www.ssoar.info A century of change: trends in the composition in the italian labour force, 1881-1981 Zamagni, Vera Veröffentlichungsversion / Published Version Zeitschriftenartikel / journal article Zur Verfügung gestellt in Kooperation mit / provided in cooperation with: GESIS - Leibniz-Institut für Sozialwissenschaften Empfohlene Zitierung / Suggested Citation: Zamagni, V. (1987). A century of change: trends in the composition in the italian labour force, 1881-1981. Historical Social Research, 12(4), 36-97. https://doi.org/10.12759/hsr.12.1987.4.36-97 Nutzungsbedingungen: Dieser Text wird unter einer CC BY Lizenz (Namensnennung) zur Verfügung gestellt. Nähere Auskünfte zu den CC-Lizenzen finden Sie hier: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.de Terms of use: This document is made available under a CC BY Licence (Attribution). For more Information see: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 Diese Version ist zitierbar unter / This version is citable under: https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-34505
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A century of change: trends in the composition inthe italian labour force, 1881-1981Zamagni, Vera
Veröffentlichungsversion / Published VersionZeitschriftenartikel / journal article
Zur Verfügung gestellt in Kooperation mit / provided in cooperation with:GESIS - Leibniz-Institut für Sozialwissenschaften
Empfohlene Zitierung / Suggested Citation:Zamagni, V. (1987). A century of change: trends in the composition in the italian labour force, 1881-1981. HistoricalSocial Research, 12(4), 36-97. https://doi.org/10.12759/hsr.12.1987.4.36-97
Nutzungsbedingungen:Dieser Text wird unter einer CC BY Lizenz (Namensnennung) zurVerfügung gestellt. Nähere Auskünfte zu den CC-Lizenzen findenSie hier:https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.de
Terms of use:This document is made available under a CC BY Licence(Attribution). For more Information see:https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Diese Version ist zitierbar unter / This version is citable under:https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-34505
A CENTURY OF CHANGE: TRENDS IN THE COMPOSITION OF THE ITALIAN LABOUR FORCE,
1881-1981
VERA ZAMAGNI (*)(1)
Abstract: Popula t ion and i n d u s t r i a l c e n s u s e s in I t a ly suffer from remarkab le shor tcomings when a d iacronic view is super imposed upon them, because on t h e one hand t h e y a r e no t d ivided to respond to r e q u i r e m e n t s of comparabi l i ty th rough time and on t h e o t h e r hand t h e changes t h e y depic t a re sometimes so r ad ica l to f r u s t r a t e efforts aiming at an homogeniza t ion of d a t a . The purpose of t h i s paper is 1) to d i scuss t h e most impor tan t c a u s e s of d i sc repancy among t h e v a r i o u s censuse s and to formulate ways of ad jus t ing d a t a to e l imina te such causes and 2) to gain and comment impor tan t i n s i g h t s which can help to i n t e r p r e t e t h e r e s u l t s .
Monthly s u r v e y s on employment and unemployment s t a r t e d in I t a ly only a t t h e beg inn ing of t h e 1950s, (2) while some p a r t i a l d a t a of t h i s t ype a r e a lso a v a i l a b l e for t h e 1920s and 1930s with re fe rence to t h e i n d u s t r i a l sec to r . (3 ) A long view of t h e t r e n d of sec to ra l employment in I ta ly , the re fore , must i n e v i t a b l y re ly on popu la t ion and i n d u s t r i a l c e n s u s e s . Prior to any use of c e n s u s e s is , however , a d i scuss ion of t h e concep t of " labour force" employed by them. There is no doubt t h a t , u n t i l v e r y r e c e n t l y , t h e ques t ion asked by I t a l i an popula t ion c e n s u s e s was: "what i s your profess ion?" , t h e answer d i s regard ing whe the r o r no t t h a t profess ion was a c t u a l l y exe rc i sed , which implies t h a t popula t ion c e n s u s e s " labour force" inc luded unemployed people . I ndus t r i a l c e n s u s e s , i n s t e a d , r equ i red firms to a s s e s s t h e i r a c t u a l employment in t h e day t h e census was t a k e n , which, as a m a t t e r of p r inc ip le , exc luded unemployed people . This is one r eason why I cons ider both t y p e s of c ensus in t h e i r own r igh t usefu l to c o n s t r u c t a long run view of sec to ra l (and reg iona l ) employment in I t a ly (o the r r e a s o n s will be ment ioned l a t e r on). I nev i t ab l y , c e n s u s e s suffer from remarkab le shor tcomings when a d iacronic view is super imposed upon them, because on t h e one hand t hey a r e no t dev ided to respond to r e q u i r e m e n t s of comparabi l i ty th rough time and in t h e o t h e r h a n d t h e changes t h e y dep ic t a r e sometimes so rad ica l to f r u s t r a t e efforts aiming at an homogeniza t ion of d a t a . The purpose of t h i s pape r is f i rs t of all to d i scuss t h e most impor t an t c a u s e s of d i s c r epancy among t h e v a r i o u s censuse s adminis te red in I t a ly and to formula te ways of ad jus t ing d a t a to e l imina te such causes , whenever poss ib le . In t h e p rocess of so doing, impor t an t i n s i g h t s a re gained which can help to i n t e r p r e t t h e r e s u l t s , t h e most r e l e v a n t of which will be s e l ec t ive ly commented upon in t h e l a s t s ec t ion of t he paper .
C) Address all communicat ions to: Vera Zamagni, Unive r s i t à Degli S tudi di Bologna, Dipar t imento di Scienze Economiche, Via Boldrini, 6, 1-40126 Bologna, I t a ly . '
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I. Population Censuses
A good g r o u n d - w o r k on I t a l i an popu la t ion c e n s u s e s cover ing t h e per iod 1 8 8 1 - 1 9 6 1 ( 4 ) was done some y e a r s ago by t h e s t a t i s t i c i a n Ornello Vi ta l i . Two e a r l i e r c e n s u s e s of uni f ied I t a ly (1861 and 1871) were no t t a k e n in to a c c o u n t by him b e c a u s e t h e y did no t lend t h e m s e l v e s to t h e kind of e l a b o r a t i o n s proposed. Al though I t h i n k t h a t someth ing could be done a t l e a s t wi th t h e 1871 census to l ink i t wi th l a t e r ones , I h a v e no t cons ide red i t i m p o r t a n t to t r y i t for t h i s paper , so t h a t I h a v e bound myself in c o n n e c t i n g t h e two most r e c e n t c e n s u s e s (1971 and 1981) to Vi ta l i ' s work and in d i s c u s s i n g some u n r e s o l v e d q u e s t i o n s . The most c ruc ia l i s sue to be faced when one w a n t s to compare c e n s u s e s i s t h e c e a s e l e s s a l t e r a t i o n in t h e c l a s s i f i ca t ion of occupa t i ons , main ly due to t h e d i f fe ren t ro le - and pe rcep t ion of such a role - t h a t c e r t a i n o c c u p a t i o n s a s sume wi th in soc ie ty a t d i f f e ren t po in t s in t ime. There a r e many examples . In t h e case of t h e foodstuffs and b e v e r a g e s i n d u s t r y , t h e a l loca t ion of manpower be tween p roduc t ion and r e t a i l t r a d e a c t i v i t i e s h a s of ten lacked prec is ion; sugar , a s well a s tobacco , h a v e long been inc luded in t h e chemical i n d u s t r i e s ; r epa i r shops of b icyc les , motorcyc les and ca r s were inc luded in t h e eng inee r ing i n d u s t r y up to t h e l a s t c e n s u s , when t h e y were moved to a ca t egory of t h e i r own; t h e p roduc t ion of p l a s t i c goods was p laced o r ig ina l ly in "o ther manufac tu r ing" and only r e c e n t l y was moved to t h e chemical i n d u s t r y ; t h e publ ic sec to r , too, shows many i ncohe r e n c e s t o g e t h e r wi th t h e p r i v a t e p e r s o n a l s e r v i c e s , a s educa t ion and h e a l t h h a v e moved i n c r e a s i n g l y from t h e l a t t e r to t h e former. One way of dea l ing with t h e s e i s s u e s is to assume one of t h e many c l a s s i f i c a t i ons as t h e r e f e r ence and to r e - c o n d u c t t h e o t h e r s , t o t h e b e s t o f one ' s j udgemen t , t o t h a t one . The choice should fall on an i n t e r m e d i a t e c l a s s i f i ca t ion , to e a s e t h e problems of homogeniza t ion of d a t a . In t h e case of I t a ly , I cons ider 1951 as t h e b e s t choice (and t h i s i s i n fac t t h e d a t e s e l ec t ed to rec lass i fy i n d u s t r i a l c e n s u s e s i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n ) . However, Vi ta l i decided to t a k e 1961 as t h e r e fe rence c l a s s i f i ca t ion for popu la t i on c e n s u s e s and I h a v e not t r i ed to a l t e r h is d a t a , g iven t h e a lmost co inc id ing n a t u r e of t h e 1951 and 1961 c l a s s i f i ca t ion . O the r specif ic i s s u e s a d d r e s s e d by Vital i concerned a v a r i e t y of c a u s e s of d i s c r epancy : i ) c h a n g e in b o u n d a r i e s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y t roublesome for t h e p r e - 1 9 2 1 c e n s u s e s , b e c a u s e of t h e need to use A u s t r i a n sources ) ; ii) inc lus ion of working ch i ld ren aged l e s s t h a n 10 in t h e 1881 and 1901 c e n s u s e s ( to be e l imina ted) ; iii) i n c o h e r e n t t r e a t m e n t of mi l i t a ry r e c r u i t s ; iv) impréc is ions incur red in t h e 1921 c e n s u s in c e r t a i n r eg ions ; v ) r e i n t r o duc t ion in t h e 1936 c e n s u s of t h e so ld ie rs t empora r i ly miss ing from t h e c o u n t r y as a r e s u l t of t h e E th iop ian war. Two major q u e s t i o n s however , remain u n t o u c h e d by such m a n i p u l a t i o n s of t h e d a t a : t h e c o h e r e n t e v a l u a t i o n of female l abour in t h e c o u n t r y s i d e and of female l abou r in t h e domest ic p roduc t ion of t e x t i l e s ( sp inn ing and weaving) for t h e family. The f i r s t q u e s t i o n had been add re s sed by t h e same s t a t i s t i c i a n a l r e a d y men t ioned in an e a r l i e r work of Vi ta l i (5), where he was able no t only to a s s e s s t h e e x i s t e n c e of a s u b s t a n t i a l u n d e r e v a l u a t i o n of t h e female l abour force in a g r i c u l t u r e up to t h e r e c e n t c e n s u s e s , e spec ia l ly in t h e sha rec ropp ing a r e a , b u t a l so to propose e s t i m a t e s o f i t , t h a t h a v e i n c r e a s e d t h e female and t o t a l a c t i v i t y r a t e s . (6) Such e s t i m a t e s a r e embodied in Vi ta l i ' s l a t e r work t h a t h a s been used h e r e . (7) The second ques t i on , a l r e a d y ra i sed in an e a r l i e r e s s a y of mine (8) h a s i n s t e a d remained u n t o u c h e d up to now. (9) The e a r l i e r I t a l i a n p o p u l a t i o n c e n s u s e s cons ide red female domest ic p roduc t ion of t e x t i l e s for t h e family a form of " i n d u s t r i a l " occupa t ion , i n f l a t i n g as a r e s u l t t h e f igures re fe r r ing to t h e " i n d u s t r i a l " l abou r force. While many o t h e r forms of domest ic i n d u s t r y were a lso inc luded in popu l a t i on c e n s u s e s , t h i s p a r t i c u l a r one b i a se s t h e d a t a s e r ious ly b e c a u s e i t was an a c t i v i t y aimed a t se l f -consumpt ion and no t to t h e marke t . Moreover, as p roduc t ion of t e x t i l e s was a f u n d a m e n t a l i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t y t h a t i n t h e XIX c e n t u r y w i tne s sed g r e a t t echno log ica l improvemen t s , ambiguous d a t a l ike t h e ones of I t a l i an popu la t ion c e n s u s e s do no t allow a co r rec t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t r e n d s . I t suff ices to ment ion t h a t , accord ing to t h e
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or ig ina l d a t a , t h e t e x t i l e s labour force declined from 1.337.108 u n i t s in 1881 to 783.253 u n i t s in 1901 , to r each 673.968 u n i t s in 1911 (a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e t ime, t h a t did no t change in t h i s per iod) . This in p resence of a s i zeab le boom in t h e co t ton and wool i n d u s t r i e s in t h e two decades a f te r t he i n t roduc t ion of t h e p r o t e c t i v e ta r i f f in 1887, boom t h a t is po r t r ayed in t ab l e 1. Between 1876 and 1911, co t ton sp ind les i nc r ea sed more t h a n 5 t imes and co t ton looms t h a n 10 t imes ; be tween 1876 and 1907, wool sp ind le s a lmost doubled and wool looms increased by 50%. I t is t r u e t h a t be tween 1876 and 1904, s i lk sp ind les ha lved and silk bas ins dec reased by 25% - which a re c lear s igns of t h e e x h a u s t i o n of t h e silk wave in sp i t e of t h e doubl ing of s i lk looms - bu t t h i s could not cause by i t se l f t h e enormous fall in t h e t e x t i l e l abour force r evea l ed by popu la t ion c e n s u s e s . The same d a t a assembled in t ab l e 1 shows qu i t e c lear ly , a l r e a d y in 1876, t h e g e o g r a phica l po la r i za t ion of t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y : silk was c o n c e n t r a t e d in Lombardia, co t ton in Lombard ia -P iemonte and wool in P i emon te -Vene to . Almost no mach ine ry ex i s t ed in t h e South , wi th t h e except ion of Campania. To propose an ad jus tment of popula t ion censuses d a t a re fe r r ing to t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y , I h a v e explored t h e r e l a t ion between popula t ion and i n d u s t r i a l c e n s u s e s over a long period of t ime. The r e s u l t s a re assembled in t a b l e 2. I t can be seen t h a t from t h e 1930s onwards t h e r e i s a s t a b l e r e l a t i onsh ip of t h e t y p e : i n d u s t r i a l c e n s u s / p o p u la t ion census JS 90%, while in t h e period before t h e 1st World War t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p did no t ex i s t . I t must be ment ioned t h a t t he two i n d u s t r i a l s u r v e y s before 1911 were not c e n s u s e s , b u t t h e y were qu i t e a c c u r a t e in te rms of inc lud ing t r u l y " i n d u s t r i a l " u n i t s and t h e i r r e s u l t s agree with all t h e q u a l i t a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e a v a i l a b l e on t h e deve lopment of t h e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y a t t h e t ime. I h a v e the re fore decided to p roduce an e s t i m a t e of t h e " indus t r i a l " l abour force in t e x t i l e s for 1881,1901 (10) and 1911 on t h e bas i s of t h e following procedure appl ied by regions : I h a v e t a k e n 110% of t h e i n d u s t r i a l c ensus f igure , to allow for some "physiological" d i sc repancy , w h e n e v e r t h i s did no t exceed t h e popu la t ion census figure (in which case , t he l a t t e r h a s been r e t a i n e d ) . Some of t h e s t e p s of t h i s e s t ima t ing procedure h a v e been r epo r t ed in t ab l e 3 , t o g e t h e r with a few e l abo ra t i ons of t h e r e s u l t s . I t can f i r s t of al l be no t i ced t h a t t h e ad jus ted t e x t i l e labour force r i ses from 346.912 u n i t s in 1881 to 441.018 u n i t s in 1901 and 535.592 u n i t s in 1911. The adjus ted s h a r e of t h e l abour force in m a n u f a c t u r i n g by reg ions (col. 10 and 12 of t ab l e 3) appea r s more in l ine wi th wha t is expec t ed . Let me make an ex t reme example: Calabr ia was (and is) t h e poores t of all t h e I t a l i a n reg ions , wi th some t r a d i t i o n in t h e product ion of raw silk t h a t in t h e second ha l f of t h e XIX c e n t u r y was , however , dying away. (11) No twi ths t and ing , t h e popu la t i on census of 1881 r eg i s t e r ed 224.002 employees in t e x t i l e s , of which 99% were women. This r a i sed t h e s h a r e of employment in manufac tu r ing on t o t a l to an inc red ib le 36.8%, much more t h a n t h e 25.6% of Lombardia, and t h e a c t i v i t y r a t e s to 62.9% ( a g a i n s t an I t a l i an a v e r a g e of 52.1%)! The adjus ted f igures bring the " indus t r i a l " employment in t e x t i l e s down to only 3.519 u n i t s (a t t h e boundar i e s of t h e t ime) , which de f l a t e s t h e s h a r e of employment in manufac tu r ing to 12.7% and t h e a c t i v i t y r a t e to 45.6%. We c a n n o t conclude , however , t h a t t he procedure used in t ab l e 3 y i e lds an implici t e s t i m a t e of reg iona l domest ic employment in t e x t i l e s , because i t i s v e r y l ike ly t h e case t h a t d i f fe ren t a r e a s of t h e coun t r i e s gave dif ferent answer s to t h e q u e s t i o n s of t h e popu la t ion s u r v e y , as it is s t rong ly sugges ted by an i n spec t ion of coll. 3 and 4 of t a b l e 3, and more women might h a v e been sp inning and weav ing at home in Lombardia t h a n t h e popu la t ion census in fact r evea led .
