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CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR
Contrastive Analysis
The Places of CA -Part of comparative linguistics -comparative
diachronic (or historical) linguistics - change of one or more
related languages in time, in order to reconstruct a protolanguage
-comparative typological linguistics compares languages as they are
used today, in order to classify them (group them according to
certain features) -comparative analysis systematic study of two or
more languages, specifying all the differences and similarities
between those languages in all language components
Theoretical CA -language independent -investigate the ways in
which a given universal category is realized in two or more
languages -based on theoretical, universal assumptions and is
directed with the equal intensity towards the languages undergoing
extermination -the notion of tertium comparationes i.e the
universal category whose reflection in particular language systems
is examined and described
Applied Contrastive Studies -draw from the theoretical CS in
order to compare languages for a given purpose -the comparison is
always directed from language A to language B, L1 to L2, or the
source language to target language -how a universal category X,
realized in language A as y, is rendered in language B and what may
be the possible consequences of this for a given field of
application (Fisiak 1978:10)
Error Analysis -The underlying conviction, anchored in the
behavioral approach, was that learners transfer the habits of L1 to
L2 (Johnson and Johnson 1998:10) -1957 Robert Lado Contrastive
Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) which stated that the similarities
between two systems in question encouraged positive transfer, which
yields correct L2 utterances, while the differences provoked the
transfer of inappropriate properties of the system - negative
transfer and thus the learner produced errors
Theoretical background -whatever is not similar, is by
definition different -elements are similar if they are equivalent,
when they are equal in value or meaning
-
-elements are congruent when they have the same number of
equivalent formatives arranged in the same order (i.e. they are
identical).
Equivalent or Congruent (Exercise) Do you like apples? Czy
lubisz jabka? (E) John kissed Mary. Jan pocaowa Mari. (E, C) Tom is
always late. Tomasz stale si spnia. (E) I enjoyed the film. Film mi
si podoba. (E) Put your shoes on my shelf. Po swoje buty na mojej
pce. (E, C)
(EX 1. HW)
The Simple Sentence Types of differences -structural differences
(rnice strukturalne) -categorial differences/contrasts (rnice
kategorialne) -functional differences (rnice funkcyjne)
Structural differences -S -> NP VP -English -> Subject is
obligatory -Polish -> Subject may be deleted by the pronominal
subject deletion transformation (pronominal subject = subject in
the form of a pronoun) -ex. On wyjecha z Poznania = Wyjecha z
Poznania -In Polish -> subjectless sentences
Types of subjectless sentences a) padao wczoraj//byo
ciemno//Jest nam zimno. b) Mwi si o tym niewiele.//Podaje si tu
kaw. c) Zaadowano siano na wz//Pobito Janka (impersonal verb form =
forma bezosobowa) d) W poznaniu otwarli nowe kino e) (Jest) Wida
std miasto//Trzeba nam ucieka.
Additional constructions -Sentences denoting absence of
something or gradual disappearence or increase -Nie ma skrzydlatych
koni//Nie ma ich w domu//Brakowao im poywienia// -Initial PPs -Z
nim jest coraz gorzej//Z tych studentw bda dobrzy nauczyciele
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Structure rules Polish: -S -> NP+ VP -S -> (NP) VP -S
-> VP English: -S -> NP VP
Categorial Contrast
Adverb Adjective
-(a) verbs of sensory perception (SVC) feel bad/czuje si le This
fish tastes great//Ta ryba smakuje wspaniale
-(b) sentences with a transitive verb and an adverbial
prepositional construction (SVOC) They painted the wall
black//Pomalowali cian na czarno (AdvPP) He licked the plate
clean//Wyliza talerz do czysta (AdvPP)
NP PP
-PPs in English -> genitive NPs in Polish the top of the
mountain//wierzchoek gry destruction of the city//zniszczenie
miasta
-genitive and instrumental objects after reflexive verbs in
Polish -> prepositional objects in English Chwali si swoj odwag
(instrumental case)//he boasted of his courage (PP) Pozby si swojej
marynarki//He disposed of his jacket
-instrumental adverbials in Polish -> PPs in English Poczstuj
go cygarem//treat him to a cigar Wiosn topniej niegi//Snow melts in
spring Jed do szkoy autobusem//I commute to school by bus
-NP in English -> PP in Polish Czsto gram na harfie//I often
play harp Odpowiedz na moje pytanie//Answet my question
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Functional Contrasts
Attribute = modifier (przydawka)
Polish Subject English Direct Object
Klucze zginy Jankowi//*The Keys lost to John*//Jan Lost the keys
Pomoc jest mi potrzebna//*Help is needed to me*//I need help
Polish Indirect Object English Subject
Brakuje nam pienidzy//We lack money (*My brakujemy pienidzy)
Jest mi wygodnie//I am comfortable (*Jestem wygodny, inne
znaczenie) Jest jej zimno//She feels cold (*Ona czuje zimno inne
znaczenie) Chce im si spa//They are sleepy//Oni s picy (Depends on
translation)
Polish Indirect Object English Direct Object
-remember: dative case in Polish means Oi, single object in
English means Od
-She congratulated/believes/trusts him// Ona
pograutlowaa/wierzy/ufa mu.
