccolo inunison (not octaves ) , the Flute being forte andthe Piccolo pianissimo .

22 . A uniform tone of rather a harsh kindcan be obtained by writing Clarinets high andOboes low .

23 . Wood Wind writing is simplified con


siderably by the use of three Flutes and threeClarinets

,which

,by providing a Six -note chord

of much the same timbre,gets over manifold

difficulties . Several of the Russian composersuse this arrangement with one Oboe and oneCor Anglais

,treating the two latter only as

solo instruments .

24 . There is no power in the Orchestra,

not even in the Brass,that can drown a String

unison-octave passage played loudly .

25 . Owing to the relative tension of thestrings

,the tone of the Violin and Cello most

nearly approximates,and that of the Viola and

Double Bass .

26 . There are several ways of avoiding atoo -sudden Change of tone-colour by a gradualmerging of groups . An easy method is to markone Group dim inuendo and the other crescendo

at the same time . A more subtle way is bythe use of those parts of individual instrumentswhich relate most nearly to the timbre of theother Group . For instance

,the harmon ics of

Strings carry the tone-colour from Strings tohigh Wood ; the Viola carries String tone toWood through the middle Bassoon or lowClarinet registers ; low Flute notes can carryVilood tone to Brass through low soft Trumpetnotes ; the Bassoon and Horn playing m ezzo


forte and in neutral registers can carry Stringsto Brass fairly well , while muted Trumpetsand stopped Horns can carry Wood to Brass .

Wagner ’s scores are particularly useful for thestudy of these transitional effects .

A final word to advanced students is thatOrchestration is in point of fact a science thathas no rules

,and that consists entirely of

exceptions . For a special effect anythingis allowable

,but too many special effects

defeat themselves,and produce an inartistic

score . Momentary exaggeration is Often excellent

,but habitual exaggeration spells failure .

Young composers anxious to get their workplayed Should remember that extra instru

ments involve extra expense,and that scores

containing many parts outside the ordinaryFull Orchestra are not so readily accepted forperformance for that reason .

PA RT II THE INSTRUM ENTS

CHAPTER I The String Group

CHAPTER II The String Instruments

@HAPTER III The Wind Group

CHAPTER IV The Wind Instruments

CHAPTER V The Percussion Group

CHAPTER VI : The Percussion Instruments and the

Harp

PA RT 11 THE INSTRUM ENTS

CHAPTER I . THE STRING GROUP

(NOTE : String , with a capita l S , refers always to

the group of instruments w ith a small “ 5 ”

to the catgutitself . Sim ilarly Bass with a capital signifies the

Double Bass , while with a small initial letter it means the

bass of the harmony) .

THE STRINGS . In all bowed instrumentsthe strings are numbered downwards

,the

highest in pitch being the first . The stringsare all made of catgut ; when described as

covered ,

” the reference is to those which havea tightly-wound metal thread spun round thewhole length . These covered strings are thefourth in Violin

,and the third and fourth in

Viola and Violoncello .

KEYS . Theoretically all Strings can playequally well in any key but those containingtheir open strings are easier and have moreresonance . Keys having a large number of sharpsor flats should be avoided it is better to writeenharmonically .

BOW ING . The signs H and V are used todenote down-bow and up

-bow resp ec

tively, but it is not necessary to mark them



i t in order to get his hand rightly placed . TheTable applies equally well to Viola if transposeddown a perfect fifth

,but it does not apply to

Cello or Bass .

5 . SHARES . Shakes of all kinds are possible

on Strings , except the lowest one of all,that

on the fourth open string . The notation isand slurs should Show how much is to

be done in one bow . In a very long shake,

however , i t is wiser to omit slurs , then eachplayer changes his bow at will and the effect

THE STRING GROUP 53

is continuous . Double Shakes Should not beused in orchestral writing .

6 . CHORDS AND ARPEGG IOS . Chords andArpeggios of two

,three

,or four notes are

possible which have each note on a separatestring and in the same position . Double-noteChords on adj acent strings are the only onesthat can be played solidly

,as the how can only

play on two strings at the same time . LargerChords are spread

,that is

,played in groups

of two notes,which follow each other with great

rapidity . Chords having one or two openstrings for their lowest notes are easiest andhave the greatest resonance . I t is best toconfine spread Chords to the three upper Stringpar ts

,and in no case should they be given to

Double Bass .

7 . PIZZICATO . This is done by pluckingthe string with the finger ins tead of using thebow

,and is an easy and useful device . I t is

mos t sonorous on the lower strings and shouldin no case be written high up in the compass ofany instrument

,as on a very short string the

tone is bad . A little time is needed beforeand (still more ) after a pizzicato passage toallow the player to adj ust his hand . P izzicato

can never be as rapid as bowing ; the degreeof speed depends on the thickness of the stringused , the Violin first being the quickest to


respond and the Bass fourth the slowest .Spread chords across the strings can be playedpizzicato under the same left-hand conditionsas with the bow . !uick arpeggios to be playedwith one Sweep Of the finger across the stringsshould have a slur this is the only occasion inwhich a slur is used in pizzicato writingusually the finger rises for each note . Excepton the open strings there is no great range of

force possible with p izzicato it is most effectivewhen played piano . Left—hand pizzicato

,a

solo device,should not be used in orchestral

writing . P izzicato on a natural harmonic (Par .

10 below) is possible and particularly good inCello

,but rather feeble on the other Strings .

The direction for pizzicato is pizz . whichholds good until contradicted by arco

,

”

w iththe bow .

8 . MUTES . A mute is a small three -prongedpiece of metal

,wood

,or ivory

,which is placed

on the bridge of the instrument without touching the strings . I t deadens the sound somewhat and produces a thin reedy tone . Thedirection is con sordino ,

and the contradictionsenza sordino . Time

,at least three slow

bars,must be allowed in which to put on and

take O ff the mute . Mutes are least Often usedfor the Double Bass .

THE STRING GROUP 55

9 . TREMOLO . There are three kinds oftremolo

, ( 1 ) Bowed ; (2 ) Fingered ; and (3 )Broken . Bowed tremolo is the most common ,

and is very easy and useful . With a quickwrist - action the player reiterates one note

(or a double-note chord ) as rapidly as possible .

I t can be played with any degree of force fromPPP to forte

,but is most effective when soft .

Fingered tremolo is a shake of an intervallarger than a second that is— it consists of avery rapid alteration of two notes , using twofingers on the same string ; one finger stopsthe lower note while the other rises and falls asquickly as possible . Open strings should not

be used . Intervals so large as to require twostrings Should be avoided

,as this entails a

wrist-action which is difficult and can never berapid . The lower strings are the least good forfingered tremolo . Broken Tremolo consists of

stopping two notes on adj acent strings andplaying them alternately with separate bowsas rapidly as possible . I t can never be as fastas the other two kinds

,but is the best for

ortissimo work . A very rare effect is a pizzicato tremolo

,produced by thrumming the notes

of a spread-chord across the strings with thesoft part of three or four fingers .


£62 56 0, fi bf z’

f f d’

Jerry/ 53 .7

10. HARMONICS . (1 ) N atural. Everystring vibrates as a whole and in sectionssimultaneously . By lightly touching it atcertain points the whole- length vibration isprevented

,and it vibrates only in sections

,

and thus produces harmonics . On eachstring there are several harmonics obtainable ;they occur as a regular diminishing progressionof intervals upwards from the open stringoctave

,perfect fifth

,perfect fourth , maj or

third,minor third . The lower ones in the

series are the easier and the most commonlyused . To indicate a harmonic a little 0

is written above the note , which in every casedenotes the real sound

,not the place where the

string is touched .

(2 ) A rtifi cial. Any note on the threehighest Strings which is two octaves and a noteabove its lowest string can be produced as anartificial harmonic by stopping the note twooctaves below and lightly touching the stringwith the fourth finger . In this case the realsound produced is not wri tten ,

but , instead ,

THE STR ING GROUP 57

the two notes which are stopped and touchedthe step p ed note is written in the usual way ,

and the touched note (always of course aperfect fourth higher) has a diamond-shapedhead . As t he whole hand has to move foreach artificial harmonic slurs should be avoidedand intervals kept small . These harmonicsare easy on the Violin

,difficult and r isky on

Viola,possible and good on Cello

,and impossible

on Bass . They should not be wri tten higherthan two octaves above the lowest one possible .

The harmonic is a special effect and must betreated as such : the sound is thin and fluty ,

and can never be loud . Harmonics are alwaysunsuitable when the music is fast

,and in no case

should a Single one be introduced in the middleof a quick stopped passage . The bow must beused rapidly

,so long slurs are bad

,and a passage

written entirely In harmonics should as a genera lrule consist only of the natural ” or onlyof the artificial kind

,as an intermixture is

difficult . The natural harmonics are theeasier and have the better tone . A little timefor preparation is required for the correctproduction of all harmonics

,as needless to

say , unless perfectly in tune , they do not soundat all .1 1 . D IVISION OF PARTS . All String p arts

58 HANDBOOK OF ORCHESTRA'

ION

can be sub -divided into two,three

,or more

separate vo ices . In w riting for Stri gs alonethis is o ften necessary in order to com lete theharmony

,but at all times it is a useful evice by

which to obtain variety o f tone -color in theString Group . I t is unwise

,however

, 0 dividethe Double Basses except for a sp ecii effect ;and as a general rule sub -divisions sould beconfined to the three upper Strings . I t mustalways be borne in mind that by diviling one

String part into two,the tone is thee '

dirnin

ished by one half,with the result hat the

tone-balance requires re-adj ustment . n delicate passages it is bes t to divide , ey e whenit i s po ssible for one player to get botI notes ,as there is inevitably some roughness ii doublenote playing

,because the bow is lealing

simultaneously with two s trings o f ifferent

thickness . In forte work ,how ever where

quantity o f tone is required ,the part should

not be divided i f playable w i thout . h ere isonly one sat isfactory notation for a ivision

o f parts,the di rection div . and 31

“ the

contradiction unis . The am biguou terma 2 should be avoided . I f part s are ivided

into more than two it is necess ary to us extrastaves .