P a r t i c u l a r l y r emarkab le i s t h a t t he adjus ted f igures cance l t h e p r e v i o u s l y inexp l icab le fal l in i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t y between t h e 1881 and 1901 c e n s u s e s , a fall t h a t was p r a c t i c a l l y completely due to t h e behav iou r of t e x t i l e s and , being c o n c e n t r a t e d in t h e s o u t h , had induced some wr i te r s to t a lk of "de indus t r i a l i z a t i on" of t h e South . I t is now poss ib le to say t h a t i t was not a process of " d e i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n " t h a t took place b u t a g r a d u a l d i s a p p e a r a n c e of domestic i ndus t ry s u p p l a n t e d by foreign t e x t i l e s a t f i r s t and t h e n by t h e t e x t i l e s of n o r t h e r n i ndus t ry . (12)
TABLE 1: DATA ON THE MACHINERY EMPLOYED IN THE ITALIAN TEXTILE INDUSTRY, 1876-1911
SILK 1876 1904
number of / J t. number of basins spindles looms basins K 1 spindles looms (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
NOTES: (a) including Umbria (b) all these regions together had 17.355 spindles, or 3.5% of the total (c) all these regions together had 1.602 looms, or 12.8% of the total (d) 1913
TABLE 1: DATA ON THE MACHINERY EMPLOYED IN THE ITALIAN TEXTILES INDUSTRY, 1876-1911 (CONTIN.)
NOTES: (a) inc luding Umbria (b) al l t h e s e regions t oge the r had 17.355 sp ind le s , or 3.5% of t h e t o t a l (c) all t h e s e regions t oge the r had 1.602 looms, or 12.8% of t h e t o t a l (d) 1913
SOURCES: O. Vita l i , op.ci t . ; V. Zamagni, Indus t r i a l i zzaz ione e squ i l ib r i reg iona l i in I t a l i a , Bologna, Il Mulino, 1978; M. Romani, S tor ia economica d ' I t a l i a nel secolo XIX, v. II, Milano, Giuffre, 1976; V. El lena , "La s t a t i s t i c a di a lcune i n d u s t r i e i t a l i ane" , in: Annal i di S t a t i s t i c a , 2nd s e r i e s , v. 13, Rome, 1880.
Table 2: DATA ON THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY 1876-1981 (at the boundaries of the time)
Industrial Census Population Census (l)/(2) X 100 (1) (2) (3)
SOURCE: I n d u s t r i a l and popula t ion censuses ; for 1876, V. El lena , op.ci t ; for 1903 MAIC, Riassun to delle not iz ie su l le condizioni i n d u s t r i a l i del Regno Roma 1906, p a r t III.
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Tab le s A.l - A.6 of t h e Appendix repor t s ec to ra l f igures embodying al l the described a d j u s t m e n t s a t t h e n a t i o n a l l eve l for t h e 10 popu la t ion c e n s u s e s be tween 1881 and 1981 (in 1891 no c e n s u s was t a k e n ) and a t t he reg iona l l eve l for t h e 1881 , 1911, 1936, 1961 and 1981 c e n s u s e s . Out of t h e 10 s ec to r s cons idered , p e r h a p s t h e l a s t two, named r e s p e c t i v e l y "persona l s e r v i c e s " and "public a d m i n i s t r a t i o n " a r e t h e l e a s t c o h e r e n t . The r a t i o n a l e of t h e grouping "public admin i s t r a t ion" should be t h a t of i nc lud ing al l the publ ic ly suppl ied pe r sona l s e r v i c e s . However, as t h e cove rage of publ ic s erv ices changed over t ime, t h e dilemma faced by anybody who t r i e s to homogenize census f igures i s e i t h e r to s t i ck to t h e def in i t ion and inc lude in PA e n t i r e s e c t o r s previously l i s t ed u n d e r p e r s o n a l s e r v i c e s wheneve r t hey fall u n d e r publ ic con t ro l or to a s sume t h e de f in i t ion of PA e x i s t i n g at t h e re fe rence c e n s u s ( in t h i s c a s e 1961) and keep in PA only t h o s e s e c t o r s t h a t were public a t such d a t e . (13)
TABLE 3: ESTIMATION OF THE TEXTILES LABOUR FORCE IN 1881 AND 1911 AND AJUST-MENT OF POPULATION CENSUSES DATA.
Industrial Employment in textiles
1876 1911
(1) (2)
% Industrial Employment on population census employment
1876/1881 1911/1911
(3) (4)
Textiles labour force at present boundaries (Vitalis Data)
SOURCES: (1) V. El lena , op.ci t . (2) 1911 Indus t r i a l Census All o t h e r d a t a from O. Vita l i , op.cit ; for t h e p rocedure to e s t i m a t e (7) and (8), see t e x t .
In t h e former case , we would h a v e a coheren t def in i t ion of PA, and pe r sona l s e rv i ce s would become "p r iva t e pe r sona l se rv ices" , bu t r a t e s of growth of t h e agg rega t e s over t ime would be g r ea t l y d i s tu rbed . In t h e l a t t e r case , bo th groupings would become h y b r i d s wheneve r major changes in t h e degree of "publ icness" of pe r sona l s e rv i ce s would t a k e p lace . Now, in t h e 10 censuse s he re cons idered , changes in t h e coverage of PA were minor up to t h e 1981 census , which should inc lude in t h e PA of t h e h e a l t h s e rv i ce s passed unde r public control as a r e s u l t of t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e Nat iona l Hea l th Service in 1978. According to t h e fixed framework of r ec l a s s i f i ca t ion adopted in t h i s work, such a change h a s not been recorded and h e a l t h s e r v i c e s a re s t i l l embodied unde r t h e head ing "personal se rv ices" . A so lu t ion to t h e s e d i f f icul t ies would of course be to combine t h e two groupings in to one.
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TABLE 3: ESTIMATION OF THE TEXTILES LABOUR FORCE IN 1881 AND 1911 AND ADJUSTMENT OF POPULATION CENSUSES DATA (CONTINUE).
SOURCES: (1) V. El lena , op.ci t . (2) 1911 I n d u s t r i a l Census All o t h e r d a t a from O. Vi ta l i , op.ci t ; for t h e p rocedure to e s t i m a t e (7) and (8), see t e x t .
II. Industrial Censuses
I n d u s t r i a l c e n s u s e s s t a r t e d in I t a ly in 1911, a l t hough , a s we h a v e s e e n in t h e p r e v i o u s p a r a g r a p h , e a r l i e r s u r v e y s of i n d u s t r i a l employment and ho r se power i n s t a l l e d in c e r t a i n b r a n c h e s of i n d u s t r y do ex i s t . A close s c r u t i n y of t h e 1911 c e n s u s t h a t I conduc ted some y e a r s ago (14) r evea l ed q u i t e c lea r ly t h a t much work had to be done before a d iac ron ic use of i n d u s t r i a l c e n s u s e s could be made. This work of h o m o g e n i z a -t ion of d a t a h a s been now accomplished by t h e wr i t e r (15) with t h e only exc lus ion of change in b o u n d a r i e s (both a t t h e n a t i o n a l and a t t h e r eg iona l l eve l ) (16 ) . I t h a s , however , been poss ib le t o e s t i m a t e t h a t , a t t h e n a t i o n a l l eve l , t h e a r e a s added t o I t a l y a f t e r t h e 1st World War accoun ted in 1927 (17) for 3.8% of t o t a l employment and t h e a r e a s s u b t r a c t e d from I t a ly a f t e r t h e 2nd World War accoun ted in 1951 (18) for 1.7% of t o t a l employment . A rough ad jus tment of t h e n a t i o n a l l y a g g r e g a t e f igures to p r e s e n t b o u n d a r i e s would t he re fo re e n t a i l t h e add i t ion of 2 .1% employment to t h e 1911 f igures and t h e s u b t r a c t i o n of 1.7% employment from t h e two i n t e r w a r c e n s u s e s , 1927 and 1 9 3 7 - 3 9 . But s e c t o r a l and reg ional (19) ad jus tmen t s a r e obv ious ly much more complex.