-He led the nation (Od) during the war// Przewodzi narodowi
(Dative) w czasie wojny
-cases where the VP contains an NP and an embedded clause
Pozwoliem mu (Oi) odej//I allowed him (Od) to go Kazaem mu (Oi)
wyj//I ordered him (Od) to leave Umoliwiem mu (Oi) odwiedzenie
Marii//I enabled him (Od) to visit Mary
Polish Indirect Object English Possessive Attribute
Koledze zmar brat//Woyem ojcu piro do kieszeni
-The nouns in the dative case have a semantic function which can
be called possessive and the english translations are nominal
modifiers in the possessive case
-My friends brother died//I put a pen into my fathers pocket
-
-Naturally there exists congruent Polish counterparts: Mojego
przyjaciela brat zmar//Woyam piro do kieszeni ojca
Polish Direct Object English Indirect Object
-Uczyem dzieci angielskiego//I taught the children English
-Dzieci is in ACC -> so it is a Od -children ->the typical
position of the Oi (I taught English to the children)
Cases: Nominative Nom Mianownik kto, co Genitive Gen Dopeniacz
kogo czego Dative Dat Celownik komu, czemu Accusative Acc Biernik
kogo, co Instrumental Instr Narzdnik z kim, z czym Locative Loc
Miejscownik o kim, o czym Vocative Voc Woacz o
Synthetic language Function of a word is signalled through its
form (Polish) Analytic language Depends on the position and the use
of function words. (auxiliaries etc.) (English)
Ex. 2 (Describe in detail).
Test: 08.04.2013
The Noun Phrase The structure: -N -> Det (Premodifiers) N
(Postmodifiers)
-English NP: modifiers appear in a prescribed order, their
position is determined in relation to the head noun and to other
modifiers
-
-Polish NP: modifiers have more freedom of position but there
are some rules to be followed!
Determiners:
-Typical determiners: articles (mark the noun as definite or
indefinite), demonstratives, possessives (Genitive NPs), indefinite
pronouns, quantifiers
-PL -> no equivalent of the English articles,
-in Polish the occurrence of the articles in English is
occasionally signalled by the use of indefinite or demonstrative
pronouns
Buy me a book//Kup mi jak ksik Buy me the book//Kup mi t
ksik
-In Polish the definitness or indefinitness may signalled by the
articles may be conveyed by appropriate word order. Sentence final
NPs tend to be indefinite, sentence initial NPs tend to be
definite.
Wczoraj widziaam chopca//Yesterday I saw a boy Chopiec nis w
siatce pomaracze//The boy was carrying oranges in the bag
(the principle of end-focus: new information comes at the end,
given information initially)
-English determiners are mutually exclusive -*the this book/
*this your book/ *a each book
-In Polish demonstratives and possessives (genitives) may
co-occur
ten znajomy mojego ojca//*this my fathers friend ta twoja
ciotka//*this yours ant
-In Polish demonstratives may both precede and follow nouns:
ta ksika ksika ta (*book this) -genitives in Polish typically
follow the noun
-
Premodification: -the order of premodifiers in English:
Determiner->qualifier//numeral->adjectives->noun e.g the
three new films trzy nowe filmy
-In Polish the genitive normally follows the noun but can
precede it as well
tamci koledzy Jaka tamten Jaka kolega
-the numerals normally precede the noun but not neccessarily
Dwaj koledzy Jaka. Jaka dwaj koledzy. Dwaj Jaka koledzy.
Adjective modifiers: -English -> adjectives typically
premodify nouns in a fixed order
opinion size age shape colour participle origin material used
for (OSASCPOMU)
-Polish ->a simple adjective precedes the noun if it is a non
inherent (accidental) quality, if it is an inherent (necessary)
quality it follows:
brunatny niedwied//niedwied brunatny
-the N + Adj word order is also characteristic for many of the
denominal adjectives in Polish
energia soneczka//solar energy robotnik przemysowy//industriak
worker
-in many cases a denominal adjective in one lg corresponds to a
nominal attribute in the other
Adjective Noun medical student student medycyny spinal operation
operacja krgosupa
przemys lotniczy aviation industry ogrd kwiatowy a flower
garden
godzinny wypoczynek an hours rest
-some English adjectives can be used either in front of the man
or after it
-
avoidable accomodation//accomodation available (no difference in
meaning) a responsible person//the person responsible (a difference
in meaning)
-Adjectives in both languages are used attributively and
predicatively. -Some adjectives cannot be used attributively: ill,
unwell, alive, afraid.
-in English -> adjective modifiers are not typically
complemented
*a proud of himself man
such complex adjective phrases go after the noun: a man proud of
his son
occassionally discontinuous modification is possible: comparable
facilities to ours
-in Polish -> the adjective may be freely complemented or
postmodified
dumny z syna mczyzna, przykuty do ka pacjent (or after the
noun)
Participal Premodifiers: -They result from a reduction of a
relative clause:
a candle which is burning -> a burning candle
-in English the participle must come last
the man who is working hard the hard-working man *the working
hard man Pracujcy ciko mczyzna ciko pracujcy mczyzna
-in English the structure is not possible when a PP follows the
verb in the relative clause
The woman who was looking at me - *the at-me looking woman
Patrzca na mnie kobieta, na mnie patrzca kobieta
-in English the structure is possible with prepositional
passives, in Polish it is not, because Polish does not form this
kind of passive:
The solution was not thought about the unthought about solution
The unheard of problem *Niepomylane o rozwizanie
-
Postmodifiers: -English -> nouns are followed by PPs and
clauses -the PP which is more closely integrated with the lexical
meaning of the noun is placed right after it and the PP whose
interpelation is more periphral to the noun, as in the case with
expressions of place, manner or means is placed farther away from
the noun
the picture of John in a gold frame//zdjcie Janka w zotej
ramce
-Polish genitives are typically postmodifiers, in English this
is not possible, sovery often the genitive is replaced by a PP
produkcja rur ze stali//the production of pipes of steel
-Remember that inherent Adj are postmodifiers in Polish
-If there is a genitive N, it should be the closest to the head,
followed by PPs or clauses:
Produkcja betonu na eksport Postawa premiera wobec wojny w Iraku
Pytanie przewodniczcego czy mona ju wyj Proba komisji eby nie
przeszkadza
Irregularities between languages
HW 77,78,79,80,81
Number and Gender Number: -in English s z or iz ->
predictable on phonological grounds -PL less regular e.g the
nominative pl of masculine nouns -> possible endings y i e owie
-> the choice is often on idiosyncratic poperty of a particular
lexical item
m mowie w we
ki kicie ko koci
-in PL there are no pl which are distinguished from their sg.