12 . SPECIAL EFFECTS . ( I ) Sul poricellf) ,



can be sub -divided into two,three

,or more

separate voices . In writing for Strings alonethis is Often necessary in order to complete theharmony

,but at all times it is a useful device by

which to obtain variety of tone- colour in theString Group . I t is unwise

,however

,to divide

the Double Basses except for a special effect ;and as a general rule sub-divisions should beconfined to the three upper Strings . I t mustalways be borne in mind that by dividing oneString part into two

,the tone is thereby dimin

ished by one half,with the result that the

tone-balance requires re-adj ustment . In delicate passages it is best to divide

,even when

it is possible for one player to get both notes ,as there is inevitably some roughness in doublenote playing

,because the bow is dealing

simultaneously with two strings of differentthickness . In forte work

,however , where

quantity of tone is required,the part should

not be divided if playable without . There isonly one satisfactory notation for a divisionof parts

,the direction div . and for the

contradiction unis . The ambiguous terma 2 should be avoided . I f parts are dividedinto more than two it is necessary to use extrastaves .

12 . SPECIAL EFFECTS . ( I ) Sul ponticello ,

THE STR I NG GROUP 59

with the bow kept close to the bridge . I tproduces an unpleasant hard tone

,and is usual

ly confined to bowed tremolo . (2 ) Sul tasto

(or sur la touche) , the bow being drawn over thefingerboard ; this produces a light , thin tone ,only suitable for PP . (3 ) Col legno ,

when theplayer uses the stick instead of the hair of thebow . I t is not drawn

,but thrown on the string

and allowed to rebound : the result is a succession of hard wooden taps and considerabledamage to the varnish of the bow : the effectcan never be loud

,and to be successful requires

a large number of players ; it is wiser thereforeto give it to all the Strings at once . The contradiction for all three devices is naturale .

13 . CROSSING OF PARTS . This is a usefuldevice with many possibilities

,but if the Viola

or (more particularly) the Cello , is put abovethe Violins

,i t becomes very conspicuous and

can only be given a prominent part .


2 . NOTATION . I t is the only instrument inthe Orchestra to use habitually the Alto Clef .When the part gets very high the Treble Clef isused

,the part being always written in real notes .

3 . BOW ING . The bow is shorter,heavier

,

and less elastic that the Violin bow . I t isnecessary

,therefore , to keep it moving at a

good pace in order to get pure tone consequently slurs should be shorter than in Violin parts .

All the various kinds of bowing are possible .

4 . SPECIAL EFFECTS . Col legno ,ponticello,

sul tasto, pizzicato, and the lower natural harmonies are all possible and useful , but it is bestto avoid artificial harmonics . Mutes are particularly effective on the Viola , especially on thetwo outer strings .

5 . GENERAL . The tone of the Viola,part

icularly on the first and fourth strings, is quite

unique and cannot be obtained on any otherinstrument ; solos should be kept as much as

p ossible on these two strings . The middlestrings combine well with anything

,so are use

ful for filling-ih and background work . TheViola blends better than any other String withthe wind

,even with the brass . M inor keys are

better than maj or ; all flat keys better than sharpthe worst keys for the instrument are E maj orand B maj or . A Viola solo is always effective

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS 63

in a score , but it should be short , and it mustnever be forgotten that the instrument is naturally unsuited to great rapidity of movement .

In modern scores the Violas are frequentlydivided

,sometimes into four or six parts , and

this gives the harmony a sombre richness thatis not obtainable in any other way .

SECTION I I I The Violoncello

1 . COMPASS . The four strings are tuned to-an octave below those of the Viola .

The upward compass is of course variable , butthe highest E in the Treble stave may be suggested as a possible highest note .

2 . NOTATION . All three clefs , bass , tenorand treble are used

,and

,now

, the real soundis always written . In old scores when the trebleclef is used

,the notes are often written an

octave above the real sound ; and because of

this ambiguity i t is wiser to avoid the trebleclef altogether

,unless the part gets very high .

3 . BOW ING . All the various kinds of bowingcan be applied to the Cello . Very long slursare impossible as the bow ,

heavier and less elast icthan the Violin bow

,has to be used more rapidly

in order to keep the thick strings in vibration .

4 . FINGERING . The strings of the Cello arenearly double the length of those of the Violin ,


2 . NOTATION . I t is the only instrument inthe Orchestra to use habitually the Alto Clef .When the part gets very high the Treble Clef isused

,the part being always written in real notes .

3 . BOW ING . The bow is shorter,heavier

,

and less elastic that the Violin bow . I t isnecessary , therefore , to keep it moving at agood pace in order to get pure tone consequently slurs should be Shorter than in Violin parts .

All the various kinds of bowing are possible .

4 . SPECIAL EFFECTS . Col legno ,ponticello ,

sul tasto, pizzicato, and the lower natural harmonies are all possible and useful , but it is bestto avoid artificial harmonics . Mutes are particularly effective on the Viola , especially on thetwo outer strings .

5 . GENERAL . The tone of the Viola,part

icularly on the first and fourth strings,is quite

unique and cannot be obtained on any otherinstrument ; solos should be kept as much aspossible on these two strings . The middlestrings combine well with anything

,so are use

ful for filling-in and background work . TheViola blends better than any other String withthe wind

,even with the brass . M inor keys are

better than maj or ; all flat keys better than sharpthe worst keys for the instrument are E maj orand B maj or . A Viola solo is always effective

THE STR ING INSTRUMENTS 63

in a score , but it should be short , and it mustnever be forgotten that the instrument is naturally unsuited to great rapidity of movement .In modern scores the Violas are frequentlydivided

,sometimes into four or six parts , and

this gives the harmony a sombre richness thatis not obtainable in any other way .

SECTION I I I The Violoncello

1 . COMPASS . The four strings are tuned to—an octave below those of the Viola .

The upward compass is of course variable , butthe highest E in the Treble stave may be suggested as a possible highest note .

2 . NOTATION . All three clefs,bass , tenor

and treble are used,and

,now , the real sound

is always written . In old scores when the trebleclef is used

,the notes are often written an

octave above the real sound ; and because of

this ambiguity it is wiser to avoid the trebleclef altogether

,unless the part gets very high .

3 . BOW ING . All the various kinds of bowingcan be applied to the Cello . Very long slursare impossible as the bow

,heavier and less elastic

than the Violin bow , has to be used more rapidlyin order to keep the thick strings in vibration .

4 . FINGERING . The strings of the Cello arenearly double the length of those of the Violin

,


consequently the fingering is different . AS arule the player uses consecutive fingers fora semitone and alternate fingers for a tone

,

so he can only stretch a maj or third in one position . For high passages (above the B in thetreble stave) the thumb is brought round andplaced on the strings ; these high thumbpositions are rarely needed in orchestralmusic

,but if used the player must be given

a few moments in which to readj ust his hand .

5 . SHAKES . All shakes are p ossible , but itis best to avoid those on the thick C string .

6 . TREMOLO . Bowed tremolo is easy andeffective . Fingered and Broken tremolo mustbe written with regard to the limitations of thestretch of the left hand .

7 . GENERAL . P izzicato is easy and mostuseful

,but should not be too fast . Double

stopping is not advisable in orchestral writing ,unless very easy it is far better to divide thepart . Octaves , unless the lower note is anopen string , are also unadvisable . The fourthis the most awkward interval on the Cello , so

any phrase or figure built on fourths should beavoided . Harmonics of both kinds are easyto produce anywhere . Formerly the Cello wasonly used as the bass of the Strings , but nowi t can be alloted any task and is equally good



plenty of time must be allowed for the tuningand retuning of the string .

4 . FINGERING . At the nut the maxim um

stretch between the first and fourth fingers is awhole tone ; only the first and second fingerscan stretch a semitone . The usual method of

playing a passage of semitones from one openstring to the next is 024240 ; as the intervalsget smaller in the higher positions the firstfinger is brought into use .

5 . BOW ING . The bow is very Short and thestrings are very thick

,so in piano the bow has

to be changed every few seconds , and morefrequently as the tone is increased . A longsustained note should be written either withone long slur , (when each player turns his bowat pleasure and so the tone is continuous ) orwith a succession of short notes portamento,

so

that the bow is changed in accordance with therhythm .

6 . DOUBLE NOTES . A few are possible,

one or both being Open strings,but their use

is inadvisable,and it is better to divide the part .

7 . HARMONICS . Artificial harmonics areimpossible

,but a few natural harmonics are

obtainable , and are easy and effective ; theyare written in real sounds with black dots onthe Compass Chart . AS stated above the real

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS 67

sound is always written in the case of harm oniCS,

and the treble clef may be used .

8 . PIZZICATO . This is easy and useful , butexhausting to the player if continued for long .

I t should never be fast , particularly on thelower strings

,or the effect is muddled . The

lower it is the more resonant is the sound .

9 . SHARE S . These are possible but not

desirable,as they always sound thick . I f used

they Should be very Short and doubled in the

10. TREMOLO . Bowed tremolo is very oftenfound in scores

,but it is never so loud as de

tached notes,only more exciting and noisy ;

separate notes as a general rule produce thebetter result . Fingered Tremolo of an intervalnot greater than a minor third is practicable

(but undesirable ) when the lower note is atleast a maj or third above the open string . Onthe three lower strings it is only good whenpiano

,but on the top string it can be mf or

even forte,and come out fairly well . Broken

Tremolo is theoretically possible when one of

the two notes is an open string , but it is inevitably 50 Slow as hardly to be called a tremolo .

1 1 . SPECIAL EFFECTS . Those mentioned inChapter 1 ,

12 can be produced on the Bass andare generally successful . Mutes are occasion


ally used,but are not recommended ; most

players Obj ect to their use .

12 . GENERAL . As a rule it is bad to writefast for the Bass , as it is a Slow-speaking instrument and quick movement of any kind is totallyunsuited to its nature ; the numerous quickpassages to be found in old music belong to

the orchestral vagueness of the past when theCello and Bass played from the same part

,

and each did what he liked and could . Generallythe Bass part should be kept up

,as the continual

growl of the lower strings is ugly and heavyVery low sounds of any kind demand harmonicsimplicity and for the Bass continual moderatemovement is the best way of writing . Thedivision of Basses is quite legitimate and now

very usual,but in very small orchestra there

is often only one Bass player , when Obviousdifficulties arise ; in a thin score it is rarelygood to divide the Basses . The best part of theinstrument is from the A Open string to abouta tenth or twelfth above ; speaking roughlytherefore it is well to confine the Bass partwithin the limits of the Bass stave . A quickloud passage which continues for a long timeis very tiring to the players , and it is a goodplan in such a case to divide the Basses , andcut up the passage between them . (P ath. Syur

PB 50, SI )

CHAPTER I I I : THE WIND GROUP

1 . WOOD AND BRASS . The main divISIOn

of Wind instruments is between those that aremade of wood ,

called The Wood,and those

that are made of metal,generally brass

,called

The Brass .