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I n t e r - c e n s o r i a l changes in c lass i f i ca t ion of p rofess ions h a v e been e l imina ted a long t h e l i nes of wha t h a s been done for popu la t ion c e n s u s e s , t h e 1951 c l a s s i f i ca t ion being t a k e n as t h e re fe rence with minor ad jus tmen t s as a l r e a d y ment ioned . A problem h a s a r i s e n wi th t h e 1911 c e n s u s , because of i t s r equ i r emen t of s u r v e y i n g only u n i t s wi th two or more people a c t i v e in i t . This r equ i remen t , e v i d e n t l y i n t roduced to avoid t h e inc lus ion of domest ic work, was not r e t a i n e d in t h e s u b s e q u e n t c e n s u s e s , which c a u s e s some degree of incomparab i l i ty . An effort to dea l wi th t h i s problem h a s been made only a t t h e n a t i o n a l l eve l , adding an e s t ima te , produced on t h e bas i s o f l a t e r c e n s u s e s , of s ec to r a l employment in u n i t s with only one worker (see t a b l e A.7, 1911 (b)) . As a n t i c i p a t e d in t h e in t roduc t ion , i n d u s t r i a l c e n s u s e s s u r v e y e d t h e a c t u a l l abour force employed a t t h e d a t e of t h e s u r v e y (20) in i n d u s t r y and c ra f t s , d i s r ega rd ing u n e m ployment and all domestic employment even when produc t ion was no t for s e l f - c o n sumpt ion , bu t for c l i en t s , shops or firms. They g ive , t he re fo re , a much cohe ren t p i c t u r e of t h e evo lu t ion of - " i n d u s t r i a l " - employment proper t h a n popu la t ion c e n s u s e s do - in s p i t e of t h e ad jus tmen t s t h a t we h a v e in t roduced in t h e p reced ing p a r a g raph - at l e a s t up to 1981. To b e t t e r i l l u s t r a t e t h i s s t a t e m e n t and to gain some fu r the r i n s i g h t s on t h e n a t u r e of t h e popu la t ion c e n s u s e s (PCs) and of t h e i n d u s t r i a l c e n s u s e s (ICs), I propose some compar isons be tween t h e two. I t must be ment ioned in t h i s connec t ion t h a t t h e r e a re two ca se s in which ICs and PCs were not t a k e n at t h e same t ime and bo th happen to be in t h e i n t e rwa r y e a r s . Moreover, t h e second of t h e i n t e r w a r ICs was s t r e c h e d over t h r e e y e a r s - 1 9 3 7 - 3 9 - a l t hough most s ec to r s were s u r v e y e d in 1938, (21) and aimed a t recording employment a t t h e d a t e in which i t was s e a s o n a l l y h i g h e s t . The PC/IC comparabi l i ty for t h e i n t e r w a r - y e a r s is , t he re fo re , imperfect , p a r t i c u l a r l y for c e r t a i n s ec to r s , as we sha l l see l a t e r . The f i r s t comparison proposed h a s been worked out in t a b l e 4 . I t can be seen t h a t t h e coverage of PCs and ICs with r e l a t i on to t h e manufac tu r ing s ec to r s t e a d i l y conve rges , with only one case ou t of t r end , namely t h e 1 9 3 7 - 3 9 IC t h a t , as expec ted , is t he re fo re confirmed to h a v e been a more i nc lus ive census . I t is a l so poss ib le to show t h a t t h e sec to r s r e spons ib le for most of t h e d i sc repancy be tween PCs and ICs a r e p rec i se ly t h o s e where domest ic l abour and underemployment were more widespread . This can be seen in t ab l e 5, where t e x t i l e s , me ta l lu rgy (with t h e excep t ion of 1911), eng inee r ing , chemicals , b r i c k s - g l a s s - c e m e n t p roduc t ion show a h igh degree of c o i n c i dence be tween PCs and ICs. while c lo th ing , l e a t h e r and f u r n i t u r e show a v e r y low in i t i a l degree , though s t e a d i l y inc reas ing over t ime up to t h e 1981 c e n s u s , when t h e y converge towards a common p a t t e r n . (22) A spec ia l case is r e p r e s e n t e d by c o n s t r u c t i o n , where t h e d i sc repancy be tween PC and IC was enormous in 1911, bu t remained ve ry high a lso l a t e r . Beside t h e u s u a l , f a c t o r s of "domest ic" l abour (here r e p r e s e n t e d by s ingle workers doing mainly a p a r t m e n t s r epa i r s ) and of t empora ry
TABLE 4: SHARE OF ACTIVE POPULATION IN MANUFACTURING ACCORDING TO PC AND IC
IC (1)
PC (2)
(IC/PC) x 100 (3)
1911 1927/1931 1937-39/1936
12.7 14.2 16.7 17.3 22.5 28.1 29.8
18.6 19.2 19.5 22.3 26.8 32.2 30.7
68 74 86 78 84 87 97
1951 1961 1971 1981
SOURCES: TABLES A.l and A.7, with boundaries made compatible whenever needed.
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TABLE 5: SELECTED SECTORIAL COMPARISONS BETWEEN ICs AND PCs (IC/PC x 100 SELECTED DATES)
employment , o t h e r c a u s e s of d i sc repancy could be a widespread "black economy" , bo th in t h e form of i l legal s u b c o n t r a c t i n g t h a t permi t s firms to n o t dec l a r e p a r t of t h e i r workers and in t h e form of small a r t i s a n u n i t s no t dec l a r ing h e l p e r s . As i t was done for popu la t ion c e n s u s e s , I h a v e co l lec ted in a t a b l e of t h e Appendix ( t ab l e A.7) t h e r e s u l t s of al l t h e e l a b o r a t i o n s performed on t h e s e v e n i n d u s t r i a l c e n s u s e s o f unif ied I t a ly a t t h e n a t i o n a l l eve l , while four a d d i t i o n a l t a b l e s ( A . 8 -A . l l ) r epo r t r eg iona l b reakdowns for t h e 1911 ,1937/39 , 1961 and 1981 c e n s u s e s . The r ig id i ty of t h e 1951 re fe rence c lass i f i ca t ion does no t a p p e a r to h a v e produced much d i s loca t ion in t h e s e c t o r a l a g g r e g a t e s excep t for one c a s e . The p roduc t ion of p l a s t i c goods was p laced in 1951 in to "o ther manufac tu r ing" , be ing a small b r anch of u n c e r t a i n a f f i l i a t ion . I t t h e n became firmly connec ted wi th t h e chemical i n d u s t r y and i t i n c r e a s e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y , up to becoming in 1981 a b o u t 2% of t o t a l employment in m a n u f a c t u r i n g . I t s inc lus ion in o t h e r manufac tu r ing i n f l a t e s u n d u l y t h i s agg rega t e , whi le i t r e s t r i c t s t h e chemical i n d u s t r y ' s s h a r e of employment .
III. A Century of Change: The Unbalanced Pattern of Modernization of Italy
The c e n t u r y e lapsed be tween 1881 and 1981 did no t w i t n e s s a l a rge i n c r e a s e in t h e I t a l i a n l abour force (a t c o n s t a n t bounda r i e s ) , only 1/3 l a r g e r a t t h e end of t h e per iod, wi th p r a c t i c a l l y all t h e i n c r e a s e t a k i n g p lace in t h e f i r s t 50 y e a r s . This i s due to a no t too f a s t i n c r e a s e in popu la t ion (i t l e s s t h a n doub led) , coupled wi th a dec l ine in a c t i v i t y r a t e s , slow a t t h e beginning , rapid be tween 1936 and 1971 , wi th some s l igh t s ign of i n v e r s i o n of t h e t r end in 1981 (due to a h ighe r women p a r t i c i p a t i o n r a t e ) (see t a b l e A . l ) . The s e c t o r a l b reakdown of t h i s l abour force, i n s t e a d , changed d rama t i ca l l y , a l t hough much of t h i s change a p p e a r s c o n c e n t r a t e d in t h e second ha l f of t h e per iod. Ce r t a in ly t h e most impress ive fac tor of t h e change h a s been t h e s h r i n k i n g of t h e l abour force in a g r i c u l t u r e from 6 2 - 6 3 % of t h e a c t i v e popu la t ion to 11%. This , accompanied by a g r e a t l y i nc r ea sed o u t p u t of t h e sec to r , g ives an impress ive measu re no t only of t h e t echno log ica l improvement , bu t of t h e g r e a t amount of underemployment t h a t h a s
1911 1937-39/1936 1951 1961 1981
Textiles Metallurgy Engineering Chemicals Bricks, glass, etc.
75 52
1 1 7 ( a ) 82
91 77
100 98 84
90 81 76 90 85
90 83 82
1 0 9 ( a )
88 97 93
1 0 8 ( a )
Clothing Leather Furniture
29 46 56
50 60 63
55 65 63
62 77 72
96 1 0 1 ( a )
92
Construction 19 54 36 38 66
SOURCES: My e l a b o r a t i o n s from O. Vita l i , Aspe t t i e t c . , c i t . , Tab le A.7 and t h e 1981 Popula t ion Census .