counterparts by alteration of stem vowel like foot/feet. But
sometimes two differend words are used e.g czowiek/ludzie,
rok/lata
-
-in Eng pl and sg number can be identical e.g sleep, means no
such homophony in PL
Variables and Invariables: -there are three different groups of
nouns: variable nouns, singularia tantum and pluralia tantum -often
the lexical equivalents in the two languages are assigned to
different groups
Eng sg Pl sg/pl furniture mebel/meble information
informacja/informacje gossip plotka/plotki monety
pienidz/pienidze
Eng pl Pl sg clothes odzie
Eng sg/pl Pl pl violin/violins skrzypce mouth/mouths usta
door/doors drzwi
-in both languages reclassifcation is possible (different ways
of usage) -glass substance, glasses glass cups, glasses pluralia
tantum spectacles -srebro substance; srebra pluralia tantum silver
cutlery -coffee, tea substance, two coffees two cups, different
teas different kinds -kawa zboowa, dwie kawy, -ash - U, ashes the
remains -colour U, colours kinds of colour or colours barwy klubowe
-completely different meaning damage szkoda, damages odszkodowanie
znajomo knowledge, znajomoci infidential connections
Subject Verb Concord: -The number of the subject noun influences
the number of the verb -in PL in some cases the subject noun in the
plural occurs with the sg form of the verb. This happens when the
subject noun is in genitive (when this noun is modified by
quantifying expressions like wielu, kilkoro, collective numerals
like dwoje, czworo and ordinary numerals starting with pi)
e.g Wielu chopcw czyta gazety// Many boys read newspapers
-
-Some collective Eng. nouns may occur as sg. subjects with pl
verbs, in PL they cannot e.g His family are leaving//Rodzina
wychodz
Gender: -PL grammatical gender morphologically signalled -gender
forms are also characteristic of adjectives, verbs, demonstrative
pronouns and numerals which stand in on agreement relation with
nouns in a sentence -Eng. natural gender only present withing nouns
and the distinction is only visible in the variation of forms in
the 3rd person -PL natural gender in nouns denothing human beings
but there are exceptions
a) wods denoting young human beings and animals which are
neutral: dziecko, niemowl, szczeni, prosi b)diminutive and
augmentative forms are neutral: chopi, babsko, psisko Marking of
Gender: -in both languages gender is either morphologically marked
or morphologically unmarked -learners of Polish may make mistakes
with forms that seem to refer to a feminine but in fact they do
not: e.g. kawaler/kawalerka, mieciarz/mieciarka -With dual gender a
masculine form is used in Polish e.g. Ucze szkoy redniej powinien
czytac gazety -In Eng the masculine pronoun refers only to a male
-with animal on nouns the generic use may call for either a
feminine or masculine form e.g male: wilk, kot, lew, go// fem:
winia, kaczka, g
Division of masculine nouns: -PL -> masculine nouns can be
divided into 3 groups humans (virile) (mskoosobowe) animals
denoting objects -The virile/non virile distinction is neccessary
for the selection of adjectival and verbal forms. In past tense pl.
virile nouns select the li ending, noun virile y.
sg pl masc virile acc=gen acc=/=gen masc animal acc=gen
acc=/=gen fem/neutral inanim acc=/=gen acc=/=gen
-
Case -PL-> the syntactic function of NP such as subject or
object are marked morpholohically by nouns of inflectional case
endings -> because of its widespread inflection Polish is
classified as syntactic language
The role of the cases: -on immediate consequence of employing
morphological devices to signal noun functions in PL. is the
so-called free word order e.g Jurek kupi ksike//John bought a book
Ksik kupi Janek//A book bought John -Case endings serve also to
distinguish between certain types of adverbs -> they functon in
a way similiar to some eng. prepositions
Noun inflections: -PL-> 15 different endings -> their
distribution is determined not only by the case and number (only
dative pl. has a single ending on) but by a variety of different
factors, the most important of which are the gender and the type of
consonant with which the word ends -ENG ->only one ending s -Eng
pronouns distinguish three cases: nominative, genitive (possessive)
and accusative (objective)
the boy (common case) the boys (genitive case)
Forms of the English Genitive: -The inflected genitive in
English is performed with animate nouns, personal names, nouns,
animals, collection nouns, countries, temporal nouns -The
periphrastic genitive (-of phrase) is preferred with inanimate
nouns, spacial locative relation (bottom, top, middle etc.),
partitive nouns a cup of coffee, a piece of advice
Two Genitives: -In English it is possible to have two genitives,
one inflected and one periphrastic: the committe acceptance of the
plan -In Polish two genitives are avoided for clarity and avoiding
ambiguity: *Komisji akceptacja planu ??? akceptacja planu komisji
rather akceptacja planu przez komisj -Polish allows two genitives
when one is the possession or the author and the other is not
Kolekcja znaczkw mojego ma, plan przebudowy Kowalika
-
Special uses of genitive in Eng: -Elliptical no head noun
follows the genitive: e.g. memory like an elephants, the room is
bigger than my brothers -Local I was married at St Marys, lets go
to my aunts, at the bakers -Phrasal (group) Genitive genitive is
added to the last element somebody elses coat -Obligue (Double)
Genitive a friend of mine, a book of Johns
Possessive Genitive: -The possessive case corresponds to the
polish genitive case and it is a marker of nouns functioning as
modifiers of other nouns -in PL genitive is used in a variety of
other situations where in Eng. the non-possessive form is
employed
The meanings of genitive used passively: -possession/belonging
my sons wife/the engine of my car -subjective relation (subject)
