11
A Contrastive Analysis of 'Preference' in English
and'Elative'(ism-attafl) in ArabicAssist. Prof. Dr. Hussein Musa
Kadhim Al-NasrawiDepartment of English- College of Basic of
EducationUniversity of Babylon
AbstractThe present study aims to analyse, compare and contrast
meanings of 'preference' in Modern Standard English(henceforth=MSE)
and 'elative' in Modern Standard Arabic(henceforth=MSA)in order to
find out the main symmetries and asymmetries of the constructions
of 'preference' in English and 'elative' Arabic. The study ends
with a summary of the main concluding remarks that highlight the
main areas of difficulties in understanding this area of
language.The researcher hypothesizesthe following:(i) Arabic is
more complicated than English in this field of
investigation,i.e.,'elative'.(ii) Since English is Germanic and
Arabic is Semitic, the differences between the two languages are
more than similarities.This investigation comprises an introduction
and three sections in addition to conclusions. Section one
identifies the meanings of ' preference'in English. Section two
states the senses of 'elative = the noun ofpreference in Arabic.
Section three is devoted to contrastive analysis of 'preference'
inModern Standard English and 'elative' Modern Standard Arabic.
Finally, conclusions which show the results concerning this area of
grammar at which the researchers arrive. For example, English is
similar to Arabic in the meaning of preference and 'elative' ,the
same function of the words (than = English and = Arabic) and
allowance to omission than from the context of English and from the
context of Arabic. Concerning differences, English and Arabic are
different in: the number of the constructions, i.e., twenty cases
of preference in English while Arabic has only four, only Arabic
has duality in the 'noun of preference', and (than) in English is a
conjunction whereas () in Arabic is a preposition. In addition,
some recommendations have been made.1. IntroductionThe researcher
tries to explain and analyse the confusion in this area of grammar
faced by learners in both languages.This investigation aims to
compare and contrast the meanings of preference in MSE and an
'elative' in MSA to find out the aspects of similarity and
difference in both languages.To achieve this aim, the study touches
the semantic functions of the 'preference' and 'elative' in both
languages. Accordingly, the researchers use the Contrastive
Analysis Approach which describes the structural differences and
similarities of two or more languages to be compared in terms of
their phonological systems, syntactic systems, writing systems, and
cultural behaviour (Johnson and Johnson, 1999: 85).The researcher
uses the two terms 'preference' and 'preference tools' for English
and 'elative' or 'noun of preference' for Arabic in this
discussion.It is hoped that this study will be a good guide for
those who are interested in the field of scientific research,
linguists, textbook designers and teachers of English and Arabic at
the same time.
2.Preference in MSEThe word prefer means to like better or to
choose better(Webster, 1972: 790). The rejected alternative is
introduced by a (to-phrase) or by a clause introduced by (rather
than) which may be followed by an infinitive (with or without to)
or an (ing- participle) (Hornby, 1974:655). Following are the
English constructions that mean (express/show preference listed
alphabetically:2.1 BetterAs a noun, better means something that is
better(preferred), i.e., preference: 1- Which one is the better of
the two books?(Hornby, 1974: 78)2.2 Comparative adjectives (adj. +
er/ more + adj.) + thanThis construction, which is used in the
second part of a comparison, is used to show the meaning of
preference: 2- My room is better/ cleaner than the one next door.