” The pitch of each depends on

the length of i ts tube . The differences of tonecolour are due chiefly to ( 1 ) the method inwhich the air is set in motion , (2 ) whether thetube is conical or cylindrical , and (3 ) the proportion the size of the tube bears to i ts length .

The Wood Wind instruments in general useare the Flute and the Piccolo , in which thetone is produced by blowing across a hole inthe tube ; the Clarinet and Bass Clarinet ,which have a single reed ; and the Oboe , CorAnglais

,Bassoon and Double Bassoon

,which

have a double reed . The reeds are piecesof rush which are attached to the mouthpiecein such a way that they vibrate with the

player ’s breath , and in their turn set in vibration the air within the tube .

The Brass Wind consists of Cornet,Trumpet

,

Horn , Trombone and Bass Tuba , all having acupped mouthp iece , the exact shape of whichlargely determines the tone . The Brass has the


ally used,but are not recommended ; most

players obj ect to their use .

12 . GENERAL . As a rule it is bad to writefast for the Bass

,as it is a slow- Speaking instru

ment and quick movement of any kind is totallyunsuited to its nature ; the numerous quickpassages to be found in old music belong to

the orchestral vagueness of the past when theCello and Bass played from the same part

,

and each did what he liked and could . Generallythe Bass part should be kept up

,as the continual

growl of the lower strings is ugly and heavyVery low sounds of any kind demand harmonicsimplicity and for the Bass continual moderatemovement is the best way of writing . Thedivision of Basses is quite legitimate and now

very usual,but in very small orchestra there

is often only one Bass player , when obviousdifficulties arise ; in a thin score it is rarelygood to divide the Basses . The best part of theinstrument is from the A Open string to abouta tenth or twelfth above ; speaking roughlytherefore it is well to confine the Bass partwithin the limits of the Bass stave . A quickloud passage which continues for a long timeis very tiring to the players , and it is a goodplan in such a case to divide the Basses , andcut up the passage between them . (P ath. Sym .

,

PP. 530, 5 1)

CHAPTER I I I : THE WIND GROUP

I . WOOD AND BRASS . The main CllV lSlOIl

of Wind instruments is between those that aremade of wood ,

called The Wood,and those

that are made of metal,generally brass , called

The Brass .

” The pitch of each depends on

the length of i ts tube . The differences of tonecolour are due chiefly to ( 1 ) the method inwhich the air is set in motion , (2 ) whether thetube is conical or cylindrical , and (3 ) the proportion the size of the tube bears to its length .

The Wood Wind instruments in general useare the Flute and the Piccolo , in which thetone is produced by blowing across a hole inthe tube ; the Clarinet and Bass Clarinet ,which have a single reed ; and the Oboe , CorAnglais

,Bassoon and Double Bassoon

,which

have a double reed . The reeds are piecesof rush which are attached to the mouthpiecein such a way that they vibrate with theplayer ’s breath , and in their turn set in vibration the air within the tube .

The Brass Wind consists of Cornet,Trumpet ,

Horn , Trombone and Bass Tuba , all having acupped mouthpiece , the exact shape of whichlargely determines the tone . The Brass has the


more power , with great possibilities of PP ,cres

cendo and dim inuendo while the Wood has thegreater agility ; the relative difficulty beingthat while the Brass is the more difficult toblow

,the Wood is the more difficult to finger .

A technical point of difference is that whereasthe mechanism of Wood always raises pitch

,

that of Brass always lowers pitch .

2 . NUMBER OF PLAYERS . The Wind of

the modern Full Orchestra consists usually of

the following,placed in the correct order on

the scoreTwo Flutes

,

!One Piccolo ,Two Oboes ,

!One Cor Anglais,

Two Clarinets ,!One Bass Clarinet ,Two Bassoons ,

!One Double Bassoon ,

Four Horns,

‘l‘Two Trumpets (or Corne ts) .!Two Tenor Trombones ,!One Bass Trombone .

!One Bass Tuba .

Small Orchestras omit those with the asterisk,

which are still regarded as extra instrumentsand are often played by the second player



4 . TONGUEING . In every Wind instru

ment the sound is produced by a single actionof the tongue which sets the air within the

tube in motion . Double and Triple Tongueing(the rapid succession of notes in groups of two or

three,produced by the tongue moving in such

a way as to interrupt the breath ) is possibleonly in those cases where the player has no partof the instrument inside the mouth . On theFlute and Piccolo

,which have no mouthpiece ,

tongueing of all kinds is extremely easy ;but all the other Wood instruments

,having

some sort of mouthpiece within the lips of theplayer

,cannot in consequence do anything

beyond single tongueing . In the Brass,where

the mouthpiece is outside the lips , Doubleand Triple Tongueing is theoretically possiblefor all

,but only practicable on the smaller

instruments— the Cornet,the Trumpet

,and (to

a limited extent ) the Horn . Although rapidtongueing is easy ,

i t becomes exhausting ifcontinued for a long time

,especially on the

larger instruments .

5 . COMPASS . The complete compass inWood

,from the lowest Double Bassoon note

to the highest squeak of the Piccolo , forms themost extended range of any group in theorchestra . The exact upward compass of any

THE WIND GROUP 73

Wind instrument is indefinable , as it dependsconsiderably on the ability of the player , andon the make of his instrument . The compassgiven in the chart is intended for ordinaryorchestral use . As is the case with the humanvoice

,the very highest and the very lowest

notes have the least power of expression , andare the most difficult and the most exhaustingto produce . An invariable rule in Wind isthat every instrument is at its best and easiestin the middle of its compass , and all solos andprominent passages should be placed therefor , whereas Wind instruments are big or sm all,

high or low ,the human throat , lips and hands

remain the same size . High notes can onlybe produced loudly . Low notes require mostbreath . The lower the descent in the compass

,

the shorter must be the slurs and the greater thenumber of rests . Low notes on all the deepbass Wind must be used with caution andrestraint

,as they are slow to speak and very

tiring to play . Every note on every instrumentthat lies below the bottom of the bass stave hadbest have a breath to itself . These low notescan be held a li ttle if piano

,but when they are

forte they must be quite short with many restsbefore and after . Experienced Brass playerscan fake notes below the actual compass O “


the instrument by means of a very loose lip,

but it is unwise to score these ; they are onlygood as a makeshift to meet the difficultiesarising in old and foreign scores . (Cp .

,however

,

Part I I,Ch . IV

,Sec .

6 . KEYS . As a general rule flat keys arethe best for Wind . Instruments vary in thedegree in which they are affected by key butin most cases it is best to avoid extreme keyswith a large number O f flats or sharps , and i t isalways wise to write enharmonically in order toavoid accidentals .

7 . SHAKES AND TREMOLOS . These are generally possible in Wind

,but each instrument

has its own awkward intervals , and peculiardifficulties in their execution . An exhaustivedescription of this somewhat unimportant pointcan be found in every other text-book but thishere information is given only where it canbe condensed in other cases the use of shakesand tremolos is best avoided until the subj ectis advanced ; they are only a trimming andquite unnecessary in the earlier stages of

orchestration .

8 . PHRASING . Phrasing means breathing ,and is as important to the Wind player as tothe singer . Each Slur must be carefully thoughtout with regard to the spirit of the music , to the

THE WIND GROUP 75

capacity of the particular instrument in use atthe moment

,and to the pitch of the notes .

A general rule is that the higher the instrumentand the higher the notes the more can be donein the same breath .

9 . GENERAL . AS the lips are more easilycontracted than distended it follows that ascending intervals are always easier to play thandescending intervals this applies especially tolegato slurs and to the double- reed instruments .

Brass instruments have no distinct registersof tone

,but generally speaking they become

stronger and more piercing as they ascend .

The Wood often have several registers of tone ,and become more piercing

,but not always

stronger,as they ascend . With the exception

of the Clarinets,the Brass can get the softest

p ianissimo . Skips up and down the compassare very difficult in Brass

,but comparatively

easy for the Wood instruments .

I t must not be thought that the Clarinet isa lower instrument than the Oboe because oftheir respective positions on the score , whichis the result of the Oboe ’s historic seniority .

The Clarinet goes lower,but it also goes much

higher .

A very important point to remember inwriting for Wind instruments is that they


must be warm before they can be played without risk or difficulty . In those cases thereforewhere the player has had no opportunity towarm his instrument , as in the change of

Clarinets (Chap . IV , Sec . V , 3 ) or when theSecond Flute player takes the Piccolo duringthe course of a piece

, or the Second Oboist theCor Anglais

,then unimportant passages for

the new instrument should be written for a

li ttle while , or the player given time in whichto blow S ilently into his instrument in order towarm it .

(Students are referred also to the Notes following Sec . IV in Part I

,Chap .

CHAPTER IV . THE WIND INSTRUMENTS

SECTION I' The Flute

1 . NOTATION . Treble Clef . Non- transposing .

2 . REGI STERS . (1 ) Low ; up to tuningA the notes are sweet and luscious but easilydrowned when this low register 1s m use theDouble Bass had best be omitted

,and the

scoring should be thin long slurs should alsobe avoided as the player has to breathe afterevery few notes ; these low notes often soundlike a Trumpet . (2 ) M iddle ; the octave up

wards from tuning A is the Sweetest andthe best for solos . (3 ) High everything abovethe high A becomes more shrill and piercingas it ascends ; this register is the most usefulin a loud tutti .

3 . KEYS . Comparatively speaking the Fluteis little affected by key

,but maj or keys are

better suited to it than minor , particularlyin the two higher registers .

4 . SHAKES AND TREMOLOS . A ll Shakes arepossible within the two octaves above E (firstline o f stave ) . Tremolos Should be limited tothirds within the stave .


5 . ADVANTAGES . Nimbleness ; agility ; theFlute can play legato,

staccato,repeated notes

as fast as a Violin,most shakes , skips , arpeggios

and scales of all sorts with perfect ease and forlonger without rest than can any other Windinstrument its sweet low tone and its brillianthigh tone are equally useful .6 . D I SADVANTAGES . I t has no power of

expression of a soulful kind and can only beamiable or merry ; it has no power for aneffective sostenuto,

nor for crescendo and diminnendo .

7 . GENERAL . Flute solos lying low arebest piano and with a thin accompaniment .

The two lower registers are good for background work but the highest is too shrill forthis purpose . In a loud tutti the Flutes shouldbe put high . Flute tone quickly becomesmonotonous to hear

,so restraint should be

exercised with regard to its use . A flute mus tnotbe expected to plav softly high up in its compass .