the boys application for work, the rise of the sun -objective
relation (object) the criminals arrest, the destruction of the city
-source or origin the girls story, the wives of France -physical
features a summers day, a man of many talents -measurements a ten
days absence, the height of the tower
Other functions of Polish genitive: -subject nouns who preceded
by a numeral or quantifier Wielu studentw uwierzyo profesorowi
-object nouns when the main verb is negated Jacek nie ma czasu
-object nouns when the main verb belongs to a class of verbs
including among others some verbs of negative meaning (zabrania,
zakazywa, odwoywa) verbs denoting need, desire, request
(potrzebowa, zakazywa, odmawia) verbs denoting emotions (zazdroci,
nienawidzie) some reflexive verbs (ba si, spodziewa si) verbs with
prefixes do-, na- (dotyka nasypa) -nouns in prepositional phrases
preceded by such prepositions od (from), bez (without), wrd
(among), dla (for)
-
Objective: -It is a ___ of the function of direct and indirect
object and corresponds to Polish accusative and dative respectively
-exceptions -in some context the genitive is used to work direct
objects in PL -in constructions of the type it+be+pronoun Eng the
objective form of the pronominal element It is m who goes to
Spain//Who is it? It is not me. PL predicative nouns are in the
instrumental case: on jest studentem In to (jest) constructions
they take nominative endings To (jest) on.
PPs: -Eng -> objective case marks head nouns of PPs -PL ->
all cases except nominative and vocative may occur in this context
-the selection depends on three factors -(a) the preposition e.g.
Genitive -> wrd, od, dla, do, oprcz, bez Accusative -> przez
Dative - >ku, wbrew Instrumental -> z Locative-> przy (b)
the verb the same preposition can precede a noun in the ACC when
the main verb is oskara and in locative when it is opowiada e.g. On
oskary was o spisek//On opowiedzia nam o spisku (c) the semantic
function of the PP ->przed, za, nad, pod + instrumental if
denoting location +accusative when denoting direction of movement
e.g. Zeszyt lea pod ksik// Woy zeszyt pod ksik
Verb Verbal Categories: -Eng person, number, tense (just two
tenses, past and present), aspect (perfect/imperfect;
progressive/non-progressive), mood (indicative, subjunctive,
conditional) -PL person, number, gender, tense (3 tenses also
future), aspect (perfective/imperfective), mood (indicative,
conditional) -Person, number, and in PL gender -> depend on the
subject noun (S-V concord) -Tense the coice of a given tense
depends on the temporal relationship between the activity or state
expressed by a given verb and the time of utterance
-
-Aspect two types in English but only one in Polish, so there is
no one-to-one correspondence -Mood expresses the speakers attitude
towards what he is saying
English Verb Inflection: -a typical English verb appears in one
of the five forms
1.the base form work drive 2.the s form works drivers 3.the past
form worked drove 4.the present participle
working driving
5.the past participle worked driven
1. the base form -present simple -bare infinitive -to infinitive
-imperative sentences -as present subjunctive 2.the s form -3rd
person singular present simple 3. the past form -past simple 4.the
present participle -continuous -the participle -adjective -noun
5.the past participle -perfect tenses -passive voice -adjective
-participle
Eng VP may be simple (consisting of one word) or complex
(consisting of more than one word) within complex VPs the following
rules have to be observed
1.auxiliaries: always precede the main verb 2.modal auxiliaries
precede other auxiliaries 3.have precedes be 4.one modal in one
VP
-
5.only the first element of the verbal group is inflected
according to person, number or zd??
Polish Verb Inflection: -each Polish verb has got two bases
-the present tense base ->it appears for example in the
present participle ->the part of the word
which is left after the ending cy is cut off
pij(cy) pi pij
-the past tense base -> obtained if the ending of the
infinitive is cut off
my myjcy my
sychac sysz(cy)
-PL verbs appear in four different forms in finite
constructions
1.the present tense form myj, myjesz
2.the infinitive upiec, czyta
3.the past participle czyta
4.the passive participle myty, czytany
Person, gender and number in English: -very few inflectional
endings ->the only inflectional ending is the suffix s in the
3
rd person singular
-gender not marked at all
-exception 3rd
person plural and singular
-the only device for distinguishing between different verb forms
are the personal pronouns (however
you is still ambigous)
In Polish: -PL verbs have a different set of endings for the
present tense inflection and of the past tense
inflection
-in the present tense verbs are inflected only for person and
number, gender is not marked ->this
makes the presence of personal pronoun redundant
-the choice between suffixes depends on the conjugation type of
a given verb =>there are 4
conjugation types in Polish, the characteristic features for
each conjugation are the first and the
second person ending in singular
Polish conjugation types
1st 2nd Example
1. - -esz pij/pijesz
2. - -isz/ysz widz/widzisz
3. -am -asz czytam/czytasz
4. -em -esz umiem/umiesz
-
Tense: -English
-there is a lot of confusion concerning what should be called a
tense in English
-if tense indicates the time relative to the time of
utterance
-there should be 3 tenses present/past/future
-there is a problem with the future tense in English, will and
shall are not only future but also modal
auxiliaries they do not only signal futurity but also modal
meanings such as volition, prediction,
promise
-Polish
-in PL future is also a periphrastic construction consisting of
the auxiliary by in the future tense and
the past participle or infinitive but the auxliary(?)