3- A scheduled flight is more expensive than a charter
flight.(Alexander, 1997: 6, 28)2.3 Do betterAccording to (Longman,
2003:130) this expression can be used to perform better or reach a
higher standard, i. e., preference, e.g.: 4- We did better than all
the other schools. (Longman, 2003: 130)2.4 Go one better (than
sb.)The sense of this phrase is to do something more successfully
than someone else:5- The following year Lewis went one better by
winning the gold medal. (Hornby, 1995:102 and Longman, 2003:
130)2.5 Give / show (a) preference to sb./sth.Both mean to treat
sb/ sth in a way that gives them an advantage over other people or
things. For example: 6- In allocating housing, preference is given
to families with young children.(Longman, 2003: 1288)2.6 Had
betterThis idiom modal implies the meaning of preference(Khallusi,
1982:165) as in the following example: 7- It had better been
done.2.7 In preference to sb./sth.According to Longman Dictionary
of Contemporary Language (2003:1288) this phrase means rather than,
for example:8- Use clear English in preference to technical
language.2.8 No better way/example/ place etc.One of its meanings,
no better is used re to say that something is the best. For
example: 9- There is no better way of exploring the
religion.(Longman, 2003: 1288)2.9Prefer something/ to do/ doingThis
verb can be used to prefer something to something else:10- I prefer
this coat to the coat you were wearing yesterday.Prefer (to do/
doing) is used to say what we prefer in general:11- I prefer
driving to travelling by train.12- I prefer to drive rather than
travel by train. (Murphy, 1994: 116)
2.10 Preferable (to sth./ to doing sth./ to do sth.)Such an
adjective can be used to mean better or more suitable: 13- It would
be preferable to employ two people, not one. (to do sth.) 14-
Anything was preferable to tense atmosphere at home. (to sth.) 15-
He finds country life infinitely preferable toliving in the
city.(to doingsth.)16- In warm weather, clothes made of natural
fabrics are infinitely preferable. (= much better) (Longman, 2003:
1288)2.11 PreferentialIt gives an advantage to a particular person
or group: 17- Dont expect to get a preferential treatment.(Longman,
2003: 1288 and Manser, 2011: 94)2.12 PreferenceThis noun usually
refers to what someone prefers on a particular occasion. For
instance: 18- We could eat Chinese, Indian, or Italian. Do you have
any preference?(Turton and Heaton, 1996:266)2.13
PrefermentAccording to Webster (1972:790) such a name has the same
meaning as the word 'preference', i.e., preferring or being
preferred: 19- He has got a preferment in his work.2.14Rather
thanAccording to Quirk et. al. (1985: 1118) clauses of preference
are mainly introduced by subordinators like rather than. For
example:20- Rather than go there by air, Id take the slowest
train.Subordinate clause of rather than may very occasionally take
its own subject as in the example below:21- Rather thanyou say
anything, I would speak to the manager myself.A rare and formal
finite clause of preference occurs with putative (should): 22-
Rather than she stand feel lonely, her friends arranged to take her
withthem on the trip.In formal English, it is possible to use
rather than..would+ infinitive as in:23- Rather than let him go to
prison, I would pay him fine myself.(Thomson & Martinet,
1986)2.15 Superlative adjectives (the + adj. + est/ the + most +
Adj.)This form of an adjective expresses the highest degree
(Hornby, 1974: 868): 24- John is the best player on the team. 25-
John is most polite of the boys.(Quirk et. al., 1985: 468)In the
above two examples, John is preferred among the boys with regard to
playing and politeness, i.e., preference.
2.16 So much the betterSuch expression is used to say that
something would be even better or bring even more advantages,
e.g.:26- If they can do them both at the same time, then so much
the better.(Longman, 2003:130)2.17 The sooner the better/ the
bigger the better etc.Each of the above mentioned expressions can
be used to emphasize that you would prefer something to happen as
soon as possible, want something to be as big as possible, for
instance: 27- School finishes at the end of the weak, and the
sooner the better as far as Im concerned. 28- The younger you start
learning a language;the better youll speak it. (Longman, 2003:
130)2.18 To better When a verb, better is to be higher in quality,
amount etc. than someone or something else: 29- His total of five
gold medals is unlikely to be bettered.(Longman, 2003: 131)2.19
Would be betterSuch expression may be used to say that one course
of action is suitable or appropriate, i.e., 'better than' another
one: 30- It would be better going by bus.(Hornby, 2010: 131)2.20
Would ratherThis modal idiom conveys the meaning of 'preference' by
the speaker in the present (Khalil, 1999: 227): 31- I would rather
go by car.2.21Would soonerAccording to Quirk et. al. (1985: 142)
this construction which is similar in meaning to 'would rather' can
express 'preference' (=..would prefer) and may therefore be
followed by a comparative construction beginning with (than):32- Id
sooner live in the country than in the city.It is worth mentioning
that the preference construction extends the notion of priority in
time to the notion of priority in choice. It is therefore not
surprising that temporal expressions other thansooner are used to
convey 'preference': notably subordinator before,but also such
comparative adverbs as quickly, faster, more readily plus than both
clauses take modal auxiliaries:33- He'd sit alone in the dark
before he'd watch television. ['He prefers tositalone in the
dark]34- She'll use the telephone before she'll put pen to paper.