The oft-quoted defective notes need notbe considered on the modern instrument .

SECTION I I . The Piccolo

1 . NOTATION . Treble Clef . The part iswritten an octave lower than the real sound ,

in order to save leger lines .



ment , to be used on special occasions only .

Everything said about the Flute applies theoretically to the Piccolo

,but as the latter

reaches the top of its compass it is more difficultto play . Long sustained notes are unsuitedto its nature and it is at its best in continualrapid movement .

SECTION I I I The Oboe

1 . NOTATION . Treble Clef . Non-transp os

2 . DESCRIPTION . The Oboe has a verysmall compass

,no variety of tone and is very

exhausting to play continuously,as the player

requires so little breath that he has to hold itback while playing . For these three reasons itmust be written for with restraint . The bestpart of the instrument is from G on the secondline to G on the first space above the stave .

3 . SHAKES AND TREMOLOS . All shakes arepossible up to the D above the stave . Sometremolos are possible

,but there are so many

that are awkward or difficult that it is betterto avoid them altogether in any case they areunsuited to the character of the instrument .

4 . ADVANTAGES . The Oboe is particularlygood for solos which are short

,legato , prefer

ably in the minor,fairly slow

,and confined

THE WIND INSTRUMENTS

within the five lines of the treble stave . In abrilliant tutti its piercing tone is useful for thehigher notes . I t is extremely good for sharpstaccato passages which are not very fast .

5 . D I SADVANTAGES . I t can never be usedfor long at a time . I ts piercing tone cutsthrough everything and is apt to upset thebalance . I t does not blend well with otherinstruments except the Cor Anglais and , in aless degree

,the Bassoon . I t is good neither for

arpeggios,nor accompaniments

,nor background .

Rapid and florid passages are ineffective .

5 . GENERAL .

’

The Oboe is essentially amelodic instrument , and its solos should be

accompanied lightly,and preferably by Strings .

In a Wood tutti its part should lie low and becrossed with others . I t has no favourite keys .Any passage having two sharps or two flatstogether is rather difficult . I t is less affectedby temperature than any other instrument

,

and for this reason is the one selected to givethe A to the Orchestra for tuning .

SECTION IV : The Cor Anglais

1 . NOTAT ION . Treble Clef . The part is

written in the key a perfect fifth higher thanthe key of the piece .

2 . DESCRIPTION . The Cor Anglais is an

6


Alto Oboe,having the same fingering and

practically the same technique as the ordinaryOboe . I t is rather easier to blow and rathermore difficult to finger its tone has no brillianceand is less piercing than that of the Oboe .

Everything written in the preceeding Sectionapplies also to the Cor Anglais .

3 . GENERAL . I f not overdone the Cor

Anglais is perhaps the most beautiful instrument for solo work , especially for soles of amournful character . Its top octave is bad

,

and it is not worth while to write above thetreble stave , as the Oboe can get the notes better .

I f theCorAnglaisp art is tobep layedby theSecondOboe player (a very usual arrangement ) hemust have time to Change and warm his instrument .

SECTION V ‘ The Clarinet

1 . NOTATION . Treble Clef . Transposition ,

a maj or second or a minor third higher than thereal sound .

2 . DESCRIPTION . Every Clarinet player hastwo instruments

,one built in the key of B

flat,and a larger one built in the key of A .

This is solely to avoid extreme keys , whichinvolve complicated fingering and are therefore

p articularly difficult for the Clarinet . The B



4 . REGISTERS . There are four distinctregisters and consequent varieties of tone ,though a good player can so merge one intoanother that the difference is hardly apparentto the ear . (1 ) Chalumeau

, from the bottomof the compass to E , first line of stave ; (2 ) aweak section from F to B flat (3 ) B natural tothe B above ; this octave is the best part ofthe instrument ; and (4) all notes above thishigh B

,which are shrill and piercing . No . 1

is useful for special effects,particularly when

there is no Bass Clarinet,but it is very easily

drowned . No . 2 is useful for backgroundwork

,but should be avoided in a prominent

passage , as it is of bad tone quality and technically difficult . No . 3 should be used for solos .No . 4 is ugly and diffi cult , but is useful sometimes ln Tutti writing .

5 . THE BREAK . This awkward mechanicalweakness , peculiar to the Clarinet , is notsuch a terrible thing on the modern instrumentas it formally was , but it should not be forgotten ,

I t lies j ust round B flat, in the middle o f the

treble stave,and no prominent nor rapid passage

Should lie across it .

6 . SHAKES AND TREMOLOS . On the moderninstrument all shakes are possible

,but there are

a few which are clumsy and difficult . These

THE WIND INSTRUMENTS 85

are,roughly

,maj or seconds on any F sharp or

C sharp,minor seconds on the lowest F natural

and G sharp,and shakes close to the break .

I t is the best Wind instrument for tremolowork all tremolos up to an octave are possible ,provided they do not cross the break ,

nor riseabove the C above the treble stave . Any con

taining a C sharp should be avoided and thebest intervals are a third

,a fourth and a fifth

7 . ADVANTAGES . The various tone qualities . The Clarinet ranks next to the Flute andPiccolo in mobility

,can play arpeggios ex

trem ely well , and repeated notes with singletongueing as fast as the Flute ; it is good forscales , shakes , tremolo , background ,

and cantake skips easily : i t has the most completecontrol of any Wind instrument over crescendoand diminuendo, and its pianissimo is thesoftest that can be obtained in Wind .

8 . D I SADVANTAGES . The break and theweak middle register : it cannot play in ad

vanced keys : owing to its being built on atwelfth , instead of the usual octave

,any series

of octaves or passages formed on an octave arenot good .

9 . GENERAL . The Clarinet,in spite of i ts

disadvantages , is the most useful Wind instrum ent of all , on account of its variety of aecom


p lishm ents ; practically it can be asked to doanything . Before making the choice of Clarinetthe whole piece should be examined

,as the key

which Is the best at the beginning does notalways remain so i t is better to write enharm oni

cally than to use many sharps or flats . Whenthe player has to change in the course of apiece he should not be given an importantpassage on the new instrument until he has hadtime to get it warm and in tune . In Germanscores the B flat instrument is described asin B because the English B flat is the GermanB

,and the English B is the German H .

SECTION VI : The Bass Clarinet

1 . DESCRIPTION . This instrument is anenlarged edition of the ordinary Clarinet

,an

octave lower in pitch ; i ts compass , however ,is smaller by a minor third . Only the B flatinstrument remains now in use .

NOTAT ION . There are unfortunately twomethods of writing the part , French and German .

The French Method is to write always in theTreble Clef

,a maj or ninth above the real sound

that is , the usual maj or second transpositionof the B flat Clarinet

,plus the octave lower

this is the easier for the player as the fingeringis the same for both instruments . The German



cannot be worked so hard as the ordinaryClarinet .

5 . GENERAL . Everything written about theClarinet applies theoretically to the BassClarinet

,but being lower in pitch

,i t is naturally

more exhausting to blow,while its size and the

great length of the tracker-rods make it moreawkward to finger . Moreover it possesses verystrongly marked characteristics of its own .

The top fifth is poor in tone and passages inthat position are best allotted to the smallerClarinet ; if given to the Bass instrument thepart should be doubled .

SECTION VII' The Bassoon and DoubleBassoon

1 . NOTATION . The bass clef is used principally for the higher notes the tenor or treble

,

preferably the tenor,for the same reason as in

the case of the Cello . (See Chap 11,Sec . 1 1 1 , 2 )

Non-transposing .

2 . REGI STERS . All the minute particularsgiven in the text-books of former timeswith regard to the registers

,their weaknesses

and difficulties,apply to the Older types o f

instrument . In the modern Bassoon , withits highly developed mechanism

,they have

almost ceased to exist . The lowest notes , as


always with Wind,are rather rough , though the

lowest B flat is a good note . All the middlepart is good

,but when the treble stave is

reached the tone begins to get thin and poor .

3 . ADVANTAGES . I t is one of the mostuseful of the Wind on account of i ts adaptability . I t has a large comp ass and can do

solos,accompaniment or background work

with equal ease . Scales of all kinds and re

p eated notes are easy . I t can take wideunslurred skips with great rapidity ,

has anexcellent legato,

a very good staccato and blendswell with most instruments , particularly theHorn .

4 . D I SADVANTAGES . I ts fatal ap titude forsounding comic in the very things it can do best .

I t has a somewhat limited range of dynamics ,and cannot play so softly as the Flute orClarinet nor so loudly as any other Wind of itspitch . Arpeggios , shakes and tremolos arenot suited to it andiare best avoided . I t isthe most imperfect of all the Wind instruments ,so the composer is considerably at the mercyof the performer ’s ability to overcome thevarious defects of his instrument .

5 . GENERAL . A Bassoon solo should bthinly accompanied ; the player should neverbe obliged to force his tone , or i t becomes harsh


at once . Passages lying above middle C shouldbe doubled by some other instrument andthe Viola is good for this . The combination of

Fsharp , G sharp (G flat , and A flat ) in any octaveis difficult and cannot be played legato . Verylong sustained notes low down in the compassmust be avoided .

6 . THE DOUBLE BASSOON . The larger instrument is in nearly every respect similar to thesmaller

, to which it bears the same relation asDouble Bass bears to the Cello . I t is an octavelower in pitch and correspondingly unwieldyand difficult to blow and handle

,so it must be

written for with restraint and many rests .

Everything written about the Bassoon appliestechnically to the Double Bassoon . The lowestoctave is its best .

SECTION VI I I : The Horn .

(Note) This section refers to the Horn in F only,as

modern players confine themselves to the F crook . For

information regarding the other crooks see the ChapterOn the Study of Old and Foreign Scores .

1 . NOTATION . Treble Clef only . The partis written in the key of C

,a perfect fifth h igher

than the real sound,the necessary sharps and

flats being added as required it is best to writeenharmonically if by doing so accidentals are



effective when not overdone . Close harmonyis best , in the middle of the compass . TheFourth Horn must not be put too low

,unless it

has an extra allowance of rest,as it is exhausting

to play low notes continually it is good sometimes to help out the passage with Trombone .

The low parts should not have long slurs themiddle parts can be crossed sometimes with ad

vantage and the Bassoons can help out whenmore than four notes are required .

6 . ADVANTAGES . The Horn is the mostbeautiful instrument in the modern orchestra

,

and one of the most useful . I t can blend at willwith any comb ination ,

is perfect for slowmelody

,background work and accompaniment .