NOTE: (a) These i n c o h e r e n t f igures a r e due to impréc i s ions in t h e inc lus ion of workers in t h e comparable c a t e g o r i e s .
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a lways ex i s t ed in I t a l i an ag r i cu l t u r e up to r e c e n t t imes . The downward t r e n d of a g r i c u l t u r a l employment proceeded in i t i a l ly by two s t e p s , one be tween 1901 and 1911, co r respond ing to t he boom in manufac tu r ing of t h e "Giol i t t ian era" , and t h e second be tween 1921 and 1931, implying an expans ion in p r a c t i c a l l y al l o t h e r s e c t o r s (with t h e excep t ion of manufac tu r ing , t h a t had to r ecover from a t empora ry r eg res s ion in 1921). I t l a t e r con t inued wi thou t i n t e r r u p t i o n s a t much f a s t e r r a t e s t h a n before 1931.
The expans ion of manufac tu r ing is no t so eas i ly dep ic ted . According to popu la t ion c e n s u s e s , a f te r t he boom of t h e f i rs t decade of t h e XXth c e n t u r y and t h e regress ion in 1921 , t h e r e a p p e a r s to be a n o t h e r jump forward be tween 1936 and 1951 , followed by an u n i n t e r r u p t e d i nc rea se up to 1971 and t h e n by a fall from 32.2% to 30.7% of t h e l abour force. I ndus t r i a l c e n s u s e s , however ( t ab le A.7), t e l l t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e in i n d u s t r i a l employment proper h a s been con t inuous from a round 13% of t h e a c t i v e popu la t i on in 1911 to 30% in 1981, ind ica t ing t h a t t h e f ac to r s r e spons ib l e for d i s t u r bing such a s t e ad i l y upward t r end in t h e popula t ion c e n s u s e s a r e to be ident i f ied in domest ic labour , unemployment and underemployment r a t h e r t h a n in more s t r u c t u r a l c a u s e s . The r a t e of expans ion of manufac tu r ing employment , in a n y case , a p p e a r s to h a v e been f a s t e r be tween 1951 and 1971 also in t h e i n d u s t r i a l c e n s u s e s . S t ick ing to t h e i n d u s t r i a l c ensuse s to a n a l y s e t h e composi t ion of manufac tu r ing employment , we can f i rs t of all obse rve t h a t t e x t i l e s r emained t h e most impor t an t b r anch of i n d u s t r y only up to t h e 1929 c r i s i s , while eng inee r ing , t h e second b ranch up to t h e n , r eached 25% of manufac tu r ing employment a l r e a d y in 1938 and t h e n con t inued to grow up to as much as 40% in 1981. If we add t h e s h a r e of employment in me ta l lu rgy , t h a t more t h a n doubled from 1.9% to 4.3% we h a v e in 1981 almost half of t h e manufac tu r ing labour force engaged in meta l and mach ine ry making. The o the r b ranch of modern i n d u s t r y t h a t we expec t to h a v e grown dur ing t h i s per iod, namely chemica ls , did in fact grow, bu t s t a r t i n g from a ve ry low l eve l of 2.6%. As I h a v e a l r e a d y ment ioned , i t i s no t cor rec t to conclude t h a t i t s growth s topped in 1961, g iven t h e inc lus ion of p l a s t i c goods in o the r manufac tu r ing , bu t c e r t a i n l y i t s most rap id period of growth is to be loca ted be tween 1927 and 1961 , when i t s s h a r e in m a n u f a c t u r i n g employment more t h a n doubled. The wellknown w e a k n e s s of t h e b ranch in I t a ly compared with t h e o the r i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s i s r e v e a l e d a lso by t h e s e gene ra l l y low employment f igures . On t h e o the r hand , t h e s h a r e of employment in t r a d i t i o n a l i n d u s t r i e s h a s decl ined, in a p a r t i c u l a r l y d r a s t i c way in t h e food and b e v e r a g e s b ranch (from 14% to 6.5%). I t might be no t iced , however , t h a t t h e decl ine in c lo th ing h a s no t been ve ry la rge , because of t h e conver s ion of such sec to r in t h e l a s t two decades to high qua l i t y product ion for t h e i n t e r n a l and foreign m a r k e t s . Coming back to popula t ion c e n s u s e s and d i s rega rd ing mining, n e v e r impor t an t in I ta ly , we can see t h a t publ ic u t i l i t i e s inc reased s t ead i ly , while c o n s t r u c t i o n shows a fall be tween 1881 and 1901, due to a se r ious cr i s i s of t h e s e c t o r t h a t produced much d i s loca t ion in t h e bank ing sec tor , t h e n s t a r t e d growing, a t a p a r t i c u l a r l y f a s t r a t e be tween 1936 and 1961, to end up with a fall in t h e l a s t decade . Here aga in if one would use t h e f igures of t h e i n d u s t r i a l census , t h e p i c t u r e would be s l i gh t ly di f ferent : a s u b s t a n t i a l i nc r ea se in t h e sec to r is loca ted in t h e ICs be tween 1927 and 1937/39 and t h e n in t h e 1950s, which makes more sense , while no fal l is r evea l ed in t h e 1970s. I t might be ment ioned in t h i s connec t ion t h a t in t h e l a s t decade t h e r e was a c t u a l l y a fall in cons t ruc t i on a c t i v i t y , which ce r t a in ly caused a fal l in t h e t o t a l l abour force a v a i l a b l e , bu t not in t h a t p a r t of t h e l abour force belonging to t h e more e s t a b l i s h e d and l a rge r firms reckoned in i n d u s t r i a l c e n s u s e s , t h a t on t h e c o n t r a r y rose 27% (23).
Some comments , f inal ly , on t h e se rv ice sec tor . Taken as a whole, t h e s e rv i ce s ec to r ' s s h a r e of t h e l abour force remained p rac t i ca l l y s t e a d y a round 17 - 18% up to 1921, i n c r e a s i n g at a r a t h e r slow pace up to 24.7% in 1951 and t h e n at a s t e a d i l y f a s t e r pace up to 47.4% - almost half of t h e l abour force - 1981 . Breaking t h e sec to r down in s u b s e c t o r s , one can see t h a t , while t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and bank ing employment shows a r a t h e r c o n t i n u o u s growth t h r o u g h o u t t h e c e n t u r y cons idered he re , (24) t h e r i se o f t he employment s h a r e of commerce- tour i sm and public a d m i n i s t r a t i o n is l a rge ly confined to
47
t h e pos t -Wor ld War II period, which is marked by an exp los ion of p r i v a t e consumpt ion p r e v i o u s l y v e r y compressed, and by t h e growth of t h e g o v e r n m e n t s e c t o r due to t h e diffusion of e d u c a t i o n (which is l a rge ly publ ic in I t a l y ) , t h e mu l t i p l i c a t i on of civi l s e r v a n t s (not beyond European l eve l s , however) and t h e e n l a r g e m e n t o f t h e welfare s e r v i c e s . The r a t h e r pecu l i a r b e h a v i o u r of t h e remain ing s u b s e c t o r of s e r v i c e s , namely p e r s o n a l s e r v i c e s , f l u c t u a t i n g a round 6 -7% up to 1971 and t h e n i n c r e a s i n g rap id ly , i s no t e a s i l y exp la ined a t t h i s l eve l of aggrega t ion of t h e d a t a , b e c a u s e t h e n a t u r e of p e r s o n a l s e r v i c e s h a s profoundly changed and old s e r v i c e s , l ike t h o s e offered by s e r v a n t s , h a v e been s u b s t i t u t e d by o t h e r k inds of s e r v i c e s - l a u n d r y , h a i r d r e s s i n g , b e a u t y shops - up to t h e r e c e n t boom in l e i su re s e r v i c e s coupled wi th t h e r i se of new s e r v i c e s to firms (sof tware , eng inee r ing projec ts , model l ing, a d v e r t i s i n g , and t h e l ike) (25) . The p r e v i o u s broad overv iew of t h e changes in t h e composi t ion of t h e I t a l i a n l abour force ove r t h e span of t h e l a s t 100 y e a r s would sugges t t h a t v e r y l i t t l e modern iza t ion took p lace before t h e 1930s. This conclus ion , however , h a s to be cons ide red too h a s t y for a c o u n t r y l ike I t a ly , where t h e geograph ica l po l a r i za t i on of i n d u s t r y in c e r t a i n a r e a s h a s been a l ongs t and ing f e a t u r e of economic growth . We mus t t u r n , t he re fo re , to a r eg iona l a n a l y s i s of PCs and ICs. 1881 is a good s t a r t i n g y e a r to o b