35- They would volunteer their own work more readily than they
would contribute money. 36- I'd buy a typewriter faster than I'd
buy a television set. (Quirk et. al., 1985: 1112)2.22 Negation in
preferenceThere are two kinds of negations related to preference
shown by (had better and would rather):(i) There is a negation in
which not follows the whole expression:37- Id rather not stay here
alone. 38- Youd betternot lock the door.(ii) In which not follows
the first word, especially in negative questions where an earlier
statement or assumption is being challenged: 39- A: Wouldntyou
rather live in the country? B: No, I would not. Id rather live
here.(Quirk et. al., 1985: 143)3. /elative(ism-attafl =noun of
preference) in MSAArabic adjectives have two degrees of comparison:
(i) the absolute degree, (beautiful) and (ii) the comparative
degree (usually termed the elative form ) which is used for
comparing two or more persons or things. The comparative degree has
usually the form e.g.(more beautiful, the most beautiful); e.g
(This place is more beautiful than that.), . (This is the most
beautiful place in town.).The comparative (elative) form is derived
from the trilateral root:- (strong, stronger/ strongest); - (big-
bigger/biggest). The feminine form is ; e.g. , , . The elative form
has dual and plural number both in masculine and feminine , . In
the comparative structure however, the singular masculine form is
used:1- . (This man is smaller(younger) than his friend.)2- . (This
woman is smaller(younger) than herfriend.)3- .(These men are
stronger than the others.)4- .(These girls are more beautiful than
theirfriends.)It is worth mentioning that the explicit basis of
comparison is expressed by means of preposition often equivalent to
the English 'than' when two persons or things are involved, and to
'of' when more than two are involves: (sweeter than).The genitive
construction is also used when more than two or three entities are
concerned: (the sweeter of the two); .(China is the largest city in
Asia.) (Yowell, 1989:186) (Aziz, 1989: 186)
No comparative form is possible for adjectives derived from
verbs with passive sense, or for adjectives denoting colour or
det(f)ect, since these latter adjectives have the form in the
absolute: , . In such cases an alternative, periphrastic
construction is used, where the comparison is realized by means of
such words as , , used with a noun derived from the adjective:
.(Yowell, 1989: 187)Elative ( = ism-attafl) in Arabic is nothing
but an adjective derived from the verb to refer to two things
shared in an adjective and one of them is more than the other with
regard to that adjective. That is to say, only one part of speech
(adjective) shows 'elative'. For example:5- .(Khalil has more
knowledge than Sa'eed and better than him too.)There is only one
formula for the verbs of (= attafl = elative), i.e.,(afal) and its
feminine (fula) like [akbar (masculine) = bigger kubra (feminine) =
bigger] and [afal (masculine) = better fula (feminine)].
(Al-Ghalayini, 2004: 135)3.1 Conditions of formulation of (
=ism-attafl) = elativeElative in Arabic can be derived from verbs
of exclamation as per the following conditions:(i) The verb must be
of three letters like ) = faala = to be good and = alima = to
know).(ii) It should be positive (not negative).(iii) It should be
full inflected verb, i.e. it has three tenses(= present, past, and
imperative).(iv) It should be in active (not in passive).(v) It
should not indicate verbs of death and mortality like ( = mta = to
die, and = fan = to die). (vi) It should not be incomplete verb
like (=ra = to become, and = kna = to be) which they have only two
tenses, i.e. past and present.(vii) It should not refer to
shortcoming ( = araj = cripple), jewelries ( = akal = eyelid), or
colours ( = amar = red).(Azzamakhshari, 1999: 288)3.2Cases of ( =
ism-attafl) = elative(i) ( ) () (= tajarudahu min al-attarfwaalifa
=Refraining from the definite article the and genitive):When
elative has neither definite article nor genitive case, it should
be single and masculine in all its cases and the preposition (= min
= from) ought to follow it (Al-Ghalayini, 2004: 137 and Al-Hamlawi,
2005: 61-5) as in the following examples:6- .( Mohammed is better
than Khalid.)7-(: 34) .(I am more than you in wealth and stronger
in respect of men.)(Quran, Al-Kahaf: 34) (Al-Hilali and Khan, 1414
A.H.: 391)(ii) (= iqtirnahu bi al-attarf = Joining to the definite
article the)When preceded by the definite article, elative cannot
be followed by ( = min = from) and should agree with its precedent
in singularity, duality, plurality, masculinity, and femininity
(Qabawa, 1988: 169 and Arrajihi, 2000: 90-4): 8- . (Zeid is the
best.)9- . (The two Zaids are the best.)10- . (The ones who called
Fatima are the best.)(iii) (= ifatuhuilannakira = Adding elative to
the indefinite nouns)If the elative is added to the indefinite
noun, it should be singular, masculine, and refrained from ( = min