Aspect: -Polish -> aspectual distinctions are realised on the
lexical level by means (suffixes and prefixes)
robi/zrobi
-English -> aspectual appositions are realized by means of
constant grammatical markers for each
type of aspect
I am writing/I have written/ I write
The English Perfect: -the formal marker is the auxiliary verb
have occurring with the past participle form of the verb
->the
auxiliary is marked for tense and it may occur with the future
indicator will/shall or with modal
auxiliary
-there are two general meanings of the perfect: resultative and
continuative
-resultative it expresses effects or results of the action
denoted by the verb
I have read that book (Implies I know the book now)
-continuative if it refers to an action which began before some
point of reference and is still going
on at the point of reference
I have lived in London since 1980 (means I still live in
London)
-which meaning is expressed by a perfective construction depends
on 2 factors
(a) the lexical type of verb
(b) co-occurrence with some adverbials
Polish equivalents of the Present Perfect Tense (a) a verb in
present tense, imperfective aspect
as a counterpart of the English continuative perfect
I have lived here since 1990// Mieszkam tu od 1990
(b) a verb in the past tense imperfective aspect
-if the verb is collocated with adverbials expressing the
repetition of a given activity
I have read that book many times // Czytaem t ksik wiele
razy
-
if the verb is not followed by an adverbial and refers to the
past experience
I have played many instruments // Graem na wielu
instrumentach
(c) a verb in the past tense, perfective aspect to render
English resultative meaning
I have read that book//Przeczytaem t ksik
Equivalents of Past Perfect (a) a verb in the past tense,
perfective aspect -> verb implies a goal
It occurred to me that John had hidden that box// Przyszo mi do
gowy, e Jan ukry to pudeko
(b) a verb in past tense, imperfective aspect (verb does not
imply reaching any goal)
Jane had lived in London before she moved to Paris// Janka
mieszkaa w Londynie zanim zamieszkala
w Paryu
when the verb has a durative meaning or is collocated with an
adverb of duration
For many years he had seen her every day// Przez wiele lat
widywa j kadego dnia
Equivalents of the Future Perfect forms rendered in PL as a
perfective verb in the future tense
John will have forgotten this poem before the end of the term//
Janek zapomnia ten wiersz przed
kocem semestru (moliwe e bdny przykad)
The English Progressive -the formal marker -> be + ing, the
auxiliary is marked for tense, may occur iwth the futurity
marker
and with modal auxiliary, can co-occur with perfect aspect
-the general meaning - > an activity in progress at some
temporal point of reference
-progressive aspect occurs with action verbs
-PL -> no special grammatical means to express
The Equivalents of the Present Progressive -both Simple and
Progressive Present have the same counterparts
-an imperfective verb in the present tense
On pije = He drinks//He is drinking
-It is possible to add lexical item (adverb) to make the meaning
clear
On czsto/zawsze/czasem pije // On pije teraz
Czytam ksik (PROGRESSIVE) // Czytam ksiki (SIMPLE)
-
The Equivalents of the Present Perfect Progressive -if a Verb in
present perfect progressive is not followed by a perfective
adverbial it is translated as
imperfective verb in the past tense
I have been writing a letter to you
Other equivalents -the equivalents of the Past Progressive ->
an imperfective verb in the Past Tense
The sun was shining//Soce wiecio
-Future Progressive -> PL Future Imperfective
-Past Perfect Progressive -> past imperfective
I was convinced that he had been drinking // Byem przekonany e
on pi
Aspect in Polish -depending on the verb opposition between
imperfective and perfective verbs can refer to the
difference between..?
(a) an action which tends towards some goal and an action which
has reached that goal
pisa//napisa
(b) an action which has a durative character occurs more than
once and an action which has
momentary character or occurs only once
krzycze/krzykn
-the same imperfective verb can have more than one perfective
counterpart depending on the type
of
czyta/przeczyta/odczyta/wyczyta/poczyta
Forms of Aspect in Polish -some verbs have the same form in both
aspects:
mianowa, ofiarowa, aresztowa, proklamowa, inspirowa, kanonizowa,
imitowa, rzutowa
-some verbs have only imperfective meaning (imperfectiva
tantum)
obowizywa/polega/uczszcza/ssiadowa
-some verbs have only perfective meaning (perfectiva tantum)
osieroci, owdowie, oniemie, osupie
The meaning of the Aspect in Polish -imperfetive forms carry the
meaning of an action in progress
-perfective forms have the meaning of the action whose goal has
been achieved
-in many cases additional meanings are expressed
(a) the perfective form denotes the action which has occured
once, the imperfective actions which
occur more than once (skaka/skoczy)
(b)the perfective stresses the beginning of action (czai
si/zaczai si)
(c)the perfective may stress, the final phase of a given
action/pi/dopi
-
MOOD -ENGLISH
-two marked moods
subjunctive and conditional both distinguishing past and present
tense (present reflecting to (???)