s e r v e changes in t h e s t r u c t u r e of employment a t t h e reg iona l l eve l too (see t a b l e A.2). In fact , t h e reg iona l d i f f e r en t i a t i on ex i s t i ng a t t h a t d a t e i s s t i l l embryonic : Lombardia s t a n d s out a l r e a d y as h a v i n g more i n d u s t r i a l l abour force t h a n t h e a v e r a g e , Liguria more employment in commerce and t r a n s p o r t , Lazio more c iv i l s e r v a n t s (Rome), while t h e l i t t l e mining t h a t t h e r e ex i s t ed i s confined to Sici l ia ( s u l p h u r ) , Sa rdegna (zinc, lead) and T o s c a n a (marble , some iron ore in Elba i s l a n d ) . A g r i c u l t u r a l employment is p r e v a i l i n g e v e r y w h e r e : c e r t a i n reg ions show as much as 3/4 of t h e l abour force in a g r i c u l t u r e (Umbria, Abruzz i -Mol i se , Bas i l i c a t a ) ! The p i c t u r e in 1911 ( t ab l e A.3) r e v e a l s q u i t e c l ea r ly w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d meanwhi le : t h e N o r t h - W e s t a r e a o f t h e c o u n t r y (see c h a r t ) h a s a l r e a d y become t h e " i n d u s t r i a l t r i a n g l e " . Ano the r region, namely Toscana , a p p e a r s to h a v e a t t h a t d a t e a h ighe r t h a n a v e r a g e s h a r e of employment in i n d u s t r y , b u t ha l f of i t was in domest ic i n d u s t r y ( e spec ia l ly s t r aw process ing for h a t s ) , while only 1/4 of t h e employment in m a n u f a c t u r i n g of t h e i n d u s t r i a l t r i a n g l e is no t recorded in t h e IC (see t a b l e A.8), and can t h e r e f o r e be cons idered domest ic (or p r eca r i ous ) . The reg iona l b reakdown of t h e 1936 popu la t ion c e n s u s ( t a b l e A.4) , t o g e t h e r with t h e reg iona l b reakdown of t h e 1 9 3 7 - 3 9 i n d u s t r i a l c e n s u s ( t a b l e A.9) confirm t h a t no reg iona l change took p lace in t h e i n t e r w a r y e a r s , wi th t h e i n d u s t r i a l t r i a n g l e firmly e n t r e n c h e d in i t s l ead ing pos i t ion and t h e r e s t o f t h e c o u n t r y lagging beh ind , a l t hough c e r t a i n reg ions r e v e a l b e t t e r c apab i l i t i e s t h a n o t h e r r eg ions in d ive rs i fy ing from a g r i c u l t u r e . I t i s only with t h e 1961 c e n s u s (see t a b l e A.5 and A.10) t h a t someth ing new can be r e g i s t e r e d . While t h e i n d u s t r i a l t r i a n g l e a p p e a r s s t r e n g t h e n e d , wi th Liguria becoming more and more spec ia l ized in commerce - tour i sm and t r a n s p o r t , t h e i n d u s t r i a l t a k e - o f f of a l a rge p a r t of t h e N o r t h - E a s t - C e n t r e a r e a (namely Fr iu l i , Vene to , Emil ia -Romagna, Toscana ) i s an accomplished fac t . No i n d u s t r i a l s p u r t i s r e v e a l e d in t h e South where , wi th t h e excep t ion of Campania, t h e only region in t h e South t h a t h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y m a i n t a i n e d some i n d u s t r y (cfr. a l so t h e p reced ing c e n s u s e s ) , t h e s h a r e o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g l abour force remains v e r y low. However, some d ive r s i f i c a t i on of t h e s o u t h e r n reg ions from a g r i c u l t u r e can be obse rved . Some i n t e r e s t i n g r emarks a re f ina l ly cal led for th by t h e 1981 c e n s u s e s (cfr. t a b l e s A.6 and A . l l ) . I n d u s t r y h a s become s t r o n g e r in t h e N o r t h - E a s t - C e n t r e a r ea , no t only in t h e reg ions a l r e a d y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d by 1961, bu t a l so in Marche and Umbria. The only e x c e p t i o n s remain T ren t i no , where , however , t h e r e h a s been a boom of tour ism, and Lazio, where t h e predominance of s e r v i c e s ( espec ia l ly commerce and tour ism, pe r sona l s e r v i c e s and publ ic a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ) i s overwhelming. The phenomenon of t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n of t h e N o r t h - E a s t - C e n t r e a r e a h a s by 1981 a l r e a d y produced a v a s t amoun t of s t u d i e s where t h e t r a d i t i o n a l N o r t h - S o u t h c o n t r a s t h a s been modified in to a more complex p i c t u r e of " th ree I t a l i e s " . (26) The f i r s t - t h e i n d u s t r i a l t r i a n g l e - of
48
l o n g - s t a n d i n g i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n based on h e a v y i n d u s t r y and t e x t i l e s , with a p r e dominan t ly t a y l o r i s t c o rgan iza t ion of t h e labour force; t h e second - t h e N o r t h - E a s t -Cen t re - of more r ecen t i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , based on l igh t i n d u s t r y and m a c h i n e - t o o l , with a decen t r a l i zed and f lexible o rgan iza t ion of l abour (27); and t h e t h i rd - t h e South - s t i l l n o n - i n d u s t r i a l , in sp i t e of t h e la rge publ ic e f for t s to improve i t s lot .
The 1981 c e n s u s e s h a v e , however , made n e c e s s a r y a qua l i f i ca t ion of t h e s e conc lus ions wi th r e fe rence to t h e South. Out of t h e s even s o u t h e r n reg ions , two - Abruzzi and Pugl ia - show, in fact , c lear s igns of hav ing progressed r emarkab ly t owards i n d u s t r i a l i za t ion . There h a s been r e c e n t l y much i n t e r e s t in t h i s "Adr ia t ic way" to i n d u s t r i a l i za t ion (28) c o n t r a s t e d with t h e s t a g n a t i o n of t h e s o u t h e r n reg ions border ing on t h e T i r r e n i a n s ea and much of i t h a s been expla ined with t h e a b s e n c e a long t h e Adr ia t i c coas t of i l legal o rgan iza t ions such as t h e Mafia. (29) I t is in a n y case an e s t a b l i s h e d fac t t h a t t h e I t a l i an South is no longer a compact ly backward a r e a : t h e combined effects of emigra t ion , government i n t e r v e n t i o n , expans ion of tour i sm, i n d u s t r i a l growth and t h e u n e v e n p resence of i l legal o rgan iza t ions h a v e def in i t e ly b roken t h e " sou the rn ques t i on" in to s e v e r a l d i f fe rent ly shaped "ques t ions" . Leaving as ide for lack of space t h e more de ta i l ed a n a l y s i s t h a t can be made of t h e reg iona l s t r u c t u r e on t h e bas i s of t a b l e s A . 8 - A . 1 1 , some gene ra l conc lus ions can now be offered. As we h a v e seen , t h e f i rs t wave of i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n was exper ienced by I t a ly a l r e a d y before World War I in t he i n d u s t r i a l t r i a n g l e , bu t it invo lved such a l imited a r e a of t h e coun t ry t h a t n a t i o n a l f igures were ha rd ly af fec ted .Only in t h e 1930s t h e effects of such an i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n s t a r t e d sp read ing to some o t h e r a r e a s of t h e coun t ry , where p r e - c o n d i t i o n s were developed for an i n d u s t r i a l s p u r t t h a t a c t u a l l y took p lace a f t e r World War II, when marke t s - domestic and foreign - became more a b s o r p t i v e . The i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n of t h e N o r t h - E a s t - C e n t r e in t h e 1950s and 1960s has to be accoun ted , the re fore , as t h e second wave of i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n in I t a ly . But i t was only by t h e n t h a t I ta ly became an " indus t r i a l " coun t ry , b e c a u s e only by t h e n a s u b s t a n t i a l a r e a of t h e coun t ry was inc luded in t h e i n d u s t r i a l ba se and n a t i o n a l f igures were c lea r ly affected. Can we also t a lk of a t h i r d wave of i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n now u n d e r way in t he South? I t i s too ear ly to come to t h i s conclus ion , bu t m o v e m e n t s in such a d i rec t ion h a v e become a p p a r e n t a t l e a s t in c e r t a i n a r e a s of t h e sou th .