= from) (Jacob, 1988: 62): 11- .( Ali is the best leader.) 12- . (
The two persons called Hassan are the most courageous ones.)(iv)
(ifatuhuil al-marifa = Adding to the definite nouns):According to
Al-Asmar, ( n.d.: 85-6 and Al-Ghalayni, 2004: 137-8), when added to
the definite nouns, elative refra ins from (= min = from) and it
has two forms:a) It should follow its subject in singularity and
muscularity.13- . ( Ali is the best of people.) 14- .(: 96) (And
you will most certainly find them the greediest of men for
life.)(Quran,The Cow:96)(Shakir, 2003: 13)b) It agrees with what
precedes it, i.e., its subject, in singularity, duality, plurality,
muscularity, and femininity. 15- . ( The two persons are the best
of the people.) 16-(123 . (: (And thus we have set up in every town
great ones of its wicked people.) (Quran, Al-Anam: 123)(Al-Hilali
and Khan, 1414 A.H.: 191)4. Contrastive Analysis of 'Preference' in
MS E and 'Elative' in MSA4.1 Similarities (i)Referring to the
definition, both English and Arabic has the same meaning of
preference and elative respectively, i.e., in English: more than,
better than, etc., in Arabic: , etc.(ii)The word than in English
and ( = min = from) in Arabic have the same function in introducing
comparative degree of adjectives in preference.(iii)The English
word (than) and the Arabic word () can be omitted in the preference
and elative respectively:English- John is the most polite of the
boys.Arabic - . (English translation = Ali is the best leader.)(iv)
Comparative case is found in both languages:English- My room is
better/ cleaner than the one next door.Arabic - .(comparative)
(English translation = I am more than you in wealth and stronger in
respect of men.)(v) English and Arabic are common in using the
preference tools and elative in the middle of the sentence:English-
I prefer driving to travelling by train.Arabic - . (English
translation = Khalil has more knowledge than Said and better than
him too.(vi) Preference tools can be used initially in English and
Arabic(elative):English- Rather than go there by air, Id take the
slowest train. - Would you prefer tea or coffee? Coffee, please. -
Would you like some tea or would you prefer coffee?ArabicProphet
Mohammed (peace be upon him and his family) says: - .(English
translation = The most honoured among people is the one who
benefits them. (The researcher's translation)(vii) Preference tools
inEnglish and elative in Arabic can be seen at the end of the
sentence: English- In warm weather, clothes made of natural fabrics
are infinitely preferable. (= much better) Arabic - . (English
translation = Zaid is the best.)4.2Differences(i) All preference
nouns in Arabic are derived from their verbs like: , . On the other
hand, English preference tools are derived from different parts of
speech, i.e., some of them are verbs such as: to prefer, would
prefer, would love, would like; some others are nouns like: better,
preference; or adjectives as preferable and preferential; the
subordinator rather than, and some others are expressions like give
preference to, in preference to, to better, so much the better
etc.(ii) The word than used to introduce the second part of
comparative adjectives in English is a conjunction, while the word
used in the same purpose in Arabic, i.e., is a preposition.(iii)
Arabic has some conditions in formulating the noun of preference,
whereas no conditions in English.(see 3.2)(iv) Arabic involves
certain cases of the noun of preference concerning singularity,
duality, plurality, masculinity, and femininity between the
preference word and its subject but there are no such cases in
English.(see3.2,(ii))(v) Most of tools of preference in English
consist of two words or more like: rather than, would rather, would
sooner, would prefer, give preference to, in preference to, etc. In
Arabic, there is only one word to show the noun of preference such
as: ,,.(vi)English (not Arabic)has some tools of preference which
are followed by bare infinitive (would rather, rather than, had
better), and some others are followed by to+ infinitive (would
like/ prefer/ love):- Id rather stay in a house than in a hotel.-
Id love to be able to travel round the world.(vii) There are twenty
cases of 'preference' in English compared to only four cases of the
'elative' in Arabic.(viii)Some preference tools in English only are
followed by three constructions: Prefer(something/ to do/ doing)and
Preferable ( to sth/ to doing sth/ to do sth). For example:- It
would be preferable to employ two people, not one.(to do sth)-
Anything was preferable to tense atmosphere at home.(to sth)- He
finds country life infinitely preferable to living in the city.(to
doing sth)- I prefer this coat to the coat you were wearing
yesterday.- I prefer driving to travelling by train.- I prefer to
drive rather than travel by train.(ix) Only Arabic has duality in
the 'noun of preference':- . (English translation = The two Zaids
are the best.)(x) English, not Arabic, has three parts of speech