than past)
subjunctive in the present the base form is used in all persons,
in the past the past form is used
>suggest that he be informed
conditional the marker is the verb should/would + ing
-POLISH
-conditional meaning suffix by -> this suffix is movable it
can be attached to the verb itself, the
auxiliary by or to the subordinator. The personal endings are
always attached to the suffix by no
matter where it is. In the main clause by is attached to the
verb (or precedes it) and in the
subordinate clause by is attached to the subordinator
zrobia-bym
gdybys-wiedziaa
Modals -Introductory remarks
-verbs expressing speakers attitude towars his utterance
-neither true nor false
2 main distinctive features of modals
(a) have to be followed by bare infinitive
(b) they do not combine with each other
Formal Characteristics fo English Modals -two groups
-real modals they have no inflection and no non-finite forms
-may, might, can, could, must, will, would, shall, should, need,
ought to
-quasi modals (semi) inflected and have some non finite
forms
-be able to, have to, am/is/are to
-semantically quasi modals do not differ from real modals, they
can express similiar meanings as real
modals and in some cases function as positionalvariants of real
words (e.g have to is used instead of
must when the reference is made to the future time)
Features of the English Modals (1) modals have only finite
forms
to write but not to must
writing but not musting
-
(2)in re... statements directly followed by the negative
particle not
(3) in interrogative sentences modals invert with the
subject
Does he write books/Can he write books// *Does he can write
books (wrong)
(4)no person inflection
He must//*He musts
(5) followed by infinitive without (to) except for ought
(6) no tense inflection
Time is marked on the main verb
Polish Modals -2 types
-inflected mc, musie, potrzebowa, mie
-defective modals powinien, wolno bdzie
-inflected modals do not differ from other verbs in PL
-defective forms occur only in some verbal categories
Inflectional characteristics (a) all modals are inflected for
person and number except for wolno
(b) they have tense inflection for powinien which does not have
the future tense and bdzie which
doesnt have the present or the past tense
(c) no aspectual forms
aspect marked on the main verb
mog pisa//mog napisa
(d) they have some non finite forms except for powinien, wolno,
bdzie
participle mogcy, myjcy
inf umie, mc
Epistemic and root modality Epistemic modality -> connected
with degrees of certainty
e.g He must be tired/He might be tired/He cant be tired
It expresses logical necessity, logical possibility and logical
impossibility
Root modality -> connected with making requests, asking for
and giving permission expressing
obligation and prohibition
e.g You may
Epistemic Modality: Logical Necessity -English -> must/have
to/ ought to/ should/will/would
-Polish -> musie, powinien, future auxiliary by
must->speakers conclusion or deduction
-
There must be a mistake//Tam musi by bd
should/ought to->similiar to must byt weaker
will/would -> express an assumption or prediction
That will be our train, to bdzie nasz pocig
This would be his mother
Epistemic Modality: Impossibility -English -> cannot,
couldnt
-Polish -> nie moe, the adjective niemoliwe
cant/couldnt are used when the speaker is confident that
something is impossible
Epistemic Modality: Factual Possibility -English -> may,
might, could
-Polish -> mc or modal adverb moliwe
The road may/might be blocked/ Droga moe by zablokowana// Moliwe
e droga jest zablokowana
Epistemic Modality: Theoretical and habitual possibility
-English -> can
-Polish -> mc or impersonal mona, potrafi
Root Modality: Necessity and Obligation -English -> must,
have to
-Polish -> musie
must - authority of the speaker, public
have to external
weak obligation should, ought to, had better, might
-PL powinien, lepiej, eby, naley, trzeba
Root Modality: Lack of necessity and obligation -English ->
neednt, do not have to
-Polish > nie potrzebowa, nie musie
Root Modality: Prohibition -English -> may not (weaker) must
not (stronger) shouldnt, ought to
-Polish -> nie mona, nie mc (weaker), nie wolno
(stronger)
Root Modality: Permission -English -> can, may, be allowed
to
-Polish -> mc, mona wolno
Root Modality: Ability
-
-English -> can, be able to
-Polish -> mc (physical ability), umie (for permanent
accomplishment)
Conditionals Real Conditionals -Conditional mood is not used
-the speaker does not know if the situation in the subordinate
clause happened is happening or will
happen
Simple Past tense is used if the reference to the past and
Simple Present Tense is used when
reference is both to the past and to the future
-in PL the future is used for future reference.... (przewinela
slajdy bo to przeciez kurwa takie proste)
-the use of should in English suggests that the condition is
judged less probably
If you should see Mary today, tell her to call me// Jeli
zobaczysz przypadkiem Marysi
-For emphasis an inverted construction is possible in
English.
Should you see Mary today, tell her to call me
-will is only used in polite requests or to emphasize
unwillingness to change unacceptable behavior
np.... (brak przykadu bo to takie oczywiste przecie)
Unreal Conditionals -when the speaker makes a hypothesis, the
condition is unreal
-the conditional may refer to the present or to the past
-the event described in the clause is not true
-if the condition has present reference
ENG -> the subjunctive simple past tense is used in the main
clause (with were as the form of the
verb be in all persons, the conditional mood is in the main
clause)
PL -> conditional mood used in both clauses
If you worked very hard, you would be rich// Gdyby pracowa ciko
byby bogaty
-to suggest extreme improbability were to is used in the
conditional clause in English.
If I were to catch my daughter lying to me, Id give her a
wallop// Jakby mi si zdarzyo...
-if the clause refers to the past
ENG - > conditional clause is in the Past Perfect, the main
clause is marked with the conditional mood
would/should + Perfect Infinitive
-
PL - >there may be no difference between a conditional
sentence referring to the present and the
past
-The main clause may refer to the present and the subordinate to
the past or the other way around
If I were a man I would have got the job// Gdybym bya mczyzn
dostaabym tamt prac
If I had done my homework the teacher wouldnt be angry with me
now// Gdybym odrobia...
-Besides if the condition may be introduced by - >providing
(pod warunkiem); provided that
(zakadajc e); on condition that (pod warunkiem); unless (chyba
e)
PL if = jak/jeli in real conditionals and gdyby in unreal
ones
-In English if may be omitted in inverted structures with
should/were/had(?)