7 . D I SADVANTAGES . The Horn lacks m o

bility ,and cannot play fast : i t does not like

extreme keys : the part must not be ever

written ,in spite of the ever-present temptation .

Skips are bad and scales and arp eggios do not

suit it well .8 . GENERAL . I t is still wise to write the

four Horn parts in pairs,as has always been

done in a passage of double thirds , for instance ,each pair should be put in octaves . A modernplayer can play high or low notes equally well ,but he must have time to re-adj ust his lip . I f theHorn is taken up above the stave , i t should be


by steps of a second (Eroica, p . In usingone Horn with Wood its best place is atthe top or the bottom if it is to blend well . Themiddle register resembles and blends well withthe Bassoon

,so i t serves as a transitional instru

ment between Wood and Brass . A good working rule is to keep written Horn parts betweenM iddle C and the top of the stave

,. The Horn

is the instrument most capable of making itselfheard in the middle of a mass of tone . (M . N .

D . N octurne) .

SECTION I!' The Trumpet and the Cornet

1 . INTRODUCTION . For many years players had to struggle with the natural Trumpet

,

that produced only open notes . Then the valveTrumpet was invented , and gradually improvedby various makers until the fine Trumpet in Fevolved . This is a noble , dignified instrument ,with a magnificent tone

,and almost as much

colour variety as the Horn but unfortunatelyi t is extremely difficult to play . As time goeson music becomes more complex

,and as a result ,

there is a tendency to manufacture instrumentseasier to play ,

the ease being obtained by a sacrifi ce of tone . So we find the beautiful F Trumpetsteadily dying out of use , its place being taken bya small B flat instrument , which is really a com


promise between the Cornet and the Trumpet .

I t has the same compass as the Cornet and isalmost as easy to play .

2 . NOTATION . Treble Clef only . As a re

sult of the various changes in the instrumentTrumpet writing is not yet standardised

,and

players are so experienced in transposing thatthey are quite indifferent to it . There arethree courses open to write for the FTrumpet

,a perfect fourth lower than the real

sound,which has the advantage of putting the

Trumpets in the same key as the Horns (2 )to write as if for Clarinets (the B flat Trumpetis always provided with an A shank) , whichhas the advantage of being the method used forthe Cornet

,thus making the part interchang

able : (3 ) to write the part in C ,that is

,in

real notes,which has the advantage of having

no transposition at all .

3 . SHAKES . These are done with the pistonsso depend on the fingers as well as on the lipa few can be obtained in the middle of thecompass

,but they are risky , can never be very

fast,and are on the whole undesirable .

4 . MUTE . This is a pear- shaped stopperinserted in the bell

,by which two distinct

effects can be obtained ; (1 ) piano, whichreduces the sound to a faint echo ; and (2 )



players . NO soft notes are possible above thetreble stave . The lower half of the compassblends well with the rest of the Wind

,but as

the compass ascends , the tone becomes more andmore conspicuous . Below M iddle C no longslurs are possible , and no rapidity .

8 . THE CORNET . In the days of the Trumpetin F it would have been necessary to write aseparate section on the Cornet ; but the Bflat Trumpet and the Com et are so nearly alikein compass , tone , execution , and generalcharacter that this is now needless the part isentirely interchangable . I f Cornets are specially written for , the parts must be transposedfor either the B flat or the A instrument , inexactly the same way as for the Clarinet .

SECTION X : The Trombones and Tuba .

1 . DESCRIPTION . In England at the presenttime two kinds of Slide Trombone are in use ,the Tenor and the Bass , two of the former and

one of. the latter being found in every completeorchestra . The Tuba now in use is a valveand-piston instrument

,built in F , which can

sound its fundamental note . In other countriesvarious kinds of Trombones and Tubas havebeen and are in use

,some of which have a lower

compass than the English instruments .


2 . NOTATION . Both Trombone and Tubaare non- transposing instruments , in spite oftheir being built in keys other than C . Thereal sound is always written and the properkey-signature used . The four parts are wri tten

,

on two staves , bass clef being used for thelower

,and either tenor or bass for the upper.

3 . Low NOTES . The directions given resp ecting low notes in the fifth paragraph of ChapterI I I app ly particularly to the Trombones andTuba . Below the ordinary compass of theTenor Trombone are three deep pedal notes

,

B flat,A natural , and A flat , marked with

diamond heads on the Compass Chart . Of thesethe B flat is the best

,but all are rather risky

,

and if used should be approached from theoctave above

,or follow rests . The correspond

ing notes on the Bass Trombone are im p racticable .

4 . TROMBONE POSITIONS . The Trombone,

like the Violin , possesses a technique of Positions

,and good writing consists in placing

notes either in the same or in neighbouringpositions . Great skips to distant positions areimpossible without rests to give time in whichto adj ust the slide . The following Table givesthe positions of the Tenor Trombone , and canbe applied to the Bass Trombone if transposeddown a minor third .


9! ” 017 75017 5” fi U/z

‘f’bfljf avor fi rmwa re!

17 17 I!”

727

5 . SHAKES . Shakes , done with the lip only ,are almost impossible on the Trombone . Slowshakes can be done on the Tuba with thepistons and certain of these

,played with one

piston only , and lying within the bass stave arepracticable and good in effect . But shakes areso entirely unsuited to the nature of these lowBrass instruments , that the student would bewise to avoid them altogether .

6 . ADVANTAGES . As the making of noteson the Trombone is completely under theplayer

’

s control (as is the case also with theStrings and the Kettledrums ) perfect intonation is possible . The Trombone can play withany degree of force

,with very great beauty of

tone , equally well in any key ,and it can hold

the same note for a very long time . Soft fourpart harmony for the three Trombones andthe Tuba (or one Horn ) is a useful and a most



should be doubled in Wood . The militaryvalve- trombone

,a necessity for cavalry regi

mental bands,is occasionally used in the

Orchestra,the scoring being the same as for

the Slide instrument . Trombones are very rarelymuted .

CHAPTER V'

THE PERCUSSION GROUP

1 . The Percussion instruments are the leastimportant

,the most conspicuous , the most

rhythmical,the easies t to write for and the

easiest to play . Their good effect is in exactinverse proportion to the frequency of theiruse . Nothing vulgarises a score so readily ,

nor palls on the ear so soon,as the sound of over

much percussion : nothing is more effectivethan its j udicious use . Restraint

,therefore

,is

the Alpha and Omega of good writing for thisGroup .

2 . Percussion instruments are continuallyon the increase

,as modern composers extend

their demands for novel effects . The onesincluded here are those in ordinary use

,the

wri ting for which demands some technicalknowledge . NO particular information is re

quired in order to write for an anvil or a birdwhistle .

3 . Most Percussion instruments are ofindeterminate pitch . Of these it may be saidin a general way

,that the Triangle is treble

,the

Side -drum and the Tambourine alto,the Cym

bals tenor , and the Bass-drum and Tam- tambass .


4 . The Kettledrums , Glockenspiel , Xylophone and Celeste

,having definite notes

,must

have staves ; but for the rest of the Groupit is far better to write each part on a separateand single line

,even if this entails the sticking

of pieces of plain white paper over one or two

staves of the score . I f staves are used i t isusual to allot one to two instruments

,when

great care must be exercised with regard to

tails and rests .

5 . All Percussion instruments vibrate for aconsiderable time after being struck unlessdamped , and the bigger and deeper the instrument the longer it vibrates . Consequentlythe exact length of notes and rests must be amatter of meticulous accuracy .

6 . On account of the conspicuous characterof the Percussion

,dynamic marks must be

inserted with greater attention to detail thanis necessary in the case of Strings and Wind .

For instance,every crescendo must state what

it starts from and what it goes to . In thecase of a long crescendo the intervening steps atwhich it arrives should be shown thus :cres .

,p

,cres . , f,

cres .

, j f .

7 . Rolls and trills must be written in one of

the two following ways


CHAPTER VI . THE PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTSAND THE HARP

SECTION I The Kettledrums

1 . DESCRIPTION . A Kettledrum is a basinshaped metal shell with a head of skin stretchedover the top

,the tightness of which is regulated

by screws all round the shell . The tightnessof the skin determines within a perfect fifththe pitch of the Drum . I t is played upon withtwo sticks having padded ends

,the only two

effects being separate notes and the roll,

”

produced by a rapid wrist action of the twosticks at the edge of the Drum . Most modernorchestras have three Drums— Big , Middle ,and Small . A Kettledrum can be m anufac

tured in any size in reason,but the three in

general use have the compass given in the

Chart .2 . TUNING . The exact note to which each

Drum is to be tuned should be written clearlyat the beginning of the score on a small stave .

Drums can be tuned during the course of themusic

,but this should be done neither unneces

sarily nor frequently . The direction for retuning is Tune C to D

,or Change C to

THE PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS 195

D,or (in I talian ) Muta C in D . The two

important points to remember in regard to

Drum tunings are ( 1 ) that the interval of changemust be as small as possible , or there is therisk of splitting the skin

,which is not a piece

of elastic ; and (2 ) to allow the player ampletime in which to screw all the keys round theDrum-head a rough-and-ready rule is Allowthree bars of M oderato 4

-

4 time for everyinterval of a second but of course the longerthe time allowed

,the easier is i t for the player ,

and the healthier for the instrument .

3 . NOTATION . The part is written in thebass clef

,with key- signature and real notes .

4 . SPECIAL EFFECTS . ( 1 ) Muffling (coperti) ,done by placing a handkerchief or somethingof that sort on the head ; (2 ) using the Sidedrum sticks or (in a roll ) the player

’s knuckles,

instead of the proper sticks (3 ) placing threeheavy articles (such as the tuning-keys ) on thehead , which produces an effect similar to thatof the Side-drum

,the obstruction acting like

the snares of the latter .

5 . GENERAL . The Kettledrums have animmense range of expression from the softestpianissimo to a gigantic fortissimo

,and all

gradations of tone are completely under thecontrol of the player . I f the tunings can be


confined to two Drums it is an advantage in thecase of small bands

,which often only possess

two instruments . As the Middle Drum is o f

varying size it is best to avoid the top and bottom notes , G and E . I t is possible to striketwo Drums simultaneously

,and thus get a

two-note chord,but the effect is not good .