What is c e r t a i n l y t r u e is t h a t t h e process of modern iza t ion of I t a ly h a s proceeded by s u c c e s s i v e waves over such a long s t r e t c h of t ime t h a t t h e c e n t u r y cons idered in t h i s work does not encompass i t a l l . To embody new a r e a s in to t h e m o d e r n - i n d u s t r i a l complex h a s no t been an easy t a sk , b u t n e i t h e r h a s i t been an impossible one . Regional mobil i ty h a s proved to be poss ib le , a l t hough c e r t a i n reg ions , even a f te r a c e n t u r y , do not y e t show good precondi t ions to make such a mobi l i ty an a c t u a l i t y . If one would enqu i re abou t t h e main causes for t h i s profoundly reg iona l p a t t e r n of i n d u s t r i a l growth in I ta ly , i t would be n e c e s s a r y to r e s o r t to t h e medieva l exper ience of communs and t h e s u b s e q u e n t g r ea t d ivers i f i ca t ion of c iv i l i z a t i ons in t h e d i f ferent a r e a s o f t h e c o u n t r y to ident i fy t h e s u b s t r a t u m respons ib l e for t h e h ighly d e c e n t r a l i zed and unba lanced p a t t e r n of growth observed .
NOTES
(1) A p re l iminary vers ion of t h i s paper was p r e s e n t e d at t h e workshop on t h e "History of t h e sec to ra l employment in 20 th c e n t u r y Europe", Berlin, Fre ie U n i v e r s i t ä t , 1 2 - 1 3 May, 1986. I t h a n k all t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y Prof. Kaelble , for t h e i r useful comments. The computing a s s i s t a n c e by Feder ico Fur lan i and Marco Dazzi is g ra te fu l ly acknowledged.
49
(2) For s o u r c e s and comments , see V. Valli , L'economia e la po l i t i ca economica I t a l i a n a dal 1945 ad oggi. E t a s Libri , Milano, 1982.
(3) Cfr. Bol le t t ino del Lavoro e del la p r e v i d e n z a soc ia le for t h e 1920s and Bol le t t ino di no t i z i e economiche. 1 9 2 8 - 1 9 3 9 .
(4) O. Vi ta l i , A s p e t t i dello sv i luppo economico i t a l i a n o a l l a luce de l la r i cos t ruz ione de l la popolaz ione . Roma, Tip. Fai l l i , 1970. Demographers h a v e no t gene ra l l y been g r e a t l y i n t e r e s t e d in t h e employment a spec t ; see e.g. M. Livi Bacci, "I f a t t o r i demografici del lo sv i luppo economico", in G. Fua (ed . ) , Lo sv i l uppo economico in I t a l i a , v. II, Milano, Franco Angeli , 1969.
(5) O. Vi ta l i , La popolaz ione a t t i v a in a g r i c o l t u r a a t t r a v e r s o i c ens imen t i i t a l i a n i , Roma^Tip . Fa i l l i , 1968.
(6) Because t h e number of "housewives" be longing to t h e n o n - a c t i v e popu la t ion has been reduced cor responding ly .
(7) No ad ju s tmen t of female l abour in a g r i c u l t u r e h a s been done for t h e 1971 and 1981 c e n s u s e s , b e c a u s e t h e i naccu racy of t h e d a t a had d i s a p p e a r e d by t h e n .
(8) V. Zamagni, " I s t ruz ione e sv i luppo economico. Il caso i t a l i a n o 1 8 6 1 - 1 9 1 3 " , in G. Toniolo (ed . ) , L'economia i t a l i a n a 1 8 6 1 - 1 9 4 0 . Bari , La t e r za , 1978. In t h i s e s s a y I proposed to d i s r ega rd all female employment in t e x t i l e s , which was obvious ly a v e r y rough ad jus tmen t , l ack ing a b e t t e r way of removing t h e d i s t o r t i o n .
(9) O. Vi ta l i re fused to cons ider t h e ques t i on r e l e v a n t , p robab ly b e c a u s e h is i n t e r e s t s were na r rowly demographica l .
(10) The r e s u l t s for 1901 h a v e only been r epo r t ed in t h i s e s s a y a t t h e n a t i o n a l l eve l .
(11) A sign of t h i s t r a d i t i o n might be seen a lso in t h e h igh s h a r e of domest ic looms r e g i s t e r e d in Ca labr ia in both t h e 1876 and 1903 s u r v e y s (see coll . 15 and 16 of t a b l e 1).
(12) As I h a v e a rgued in my a r t i c l e "Cuest ión mer id ional o c u e s t i ó n nac iona l ? Algunas c o n s i d e r a c i o n e s sobre el desequ i l ib r io reg iona l en I t a l i a con e spec ia l r e fe renc ia a los anos 1 8 6 1 - 1 9 5 0 " , in Rev i s t a de His tor ia Economica. 1987, n . l , p . 20.
(13) This i s a c t u a l l y t h e so lu t ion adop ted h e r e for cohe rence wi th t h e r e s t o f t h e work. Publ ic a d m i n i s t r a t i o n inc luded , in 1961 , bes ide c e n t r a l and local civi l s e r v i c e , army and police, publ ic educa t i on and publ ic bodies for workers i n s u r a n c e , s p o r t s and l e i su re a c t i v i t i e s .
(14) See V. Zamagni, I ndus t r i a l i z zaz ione e t c . . c i t .
(15) With t h e he lp of a co l l abora to r , who h a s r e c e n t l y pub l i shed some of t h e r e s u l t s of t h e work: cfr. R. Ch iaven t i , " I cens imen t i i n d u s t r i a l i i t a l i a n i 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 5 1 : p roced imen t i d i s t a n d a r d i z z a z i o n e " , in Riv i s ta di s t o r i a economica. 1987, n o . l .
(16) The exc lus ion is r e g r e t t a b l y due to s h o r t a g e of funds .
(17) F i r s t i n d u s t r i a l c e n s u s a f t e r World War I.
(18) F i r s t i n d u s t r i a l c e n s u s a f t e r World War II.
50
(19) Regional changes were s u b s t a n t i a l for Lazio and Campania , and of some impor t a n c e for Emil ia-Romagna, Toscana , Umbria and Abruzz i -Mol i se be tween 1921 and 1931 and for Veneto a f te r World War II, because it s u r r e n d e r e d t h e p rov ince of Udine to F r i u l i - V e n e z i a Giulia, t h a t in t u r n los t much of i t s t e r r i t o r y to Yugoslavia as a r e s u l t of war e v e n t s . Nat ional changes (a f te r 1881) took place once as a r e s u l t of World War I (acquis i t ion of T r e n t i n o - A l t o Adige and F r i u l i -Venezia Giulia) and a second time af te r World War II ( loss of p a r t of F r i u l i -Venezia Giulia, as a l r eady ment ioned) .
(20) An a c c u r a t e s t u d y h a s been made on t h e poss ib le f ac to r s of d i s to r t i on due to t he changing d a t e s o f t h e c e n s u s e s , bu t i t h a s been concluded t h a t t h e s e a s o n a l choice made was a lways qu i t e wise and produced only a marg ina l impact on t h e q u a l i t y of t h e d a t a col lected. The only excep t ion is in t h e 1937/39 c e n s u s .
(21) This r a t h e r pecu l i a r choice was jus t i f i ed with t h e decis ion of devo t ing g r e a t care to t h e s u r v e y ope ra t i ons in p resence of a s ca r c i t y of means on t h e p a r t of t h e s t a t i s t i c a l office of t h e t ime. In fact , t h i s i s t h e f i r s t I t a l i an i n d u s t r i a l census t h a t col lected d a t a no t only on employment and horse power, b u t on p roduc t ion , v a l u e added and wages as well, and was ve ry a c c u r a t e in record ing small b u s i n e s s e s (domest ic employment was, however , s t i l l exc luded) .
(22) The foodstuffs and beve rages sec to r could not be compared b e c a u s e of t h e spec ia l t r e a t m e n t r e se rved by Vital i to such a sec to r , t h a t he slimmed down cons ide rab ly , t r a n s p o r t i n g much of i t s employment in to r e t a i l t r a d e . I t can, however , be not iced , observ ing t h e sequence of employment in i n d u s t r i a l c e n s u s e s a lone , t h a t t h e procedure used in t h e 1 9 3 7 - 3 9 c e n s u s r e v e a l e d much more s e a s o n a l employment t h a n u sua l , including a t l e a s t some 130.000 e x t r a workers .
(23) More a c c u r a t e f iscal cont ro ls might also h a v e inc reased t h e number of bui ld ing firms compelled to legal ize t h e i r s t a t u s and the re fo re to dec la re t h e i r " t rue" employment l eve l s .
(24) This s t e a d y growth accompanies t h e growth in manufac tu r ing and c o n s t r u c t i o n .
(25) The a p p e a r a n c e of t h e s e new t y p e s of s e rv i ce s to firms makes t h e head ing "persona l s e rv i ce s " no t a l t o g e t h e r correc t .
(26) Th i s h a s become a common express ion s ince t he pub l i ca t ion of t h e book by A. Bagnasco, Tre I t a l i e . La problemat ica t e r r i t o r i a l e dello sv i luppo i t a l i a n o , Bologna, Il Mulino, 1977.