Verb and Adjective Complementation Reading: Fisiak 89-95
Willim pp 146-152 Exercise Willim ex 108-110, 115-16
What are complements? -Complements -> elements that complete
the meaning of other lexical items in the sentence (typically verbs
and adjectives) -Types of verb complementation -> intensive,
monotransitive, ditransitive, complex transitive
-
Intensive Complementation -Eng -> intensive verbs followed by
APs, NPs, PPs -PL -> AdvP are more common than AP It is
cold//Jest zimno You look wonderful//Wygldasz cudownie -In Polish
verbs followed by APs include: by, wydawa si, czuj si,
pozostawa
Monostransitive Complementation -the verb is followed by a
nominal, prepositional or clausal object The children are reading a
book//Dzieci czytaj ksiki I am counting on you//Licz na ciebie I
decided to leave on Thursday//Zdecydowaam si wyjecha w czwartek -a
monotransitive verb with a nominal complement in Eng may correspond
to a verb with a prepositional complement in PL (...missing
example...) -a verb with a prepositional complement in English may
correspond to an NP Are you looking for your keys again//Znowu
szukasz kluczy? -a verb followed by an infinitival clause in
English may correspond to a verb followed by a finite clause in
Polish, because PL infinitives are always subjectless I asked him
to call me at 5//Poprosiam, eby zadzwoni do mnie o 5 -When the
English infinitive clause has a subject it will correspond to a PL
finite clause I want her to love me//Chc eby mnie kocha I hope for
her to love me// Mam nadziej, e ona mnie pokocha -in PL there is no
counterpart of bare infinitive!!! -with structures containing verbs
of perception such as hear, see, watch the PL equivalent is a
finite clause I saw him enter that building//Widziaem jak wchodzi
do tamtego budynku -with verbs such as help, let, make, have, the
PL equivalents are subjectless infinitival clauses: He had the
students rewrite their homework/// Kaza studentom przepisa zadanie
-find, hear, see, get, leave, wait, watch, take a past participle
with a subject in Eng. and there are no strict equivalents in
Polish
I had the car washed//Zawiozem auto do umycia They heard the
window broken//Syszeli jak wybijano okno. -verbs denoting a
symmetrical relation are often used without the reciprocal pronoun
in Eng (kiss, meet, know) in PL they are followed by a reflexive
that cannot be dropped Thats were we kissed for the first time//To
tu pocaowalimy si pierwszy raz
-ENG has a numerous groups of phrasal verbs ->the meaning of
a phrasal is independent of the meaning of the verb it contains.
The adverbial element of the phrase is stressed and it is
-
separable from the verbal root if the verb is transitive. When
the object is pronominal the particle must be separated and placed
after the object: They put off the meeting//They put the meeting
off They put it off/ They put off it* (WRONG) -phrasal verbs difer
from prepositional verbs i.e. verbs followed by PP, where the
preposition is unstressed and cannot be moved.
He relies on his assistant// He relies on him
-there are also phrasal prepositional verbs: Put up with, look
forward to, get away with the preposition used in PL and ENG after
do not match: consent to zgodzi si na live on utrzymywa si z
czego
Ditransitive Complementation -verbs followed by both Od and Oi
-forst most verbs Oi might be a PP in ENg PP is obligatory when it
follows Od -some ditransitive verbs Eng verbs take an obligatory PP
indirect object: explain, announce, communicate, say, translate,
suggest, describe, speak. Their PL equivalents take two normal
agents.
Complex Transitive Complementation -verbs followed by objects
and object complement -many more verbs in Eng that allow this
-often there is categorial contrast We painted the house white//
Pomalowalimy dom na biao
Adjective Complements -Eng adjectives are followed by a PP or a
clause -in PL adjectives are additionally followed by NPs (peen
soca, godny wiedzy)
Passive and related constructions Passivization: -passive
sentence -an underlying object NP is moved to the surface subject
(Object Preposing) -The underlying subject is made into an object
preceded by the preposition by/przez -the transitive verbs take the
form of a passive participle -be/by is ??? which agrees
gramatically with the new subject NP
The main differences between PL and ENG: -(a) the ???? of the
verbal copula + participle -PL -:> not only the copula but also
the participles agree with the subject
-
On by widziany/ Ona bya widziana/ Oni byli widziani/ One byy
widziane -Unlike the copula the participle does not have different
person forms: Ja byem widziany przez niego/Ty bye widziany przez
niego/ On by widziany przez niego -(b) the type of NP which may
undergo Object Preposing -PL-> only direct objects can be moved
-ENG->also indirect and prepositional objects A book was given
to John by Tom/ Ksika zostaa dana jarkowi przez Tomka John was
given a book by Tom/ Jarek by dany ksik przez Tomka (WRONG XD)
Jacek was looked at by Mary/Jacek by patrzany na przez Mari (WRONG
XD)
Alternative Constructions in PL -Object NPs which cannot be
preposed by a passive rule can be topicalized by moving them to the
vital position Jankowi da ksik Tomek//Na Janka patrzya Maria.
-Subjectless constructions can serve as equivalents of ENG passive
with deleted agentive PPs W tym zku nie spano od lat// This bed has
not been slept in for ages Patrzono si na niego/He was looked
at.