With extra drummers and extra instrumentsthe possibilities of Kettledrum writing arealmost unlimited . As the Drum has a definitepitch , i ts note must always be a constituentpart of the harmony

,but it need not neces

sarily be the bass . Formerly the two Drumswere invariably tuned to the tonic and dominant ,and in simple scoring this is still an excellentplan . When a roll is wanted below the p itchof the lowest F it can be done with the Kettledrum sticks on the Bass Drum

,or a similar

effect produced by a tremolo on the DoubleBass . I t by no means follows that a part easyto read is therefore easy to play . All Drumwriting is easy to read , and the best way to

test its actual difficulty is to play it throughwith two sticks on three cane-seated chairs ;i f the part is clumsy the hands get badlylocked .

” The best Drum writing is thatwhich is simple and soft , and the lowest notesare always the best in tone . For additional



the groups with uneven numbers are the best .

(4) The Flam two notes , one with each hand ,

played quickly if the first note is on the beati t is an Open Flam if the second is on the beatit is a Closed Flam .

fi’

L L f !A I!H

fi a/r’da d/f a raw ay Pa ra afraid /e Drag fla x-fl .

3 . SPECIAL EFFECTS . Muffling ,to prevent

the crackling sound , can be done in twoways ; either by loosening the snares , or bypushing the cords (or something soft ) betweenthe snares and the drum-head to preventcontact . A good imitation Of castenets canbe obtained by playing on the wooden edgeof the Drum .

4 . GENERAL . The utility of the Side Drumis either military or rhythmical , and it is usefulalso for adding to the tone in a great Climax ;its chief effect lies in its entry ,

after whichthe sooner it stops the better . Single detachednotes are bad the Drag and the Flam are thecorrect strokes for isolated accents . A rollshould never be so long as on the Kettledrums .


SECTION III' The Bass Drum

This large drum has the deepest note in theorchestra ; i t cannot be tuned ; only twomethods of playing it are possible ; (1 ) Singlestrokes at a considerable distance from eacho ther and (2 ) a roll , done preferably with theKettledrum sticks . The two legitimate effectsare to add to the force of a climax or to conveythe idea of awe in a pianissimo . I f a veryshort note is required it is best to add thedirection damp , as the Drum vibrates avery long time after being struck . I t is muffledeither by being wrapped in a cloth

,or by loosen

ing the braces,or both .

SECTION IV The Triangle

The Triangle is a small bar of steel made inthe Shape of a triangle

,and struck with a steel

beater . The only effects possible are singlenotes

,trills

,and groups of notes similar to the

Drag and Flam of the Side Drum . These smallgroups should consist of an uneven number ofnotes

,to allow the player to begin and end with

the downward action of his beater . The besteffect of all is that of Single notes at rare intervalsand not too loud .


SECTION V . : The Cymbals

Two large circular brass plates of equal size,

(the larger the better for tone) , which are playedin four ways ; (1 ) by clashing them togetherbrushwise ; (2 ) by striking one either with aSide Drum stick or a Kettledrum stick ; (3 )the two -plate roll , produced by agitatingthe edges against each other and (4) by hangingone by the strap and playing a roll on i t (onestick on each side ) with the Kettledrum sticksor with the knuckles . If notes appear in thepart without instructions the player uses No 1

,

which is the only one possible for a loud eff ectexact directions must be given for Nos . 2 and 4 ,

and Nos . 3 and 4 require the usual symbol for aroll . The three last methods of stroke areonly applicable to middle tone or soft passages .

SECTION V I The Gong,or Tam- tam

This huge instrument can only be used forsingle blows with the Bass Drum stick

,and is

most effective when soft . I t is dangerous toattempt more than this on the Tam - tam becauseof the dif ficulty of stopping the vibrationsafterwards otherwise a dinner—gong roll wouldbe possible .



consists of eight small gongs,bells

,or steel

bars hung on a lyre- shaped frame . Both kindsare played with two wooden hammers . A thirdkind , having a keyboard ,

has almost fallen outof use

,while the military instrument

,thirteen

plates on a lyre-shaped frame,is rarely used in

the concert-room . Simple“

Glockenspiel partsare sometimes played on a set of Tubular Bells .

The Glockenspiel should never be given rapidpassages

, as i t is a slow-speaking instrument andthe effect becomes blurred . I ts best use is asa gilt- edge to high Wood Wind , somewhat afterthe manner of the Piccolo

,but without the

Piccolo ’s velocity . I t has no sustaining power ,so i t is useless to write notes longer than acrotchet

,or to introduce slurs nor has it any

range of dynamic force beyond a uniformmiddle tone . The part is written on one stave ,treble clef

, two octaves below the real sound .

I t is best to confine the part to single notes :Two-note chords

,though possible , are unsatis

factory .

SECTION I!' The Celeste

The Celeste most used in England consistsalso of steel bars struck with hammers , but itis played from a keyboard

,similar to that of a

Piano,shortened . I t possesses a system of

THE PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS 1 13

resonators and a pedal mechanism,which

increase its sustaining power . The part iswritten on two staves

,like a Piano part

,but

an octave below the real sound . I t is as easyto play as the Piano

,and should be treated in a

manner which comes between that of the Pianoand that of the Glockenspiel . Melody notesshould not be long . I ts Chief use ,

like theGlockenspiel , is to pick out the high lights of

a dainty Wood passage . The Celeste part of

the Casse N oisette Suite is a perfect example ,but the notes here are written at their realpitch .

SECTION X The Xylophone

This instrument is similar to the twentyseven barred Glockenspiel except that the barsare made of wood instead of steel . I t is playedwith wooden hammers . The part is writtenon one stave

,with the treble Clef and in real

sounds . The best part of the instrument isthe octave above the C in the treble stave .

SECTION XI The Harp

1 . DESCRIPTION . Each one of the fortyseven strings of the Harp i s a flat note , and theseven-pedal mechanism causes each string to beraised in pitch either a

‘

semitone or a tone ;8


that is , each string can be raised from the flatto the natural , and again from the natural tothe sharp , all the strings of the same namebeing affected by the pedal simultaneously .

Double sharps and double flats are impossible .

The Harp,because it has only seven notes in

its octave , is essentially a diatonic instrumentchromatic passages are entirely unsuitable inany case , and may be unplayable . The bestpart of the compass is in t he middle ; thelowest strings are rather rough in tone and thehighest are too short to be resonant .2 . NOTATION . The part is written like

Piano music on two staves (treble and bass )braced

,in real notes and with proper key

signatures . The terms“8va and 8va bassa ”

may be used for the extremes of the compass .

Everything for the right-hand must have tailsturned up

,and everything for the left-hand

tails turned down , irrespective of compassposition . Great care must be exercised ingiving the exact length of each note , as thestrings vibrate for some time unless damped out .

3 . KEYS . Maj or keys are better than minor .

As the flat notes have a greater length of stringit follows that the flat keys are the better forthe Harp . The extreme sharp keys shouldbe written enharmonically , B maj or written as



flat , natural or sharp . For example,for the

chord , A ,C ,E flat , G flat,the pedals are set

for A natural , B sharp ,C natural

,D sharp

,

E flat , F sharp , G flat .The most effective glissando is long , four or

five octaves , as the full sweep of the strings canbe done in a second

,and a Slow glissando

is an absurdity . Other kinds are (1 ) a seriesof Short two -octave glissandos following eachother quickly ; (2 ) those done by both handsin Similar or contrary motion (3 ) those doneby one hand ,

while the other has separate notes .

In every case over- lapping of the hands must beavoided .

7 . CHORDS AND ARPEGGIOS . The chief purpose in life for the Harp is to accompany it isin no way a melodic instrument ; chords andarpeggios therefore form its normal language andthe more simple they are the better . They mustbe written as for the Piano , within the octave ,andwith nevermore than four notes for each hand .

In general,in the upper part of the compass

,the

more notes there are and the closer together theylie

,the better the effect . Close chords are always

slightly spread,unless marked ‘

sec andthis can only be applied to very small chords .

Chords and arpeggios should never over- lapbut keep straight on , up or down , hand over hand .


When both hands are playing arpeggios simultaneously there should always be a clear octavebetween the two parts .8 . HARMONICS . One only

,the octave above

the open string,can be got on each string

,

the effect being very soft and only goodin a thin score . Harmonics are best standingalone

,but chords of two or three notes close

together are possible . They should never succeed each other quickly andmust be confined within the compass of the great stave

,the bass half

being rather the better in tone . The modernnotation is to write the open string with an 0

over it (as in Violin ) , but formerly the noteswere sometimes written at their actual pitch .

59 . SPECIAL EFFECTS . (1 ) Shakes and Tremolo . These are possible but sound stupid andClumsy

,being foreign to the nature of the instru

ment . (2 ) Etouf e’

e ; the vibra tion is stoppedas soon as the string is plucked

,the result being

an effect something like pizzicato on the Strings .

(3 ) Sul ponticello, (or sons pres la table thes tring is plucked at the lower extremity

,which

has the effect of a Guitar . The contradictionin each case is sens naturel,

”

or s .n .

10. GENERAL . Harp writing is not difficultif three points are kept in mind ; (1 ) the positionof the harp ist (2 ) the similarity between Harp


playing and Piano playing and (3 ) the constantnecessity for ample time between passages inorder that the last notes played may be dampedout and thejp edals re-set for the next . The instrument rests on the right shoulder and is playedfrom the treble end ,

consequently the right handand arm are rather confined

,and cannot stretch

out so freely as the left . The left hand plays thelow bass notes as on the Piano . Both handsshould not be put low down for any length of timeas this is extremely exhausting for the player .

The little finger is never used, so only four notes

can be played by each hand these should bewritten within the compass of an octave , thoughplayers with a big stretch can do a ninth or a tenth .

A string needs to be plucked considerably out

of the vertical,and is some time in regaining its

normal position,so reiterated notes can only I)

done by means of homophones . When the pedalsare being set there is inevitably a moment of silence . The Harp is a slow- speaking instrument ,and becomes incoherent in a rapid passage . Ason the Piano

,quick repetitions should be avoided ,

also a great space between the hands . In thickChord work octaves are the best for the lefthand . The harmony o f the Harp -par t shouldbe correct in itself

,each chord having its true

bass . Scales are not good ,though quite play



playing and Piano playing and 3 ) the constantnecessity for ample tim e between pass 'ages Inorder tha t the last notes played may be dampedout and thefp edals re—set for the nex t . The instrum en t rests on the right shoulder and is playedfrom the treble end

, consequently the right handand arm are rather confined

, and cannot stretch

should not be p ut low down for any length of tim eas this is ex tremely exhausting for the p layer .

The li ttle finger is never used, so only four not es

written within the compass of an octave , thoughp layers witha big stretchcan do a ninthor a tenth.

norm al p osition , so reiterated notes can only bf :done by m eans of hom ophones . When the p eda lare being set there is inevitably a m om ent o f xilence.