referring to preference (i.e., verb, adjective, and noun). Arabic
has only one part of speech (i.e., adjective):English prefer this
coat to the coat you were wearing yesterday. (verb) Anything was
preferable to tense atmosphere at home. (adjective) Which one is
the better of the two books? (noun)Arabic- . (English translation =
Zaid is the best.)(xi) English has two cases of comparison
concerning 'preference' i.e., comparative and superlative, whereas
only comparative case is shown in Arabic elative:English- My room
is better/ cleaner than the one next door.(comparative)- John is
the best player on the team.(superlative)
Arabic- . (comparative) (English translation = I am more than
you in wealth and stronger in respect of men.)(xii) Some
expressions denoting 'preference' are only found in English:English
- Use clear English in preference to technical language.- If they
can do them both at the same time, then so much the better. - The
following year Lewis went one better by winning the gold
medal.(xiii) There are two words used in English preference (i.e.,
(i) than = comparative; (ii) of genitive = superlative), while only
one word in Arabic elative (i.e., = comparative).5.Conclusions and
Recommendations5.1 ConclusionsThe results of this study have shown
that English and Arabic share some similarities and differences in
terms of 'preference' and 'elative' respectively. In relation to
similarities, the two languages are similar in the following:1. The
meaning of preference and 'elative'.2. The same function of the
words (than = English and = Arabic).3. Allowance to omission than
from the context of English and from the context of Arabic.4.
Existence of comparative and superlative cases.5. Using of
preference tools and the 'noun of preference' in the middle of the
sentence.6. Using of preference tools and the 'noun of preference'
at the beginning of the sentence. 7. Preference tools in English
and the 'noun of preference' in Arabic can beseen at the end of the
sentence.
As for the differences, the two languages are dissimilar in the
following:1. All the words of elative in Arabic belong to one part
of speech (i.e., noun), while' preference 'tools in English belong
to different parts of speech(i.e., verb, noun, adjective, and
expressions)2. (Than) in English is a conjunction whereas () in
Arabic is a preposition.3. Arabic has conditions in formulating the
noun of preference word but no conditions in English.4. Certain
situations of the 'elative' relating to singularity, duality,
plurality, masculinity, and femininity between the preference noun
and its subject is found in Arabic only.5- Most preference tools in
English are of two words. Arabic elative, in contrast, is only one
word.6. English (not Arabic) has some tools of preference which are
followed by bare infinitive, and some others are followed by to+
infinitive.7. English has twenty cases of preference while Arabic
has only four. 8. Only Arabic has duality in the 'noun of
preference'.9. Only English has two preference tools which can be
followed by three constructions (to, to do, doing /sth).10. English
has three parts of speech referring to 'preference' compared to
only one in Arabic.11. Both comparative and superlative are
involved in the meaning of 'preference' in English , compared to
only comparative case in Arabic elative.12. 'Preference' in
English, regardless of the parts of speech discussed in the study,
can be shown by means of some expressions. In contrast, Arabic
involves no expressions denoting the 'noun of preference'.13.
English has two words (than and of) used in 'preference', compared
with only one ( ) that is used in Arabic elative.
5.2Recommendations 1- Tools of preference in English and the'
noun of preference' in Arabic should be dealt with inside the
context(contextually) not as separate(individual) words.2-
Teachers, when discussing preference, should look at preference
with regard to parts of speech in both languages to be (make it)
easier for the students to understand and differentiate between
them.3- Teachers should invoke students in the classrooms by giving
them small (short) quizzes after discussing the subject matter,
preference, to check whether or not they understand it.4- Students
should bear in mind that the common features (similarities) between
the two languages to pave the way exchanging cultures and bridge
the gap to understand each other easily.
The Arabic Consonant and Vowel Sounds in the Present
StudySoundsExamplesEnglish meaning
mrprince
bbbdoor
ttamrdates
ththalabfox
j (researcher changed di to j)jaddnew
addiron
ddrhouse
dhdhayltail
rrajulman
zzrjar
ssafaratravelled
shsham'acandle
altprayer
marpatient
ayrbird
ayneye
ghghubrdust
ffawkihfruit
kkalbdog
q qalampencil
llaylnight
mmifthfey
nnrfire
hhmishmargin
wwardaflower
yyarsee
ulminjustice
awaladboy
udubbear
imifthkey
bbdoor
Srapicture
flelephant
This phonological system was adopted from ''Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia"
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