get and zosta -get is used in ENG in constructions resembling
passive voice John got shot// He gets punished regularly -get
differs from the coupla in that it does not invert with the subject
in interrogative constructions Get you hit by John? (WRONG) -get
has got a resultative aspect, which is reflected in PL by the use
of zosta in passive sentences Mary got promoted by the boss// Mary
zostaa awansowana przez szefa She got Loved*/Ona zostaa
kochana*
Transitive verbs not used in the passive -In tboth lgs. Passive
formation is blocked with certain [action] verbs like have/mie,
resemble/przypomina Money is had by him*//Pienidze s miane*
-marry (to take a wife/husband) -> blocks passivization in
ENG but not in PL Mary was maried by John*//Maria zostaa polubiona
przez jarka -ENG prefer, remind, suppose, form passive, their PL
counterparts do not
She was preferred to all the others by the boss//Ona bya
wolana*
-PL reflexive verbs cant be made passive
-
Spodziewam si awansu//I expect a promotion *Awans jest
spodziewany przeze mnie//A promotion is expected by me -potrzebowa
unlike ENG need does not allow regular passivization: Help is
needed by me//Pomoc jest potrzebowana przeze mnie*/Pomoc jest mi
potrzebna
Dative Passive -dative passive may be said to lead to the
derivation of the following: Ta ksika podoba mi si/ Ta ksika jest
mi znana -Only one of such constructions have structural
counterparts
This book is known to me/ * This book is likeable to me
-There are cases where the process is productive in ENG but not
in PL My request was agreeable to the...// *Moje danie byo...[no
corresponding adjectives]
Questions and Negation The interrogative transformation -it
inverts the subject and the auxiliary constituent: He has done
it-> Has he done it? -if there is no auxiliary in the surfacae
structure a)one approach postulates the aux done in the
underlying...
Question form in PL -if the 2nd approach is chosen-> in PL
there is no counterpart of Do support rule -in PL subject-aux
inersion is optional -When czy is ommited in questions the
inversion seems obligatory, or else the sentence conveys an idea of
surprise Janek bdzie pisa list? Nie wierz.
-the interrogative trans in PL may prepose not only an aux but
also a main verb -in ENG yes/no question the question morpheme is
deleted, in PL it may be realized as czy But in both lgs the
question morpheme is lexically realized in embedded questions Tell
me if/whether she has already... Powiedz czy ona
Alternative questions Did you find the pen or not /Znalaze piro
czy nie? (disjunctive or in eng, in Pol czy the 2nd occurrance of
czy)
Did you go to the cinema or did you stay at home/ Czy... czy
-
Specific questions 3 rules involved in the derivation of
specific questions in Eng 1) the interrogative transformation 2) Do
support 3) Wh-questions transformation the first 2 rules do not
apply in embedded questions 3) moves an NP, with a noun marked by
[+wh] feature to the front of the sentence where it replaces the
question marker John ate [what] -In PL there is no equivalent of Do
support and s-v inversion is optional PL-> then the questioned
element is NP with a preposition, the whole PP must be fronted
ENG-> the preposition can be left behind (preposition stranding)
Od kogo dosta ten krawat? From who did you...? ENG-> wh-
elements cannot be extracted from the pronominal modifier position
in the NP PL-> no such constraint Whose did John see car* only
one wh- element can be moved to the front of the sentence PL->
no such constraint Who gave a gift to whom? Who whom did give a
gift?* Kto komu da prezent?
-English lacks single word counterparts of many Polish
interrogative pronouns skd from where odkd since when ktrdy which
way
-In most other cases there are one-to-one correspondence
Echo questions -Syntactically identical to declarative
sentences, differ only in intonation. -They may be treated as a
subgroup of general questions -> they ask for a denial
Tag questions constructions in which a statement is followed by
an incomplete question the interrogative part consists of an aux
identical to that in the preceding statement and a pronominal
counterpart of the statements subject.
the interrogative part is either positive or negative depending
on the form of the statement -in PL no structural counterpart
-
Sentence negation -Differences between PL and ENG negative
sentences: 1) PL->negative particle precedes the aux of the main
verb ENG-> negative particle follows the aux 2)PL-> lack of
do support 3)PL->double negation is frequently used Nigdy tam
nie pjd/ I dont never go there*
Assertive and non assertive forms -ENG-> some-any, any + not
-> no I have some money -> I dont have any money -> I have
no money -In Eng any/no alteration is optional, in PL it is
obligatory Nie widziaem nigdy Jacka// Nie widziaem kiedykolwiek
Jacka* ->note that the negative particle is retained
Quantifying expressions: -some any no something anything nothing
someone anyone no one sometime anytime ? somewhere anywhere
nowhere
Negative->positive alteration -there are cases where a
positive ENg sentence has a neg. PL translation a) polite requests
Could you hand me that book? Czy nie mgby poda...? b)until clauses
dopki The child cried until his mother came/ Dziecko pakao, dopki
jego matka nie przysza.
Absolute Negation it is a negative reaction to a yes;no question
or statement ENG-> it may be a single negative word no or a
construction consisting of pronominal subject and a negated aux
PL-> if there is no aux then the verb is used czy on wyjecha?
Nie, nie wyjecha. So the verb is ofted(???) added Saying tak/nie is
also impolite.
-
Other types phrasal negation-> when the negative marker is
not dominated by the sentence nod(?) but originates within one of
the constituents
Not far away, I bought a few books Niedaleko std, kupiem kilka
ksiek
lexical negation-> a negative affix is added to the stem of
the word
lexical neg: ENG PL un/ uncertain nie niepewny -in, -il, -ir,
-im nie nie... -non, non-existent nie nieistniejcy -a, apolitical a
apolityczny -less, shameless bez - bezwstydny
-neg adverbs such as hardly, and scarcely function similarly to
negative particles -> they replace the negative marker and
co-occur with any I can hardly see anything ledwie widz ledwo is
more restricted than hardly -> it cannot precede subject
complement
He is hardly a hero//On jest ledwo bohaterem*
The movie is hardly amusing// Film jest ledwo zabawny*
-nearly and almost -> cannot be used with a negative marker,
their PL equivalents mao and prawie can: He was nearly run over by
a car/ On mao co nie...
-implied negation word Some of the implied negation in ENG words
have counterparts in Polish with clearly distinguishable negative
affixes hate->nienawidzi danger upset