'

l he l lorp is a slovr -sp eaking instrunwnt,and becom es incoherent in a rap id p re teen-

5c , A ';

on the Piano, q uick rop etiiiono should be av oided

,i tli/ r 51. !front sp ace bet ween the hands . In thic kchord work octaves are the bes t for the lo ft

H u IV/ i in ll ’

cl 'll,

f

o zo zh cho rd having it“, tr

‘

w.

fl fil lff 'e; m o no t good ,though q uite p iny


playing and Piano playing and (3 ) the constantnecessity for ample time between passages inorder that the last notes played may be dampedout and thejp edals re set for the next . The instrument rests on the right shoulder and is playedfrom the treble end

,consequently the right hand

and arm are rather confined,and cannot stretch

out so freely as the left . The left hand plays thelow bass notes as on the Piano . Both handsshould not be put low down for any length of timeas this is extremely exhausting for the player .

The little finger is never used, so only four notes

can be played by each hand these should bewritten within the compass of an octave , thoughplayers with a b ig stretch can do a ninth or a tenth .

A string needs to be plucked considerably out

of the vertical,and is some time in regaining its

normal position,so reiterated notes can only b

done by means of homophones . When the pedalsare being set there is inevitably a moment of silence . The Harp is a slow-speaking instrument ,and becomes incoherent in a rapid passage . Ason the Piano

,quick repetitions should be avoided ,

also a great space between the hands . In thickchord work octaves are the best for the lefthand . The harmony of the Harp -par t shouldbe correct in itself

,each chord having its true

bass . Scales are not good ,though quite play


N OTES ON SOME OBSOLETE OR RARELY USEDINSTRUMENTS .

I . BASSETT HORN . A tenor or alto Clarinet , built in F , with a technique similar to thatof the ordinary Clarinet and the compass of theViola . The part is written a perfect fifth higher than the real sound . There is also an altoClarinet in E flat that is occasionally used .

2 . CLARINET IN C . A non- transposing Clarinet

,rather smaller than the B flat instrument

,

which has fallen out of use on account of its badtone .

3 . EUPHONIUM . A military bass brass instrument which occasionally strays into the orchestra the Older form has three valves and the samecompass as the tenor Trombone ; the moderninstrument has a fourth valve which extendsthe compass down to the B flat below . I t iseasy to play and in military music is the principalbass solo voice .

4 . GU ITAR . A part is sometimes found inmodern scores for this essentially un-orchestralinstrument . In pitch it comes between theViola and the Cello . I t has Six strings , tuned inthirds and fourths

,and the part is written in the

treble clef an octave below the real sound .

OBSOLETE INSTRUMENTS M I

5 . MANDOLINE . This other un-orchestral instrument has the same tuning as the Violin

,but

its tone is too thin to penetrate through the m od

ern orchestra , and parts writ ten for it are generally played p izzz

’

cato on the Violins .

6 . OBOE DA CACCIA . A wood instrumentalmost identical with the modern Cor Anglais

,

on which the part is now always played . Bachuses real notes in the alto clef

,but as a rule the

part used to be transposed in the manner O f themodern Cor Anglais .

7 . OBOE D’

AMORE . A mezzo—soprano Oboe,

a minor third lower in pitch,with the same

fingering . In tone and compass it comesmidway between the Oboe and the Cor Anglais .

8 . OPHICLEIDE . A family O f brass instruments

,having holes and keys after the manner

f the Wood Wind,which were last used by

Mendelssohn,

Nos . IV and V ) , Wagnerand Berlioz . They were easy to play and havefallen out of use chiefly on account O f theirdefective intonation . The part is now generallyplayed by the Bass Tuba .

9 . SA!OPHONE AND SARRUSOPHONE . Twofamilies of French Wind instruments

,invented

by Sax and Sarrus respectively,which are

made of brass and have a reed and fingermechanism like the English W

'

ood Group .


The Saxophones have a single reed and resemblethe Bass Clarinet in appearance the Sarrusophones have a double reed and are nearlyrelated to the Bassoons . Both groups aremade in six sizes and all are transposing instrum ents ; They are in general use in Frenchmilitary bands

,and French composers some

times include them in orchestral scores,but

they are rarely seen in England .

IO . SERPENT . A military bass Wood Windinstrument occasionally found in Old scores .

I ts compass was from the A below the bassstave upwards for about three octaves

,and the

part was written a maj or second higher thanthe real sound .

I I . VIOLA D ’ AMORE . This had the samecompass and notation as the ordinary Viola ,but possessed seven strings

,tuned to the chord

Of D maj or . I t had also a second series of

sympathetic strings made of steel wire .

I t was tOO difficult to play,too un-dependable

for ordinary use,and could only be given very

simple parts . I ts part is now played by theViola .

12 . VIOLA DA GAMBA . The old BassViol

,the predecessor of the Violoncello . I t

had six strings,tuned in fourths and thirds ,

and has not been used in the orchestra since thetime of Bach .



new,the point for consideration is that there has

never been any exact international standardisation in musical matters . Each country

,

therefore,has developed its musical instrument

trade independently the result Of this is thatthe instruments scored for by

,say

,a Russian

or I talian composer are by no means necessarilythe same that will play the parts in Englandor in France . Every orchestra in the world ,

in dealing with scores from other countries,

has to adopt some system Of compromise intheir execution . Again

,many composers

(Wagner , for instance) have employed speciallyconstructed instruments

,not in ordinary use

at all,but which had to be manufactured for

them ; parts written for such instrumentshave now of course to be played by others O f

the same pitch . Every text-book on Orchestration relates principally to the orchestras andto the instruments of its own country and itsown time

,which is the reason why there are

so many contradictions between them in mattersof detail .The present arrangement Of the full Score

(Wood , Brass , Pe rcussion,Voie as or Solo parts

,

Strings ) seems to be practically settled ,alth ough

there is still room for logical improvement inthe case of the Piccolo and the Horns . But

OLD AND FOREIGN SCORES 1 25

up to Wagner ’s time scores were arranged atpleasure some have the Brass at the top andthe Wood in the Middle ; others have theStrings at the top

,and so on . The student is

generally m o st perplexed by the vari e ty oftranspositions in the Horn and Trumpet parts .

Space does not allow for a full explanation ofthe reason for this

,but briefly

,i t is this —a

tube can only produce one note (determinedby its length ) and the upper particles of thatnote . I t follows therefore that without anysort of mechanism the natural Horn andTrumpet could each play only a few notes .

To get over this difficulty the length Of the tubeitself was regulated by means Of additionalpieces Of tubing called crooks or Shanks

,

there being one for each key , hence the termin D

,

” in G,etc . To Simplify the notation

for the player (as the method Of blowing re

mained unchanged ) the part was always writtenin the key Of C . Kettledrums also beforeBeethoven S time were treated in the same way .

They were tuned always to the tonic and dominant of the principal key of the piece , the nameof the key was stated at the beginning , and thepart was written throughout with the notesC and G .

w t» tiAN t’tit ’t ’ti t l it

t ’t”

t i tt'» l lt‘ttN AN“

t‘flt tt t

‘t'

i t‘tt t tttfi tii

t l t t tt t‘i

tt l-t St‘t 'ttt‘iti ti t! L’t‘tl t‘

W t t‘

tt Tutti t‘

d‘t‘ti

ttt‘ttN

M a rl i n. tiec thnvr n kee ps his thw e thn-nf.

H ooked in the p rincipa l tan“

( ti'

tta t) thro ughout .h aw-

p t in thM‘aw o i the If inat and t hin t l in in g:

in the thnnt i a l Ma tch. W itit‘lt aw cum in/wt in ti

tmvanw the innw nicnt if . in the law o i’

Mino r.

( t‘

hn hm !

!i t the p iece was gunm atlv chm rn. tin

the warde n tha t it pnw ii tm l the ins ti-nnn‘nt

with mo re o pen no tch ) tiw anrze it; tta t it:

tnahn tsixth lmhrw t‘

. the part is m itten a$3

VN V tha t cho rd ntaw d hv the ttm‘

na is tn nnivlnn

w ith tha t p law d by the Vio las . tn the tf‘

nnr ia t

March the tfhtn t and Thin! thu ns p lav ttwir

hunt rho u l in unison with the C larine ts , the

(“cu t in t

‘. sounding an oc tave lower than it

is m itten .

M N t’. Mende lssohn vnmhe ttt' t ttnm n in

to ur wave hi t the live nnwonwnts ttm‘

n parts

aw invariably w ritten higher than the y sunni t,

w the Seco nd thnn f : th a t no te in the Scheme

is the t’ in the m iddle nt‘

the harm zttaw . thns

pm vii ting the bass: v i the nhnn t. tn ttw

a u n ions nhl anmnalv ap pra i s ;



E!PLANATION OP THE HORN AND TRUMPETPARTS OF THE FOUR FULL SCORES To BE USED

W ITH THIS BOOK

HORN PARTS

EROICA . Beethoven keeps his three Hornscrooked in the principal key (E flat ) throughou t,except in the case of the First and Third Hornsin the Funeral March , which are crooked in Cbecause the movement is in the key Of C Minor .

(The key Of the piece was generally chosen , forthe reason that it provided the instrumentwith more open notes) . Because E flat isa maj or sixth below C , the part is written amaj or Sixth higher than the real sound

,so the

very first chord played by the Horns is in unisonwith that played by the Violas . In the FuneralMarch the First and Third Horns play theirfirst chord in unison with the Clarinets , thepart in C sounding an octave lower than it

is written .

M .N .D . Mendelssohn crooks his Horns infour ways for the five movements . Horn partsare invariably written higher than they sound ,

so the Second Horn 5 first note in the Scherzo

is the D in the middle Of the bass stave , thusproviding the bass of the chord . In the

Intermezzo a curious Old anomaly appears ;

OLD AND FOREIGN SCORES . 127

formerly when the part ge t low , the bass clefwas used

,and than the part was written an

octave too low , so the first C in octaves soundsthe two As of the bass stave . The octave G

,

ten bars later , being in the treble clef , soundsthe E (first line , unison with Second Violin )and the E below . In the Nocturne the part iswritten a minor sixth higher than the realsound (because E is a minor sixth below C, )and in the Wedding March it is written a perfectfourth above the real sound

,the first chord

sounding F sharp , A .

PATHETIc SYMPHONY and SU ITE . TSChaIkOWsky ,

being a modern composer,writes only

for the Horn in F .

TRUMPET PARTS

EROICA . The Trumpets are in E flat throughout , except in the second movement (FuneralMarch

,in C Minor) where they are in C . The

Trumpet in E flat sounds higher than it iswritten

,so the first octave C sounds the two

E flats in the treble stave . The Trumpet inC has no transposition at all .M .N .D . The Trumpet in D in the Scherzo

sounds a maj or second higher than writtenthe first octave G (page 9 ) being in unison

128 HANDBOOK tF ORCHESTRATION

with the first V iom . The Trumpets in the

Wedding M a rch se nd as written .

PATHETIC SYM I’IDNY and SU ITE . The Symphony begins with he Trumpet in B flat

,and

this has the same ranspos ition as the B flatClarinet . For the est o f the Symphony andthe whole o f the S ite the composer uses theAI shank ,

which ha the same transposition as

the A Clarinet .

(Note ) . All Hon parts are wri tten higherthan they sound

,an. always have been . Trum

pet parts vary ; rum p ets in D ,E flat

,E

and F are writtei lower than they sound,

these four letters bing above C in the musicalalphabet Trum p e in C has no transpositionTrumpets in B , B fi t

,and A are written higher

than they sound , these three letters beingbelow C in the alphbet .



with the first Violin . The Trumpets in theWedding M arch sound as written .

PATHETIC SYMPHONY and SU ITE . The Symphony begins with the Trurnp et in B flat

,and

this has the same transposition as the B flatClarinet . For the rest of the Symphony andthe whole of the Suite the composer uses theA shank

,which has the same transposition as

the A Clarinet .

(Note) . All Horn parts are written higherthan they sound

,and always have been . Trum

pet parts vary ; Trumpets in D , E flat,E

and F are writ ten lower than they sound,

these four letters being above C in the musicalalphabet Trumpet in C has no transpositionTrumpets in B

,B flat

,and A are written higher

than they sound , these three letters beingbelow C in the alphabet .

TABLE OF INSTRUMENTS

ITALIAN G ERMAN FRE N CH EN G LISH

Violino Violon

Kontrabass Centre basseFlote Flfi teKle ine Flo te (or Pet ite FlutePic k elflOte )

Oboe Oboe Hautbois Oboe (orHautboy )

Corno Inglese Englisches Horn Cor Anglais Cor AnglaisClarinette Klarinette Clar inette ClarinetClar inetto basso Bas s Clar inette basse Bass Clar inet(or Clarone) Klar inette

Fagotto Fagott Basson BassoonContra fagott o Kontrafagott Centre -basson Double BassoonCorno Vent ile Vent ilhorn Cor -a-pist ons Horn (or French

Horn)Trom ba Vent ile V entiltrom p ete Trom pette-a Trum pet:(or Clarino) p Istons

Cornetto Cornet-a pi s tons CornetTrom bone Trom bone Trom boneTim pani Tim bales Kettledrum s (or

Drum s )Kleine Tromm el Caisse Claire (or Side Drum

Tam bour)G rosse Tromm el G rosse Caisse Bass DrumTriangel Triangle TriangleBeck en Cym bales Cym balsSchillentromm el Tam bour de Tam bourine

Basq ueCam p enetta G lock enspiel CarillonZilafone Holzharm onik Claq uebois

A rpa Harfe Harpe

Violin (orFiddle )Viola (or Tenor )Violonce llo (orCe llo )Double BassFlutePiccolo

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FOR BEG INNERS

JOHNSTONE Instrum ents of the M odern

Symp hony Orchestra (Carl Fischer , NewYork) . This gives photographs of a uniform Size Showing each instrument beingplayed

,and is particularly useful for those

students unfamiliar with the appearanceof the instruments .

LYON (JAMES) A P ractical Guide to Orchestration

(Stainer Bell,1912 ,

1/ This gives auseful list of musical examples for reference .

PROUT (E . ) Instrum entation (Novello’s Music

Primers)R IEMANN (HUGO) Catechism of Orchestration

(Augener , 2/ This contains an examplefor the scoring Of a Haydn Piano Sonata .

RIEMANN (HUGO ) Introduction to Play ingfrom Score (Augener , 2/

TAYLOR (H . J . ) The Orchestra (Weekes Co .,

3d . ) This small booklet gives illustrationsof each instrument . Two companionvolumes at the same price on The M ilitaryBand and Elementary A coustics are alsouseful .



All the articles bearing on the subj ect inGrove

’

s D ictionary of M usic (Macmillan Co . )are useful . The Royal College of Organistspublishes volumes of Lectures which have beendelivered at the College

,some of which relate

to Orchestration . The two best are The A rtof Tympani P laying by Gordon Cleatherand Scoring for a M ilitary Band by Dr . A .

Will iams . The three on Orchestration by Prof .Prout are good

,and include an analysis of

Schubert ’s Symphony in C . Dr . Turpin’s on

The M anipulation of M odern Wind Instrum ents

is mainly scientific and not as helpful as thetitle might suggest . Useful information canalways be gathered from the Schools andInstruction Books for the practice of thevarious instruments

,published by Messrs .

Boosey Co ,and various other firms .

FOR ADVANCED STUDENTS .

COERNE (LOU I S ADOLPHU S ) . The Evolution ofthe M odern Orchestra (The Macmil lan Co . ,

New York,

FORSYTH (CECIL) . Orchestration (Stainer 85 Belland Macm illan Co .

,1911 , 25/ This

is the most exhaustive work publishe d inEngland on the subj ect .

BIBLIOGRAPHY . 133

GEVAERT . A N ew Treatise on Instrum entation,

translated by E .F . E . Suddard . This standardwork

,written in 1863 ,

still remains thebest known treatise on the scientific sideof the subj ect .

RIMSKY-KORSAKOFF P rincipes d’

Orchestration .

This,the most advanced foreign work on

the subj ect,is published in Russian and

in French . I t deals almost entirely withcombinations

,and gives 312 examples in

Full Score from the composer ’s own works .

SCHLESINGER (KATHLEEN ) The Instrum ents

of the M odern Orchestra . (Reeves , 1910,

This interesting work is concernedonly with the history and development ofthe instruments themselves it is illustratedwith reproductions from old pictures

,

statuary,missals

,etc .

v1 ITH (HERMANN ) The World’

s E arliest M usic.

(Reeves , This is on much the sameline s as Miss Schlesinger

’

s larger book,but

deals chiefly with the instruments of earlyEgypt and Assyri a .

STRAUSS (RICHARD ) Commentary on Berlioz’

Instrumentation In German andin French .

M elody ,18

,24 ,

2 5 , 37 .

M endelssohn (See Lieder and

M .N .D . )M ilitary ,

100,

107 , 108,

1 12 ,

120,122 ,

132 .

M .N .D . (M idsumm er N ight ’sDream M usic) , 5 ,

6,22 , 23 ,

2 4,2 7 . 9 3 ,

12 1,12 7 .

Muffh’

ng ,105 ,

109 ,1 10.

Mutes , 43 , 5 4 , 62 ,6 7 , 9 5 ,

100 .

Oboe , 23 , 44 , 46 , 70, 7 1 , 75 ,8 1

,

132 .

Oboe da Caccia, 12 1 .

O boe'

fd’

Am ore ,12 1 .

Oph icleide,12 1 .

Orchestrat ion ,1, 3 , 9 ,

19 , 47,120.

Parts , 8,1 1

,18

,19 ,

2 1 .

Pathet ic Sym phony , 5 ,6,23 ,

Percussion , 13 , 29 , 35 , 4 1 , 43 ,101 .

Phrasing,19 , 30, 74 .

Piano, 5 , 2 1 , 2 8

,29 .

Piccolo , 3 1 , 45 , 70, 72 ,80

,132 .

Pizz icato,

19 ,20

, 4 2 , 5 3 , 6 2,

64 ,67 .

Players , 10,1 1

,18

,24 , 25 , 7 1,

76 :

Pont icello (See Su l P onticello) .Posit ions (Violin) , 5 1 , 6 1 , (Trombone) , 9 7 .

Prout,10

, 4 1 , 13 1 .

Rachm aninoff, 5 , 28 , 33 .

R iem ann , 7 ,130 .

Rolls , 43 ,104 ,

105 ,107 , 108

,

1 10,1 1 1

,1 12 .

Sarrusophone , 12 1 .

Sax ophone , 1 2 1 .

Score , 4 , 5 , 9 ,17 ,

19 ,12 4 to 128 .

Serpent,12 2 .

Shak es , 5 2 , 74 .

Side Drum, 3 1 , 43 , 101

107 .

Sm all Orchestra , 2 7 , 70, 7 1 .

Strings , 1, 7 , 12

,17, 35 , 36 , 42 ,

50,60 .

Suite, 5 , 6 , 20, 27 , 28, 2 9 ,

3 1 , 32 ,1 1 3 , 128 .

Sul pont icello, 5 8 , 62 ,

1 17 .

Sul tasto , 5 9 , 6 2 .

Sur la touche, 5 9 .

Valv e Trom bone , 100 .

Viola,12 ,

17 , 46 , 50,6 1

,129 .

Viola da G am ba, 12 2 .

Viola d’

Am ore ,12 2 .

Violin,18

, 42 , 46 ,60

,129 .

Violoncello , 8 , 46 , 50,63 ,

1 2 9 .

Voice , 2 4 , 33 , 40, 4 1 , 73 .

W agner, 47 ,12 1 ,

125 ,126 .

W ind , 7 , 12 ,23 , 34 , 70, 78 .

VVood , 70 .

! ylophone, 102 ,1 13 ,

129 .

Tam bour,

107 .

Tam bourine,101

,1 1 1

,123 .

Tam -tam, 43 ,

1 1 1 .

Tim pani (See K ettledrums) .Tone

, 2 ,2 1

,2 5 , 35 , 4 1 , 69 , 71 .

Tongueing , 72 .

Transit ional effects , 46 , 9 3 .

Transposing instrum ents,

. 9 ,

I I, 27 ,

127 to 130 .

Trem olo , 5 5 , 74 .

Triangle,29 , 43 ,

101 , 129 .

Trom bone , 13 , 3 1 , 44 , 45 , 70,

9 8 ,129 .

Trum pet,

13 , 3 1 , 70, 72 , 9 4 ,12 8 to 129 .

Tscha ik ow sk y (See P athetic

Symp hony and Suite) .Tuba (See B ass Tuba ) .Tuning

,6 5 ,

82,105 .

Tutt i,19 ,

25 , 26 , 2 7, 34 , 36 , 79 ,

A Handbook of Orchestration - Forgotten Books

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