(27) For an i n t e r e s t i n g desc r ip t ion and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e growth of t h e "second" I t a ly , see G. Fuà and C. Zacchia (eds . ) , I ndus t r i a l i z zaz ione senza f r a t t u r e . Bologna, Il Mulino, 1987.
(28) See among t h e many pub l i ca t ions , G. Lizzeri (ed.) , Mezzogiorno poss ib i le . Dati pe r un a l t r o sv i luppo . Milan, F. Angeli , 1983; E. Pontaro l lo , Tendenze del la n u o v a imprend i to r i a nel Mezzogiorno degli anni '70. Milan, F. Angeli , 1981; M. D 'Anton io , , I l Mezzogiorno degli ann i '80: dal lo sv i luppo imi t a t i vo allo sv i luppo a u t o c e n t r a t o . Milan, F. Angeli , 1985. I t i s no t i ceab le t h a t Abruzzi and Puglia h a v e overcome in te rms of s h a r e of manufac tu r ing employment t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l y more i n d u s t r i a l Campania.
(29) On t h e n e g a t i v e impact upon the local economy of t h e p r e sence of mafia, see P. Ar lach i , La mafia imprendi t r ice . L 'et ica mafiosa e lo sp i r i t o del cap i ta l i smo. Bologna, Il Mulino, 1983.
51
APPENDIX
The t a b l e s a p p e a r i n g in t h i s append ix a re my e l a b o r a t i o n s based on t h e following s o u r c e s :
R. CHIAVENTI (1987) , "I c ens imen t i i n d u s t r i a l i i t a l i a n i : 1911 - 1951: p roced iment i di s t a n d a r d i z z a z i o n e " , R iv i s t a d i s t o r i a economica, n . l .
O. VITALI (1970) , A s p e t t i del lo sv i luppo economico i t a l i a n o a l l a luce de l la r i c o s t r u zione de l la popolaz ione a t t i v a , Roma, Tip. Fai l l i .
11 Cens imento g e n e r a l e de l la popolaz ione , 24 o t t o b r e 1971 , Roma, 1977. 12 Cens imento g e n e r a l e de l la popolazione, 25 o t t o b r e 1981, Roma, 1985. Cens imento degl i opifici e de l le imprese i n d u s t r i a l i al 10 giugno 1911, Roma 1 9 1 3 -
1914. Cens imento degli e se rc iz i i n d u s t r i a l i e commerciali al 15 o t t o b r e 1927, Roma 1932. Cens imento i n d u s t r i a l e e commerciale 1 9 3 7 - 4 0 , Roma 1932. Cens imento g e n e r a l e d e l l ' i n d u s t r i a e del commercio, 15 nov. 1951 Roma. Cens imento g e n e r a l e d e l l ' i n d u s t r i a e del commercio, 16 o t t o b r e 1961, Roma 1965. Cens imento g e n e r a l e d e l l ' i n d u s t r i a e del commercio, 25 o t t o b r e 1971, Roma 1975. Cens imento g e n e r a l e d e l l ' i n d u s t r i a , del commercio, dei s e rv iz i e d e l l ' a r t i g i a n a t o , 26
o t t o b r e 1981 , Roma 1985.
CONVERSION TABLE FOR POPULATION CENSUSES
The t a b l e s of conve r s ion r e l a t i v e to t h e 1 8 8 1 - 1 9 5 1 c e n s u s e s a p p e a r in O. Vitel i , A s p e t t i e t c . , c i t . , pp . 2 2 1 - 2 3 5 .
1971 Census
1961 c l a s s i f i ca t i on 1971 c lass i f i ca t ion
1 - 2 - 3 I n d u s t r i a l Tr iang le - North West 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 6 - 7 North 4 - 5 - 6 - 7 N o r t h - E a s t 8 - 9 - 1 0 - 1 1 Cent re 1 2 - 1 3 - 1 4 - 1 5 - 1 6 - 1 7 - 1 8 South
1. P iemonte - Val d 'Aos ta 10. Umbria 2. Liguria 11. Lazio
CO Lombardia to
Campania 4. T r e n t i n o - Alto Adige 13. Abruzz i -Mol ise 5. Vene to 14. Puglia 6. Fr iu l i - Venezia Guilia 15. Bas i l i ca ta 7. Emi l ia -Romagna 16. Calabr ia 8. Marche 17. Sicil ia 9. Toscana Sardegna
T A B L E Ä . l : P O P U L A T I O N C E N S U S E S 1 8 8 1 - 1 9 8 1 ( A T P R E S E N T B O U N D A R I E S , 1 9 6 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N )
I . A B S O L U T E F I G U R E S
1881
1. Agriculture 9.432.597 CXI Mining 66.566 3. Manufacturing 2.443.470(a) 4. Construction 613.257 LT) Electricity, gaz, water 1.483 6. Commerce and tourism 899.749 7. Transports, Communications 383.161
OO Credit, Insurance 22.599
9. Personal Services 1.088.306 10. Public Administration 289.144 11. Total active
Population 15.240.332(a)
12. % Total Population 52.1(a)
1936
1. Agriculture 10.502.913 2. Mining 126.552 3. Manufacturing 3.926.449 4. Construction 1.042.646 5. Electricity, gaz, water 70.270 6. Commerce and tourism 1.622.783 7. Transports, Communications 708.012 8. Credit, Insurance 97.904 9. Personal Services 1.421.514
10. Public Administration 688.858 11. Total active
T A B L E A . l : P O P U L A T I O N C E N S U S E S 1 8 8 1 - 1 9 8 1 ( A T P R E S E N T B O U N D A R I E S , 1 9 6 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N )
I I . P E R C E N T A G E C O M P O S I T I O N
1881
1. Agriculture 61.8 2. Mining 0.4
LO Manufacturing 16.0
4. Construction 4.0 5. Electricity, Gaz, Water 0.1 6. Commerce and Tourism 5.9 7. Transports, Communications 2.5 co Credit, Insurance 0.2 9. Personal Services 7.2
T A B L E A . 2 : 1 8 8 1 P O P U L A T I O N C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( A T P R E S E N T B O U N D A R I E S , 1 9 6 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N ) .
T A B L E A . 2 : 1 9 8 1 P O P U L A T I O N C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( A T P R E S E N T B O U N D A R I E S , 1 9 6 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N ) .
T A B L E A . 3 : 1 9 1 1 P O P U L A T I O N C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( A T P R E S E N T B O U N D A R I E S , 1 9 6 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N ) .
T A B L E A . 3 : 1 9 1 1 P O P U L A T I O N C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( A T P R E S E N T B O U N D A R I E S , 1 9 6 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N )
T A B L E A . 3 : 1 9 1 1 P O P U L A T I O N C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( A T P R E S E N T B O U N D A R I E S . 1 9 6 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N )
T A B L E A . 4 : 1 9 3 6 P O P U L A T I O N C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( A T P R E S E N T B O U N D A R I E S , 1 9 6 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N ) .
T A B L E A . 4 : 1 9 3 6 P O P U L A T I O N C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( A T P R E S E N T B O U N D A R I E S , 1 9 6 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N )
I . A B S O L U T E F I G U R E S
Credit Personal Public Total Total Insurance Services administra labour for Population (8) (9) tion (10) ce (11) (12)
T A B L E A . 4 : 1 9 3 6 P O P U L A T I O N C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( A T P R E S E N T B O U N D A R I E S , 1 9 6 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N )
T A B L E A . 4 : 1 9 3 6 P O P U L A T I O N C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( A T P R E S E N T B O U N D A R I E S , 1 9 6 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N )
I I . P E R C E N A T G E C O M P O S I T I O N
Credit Personal Public Total Insurance Services administra labour (8) (9) tion (10) force (11)
T A B L E A . 7 : I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S E S 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 8 1 ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )
16. Mining 98.362 99.362 98.778 137.404 17. Construction 128.182 134.279 331.386 558.544 co Electricity, Gaz 34.187 35.128 58.502 42.221
water
19. Industry, Total 2.304.402 2 .491.140 3.289.854 4.169.917
( a ) e x c l u d i n g u n i t s w i t h 1 w o r k e r ( b ) i n c l u d i n g u n i t s w i t h 1 w o r k e r
T A B L E A . 7 : I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S E S 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 8 1 ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )
16. Mining 118.662 104.150 78.788 67.245 17. Construction 532.055 894.407 997.534 1.264.609 18. Electricity, Gaz 92.964 116.046 155.156 177.124
water
19. Industry, Total 4.241.901 5.610.187 6.531.164 7.543.250
T A B L E A . 7 : I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S E S 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 8 1 ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )
I I . P E R C E N T A G E F I G U R E S 1911 1927 1937-39
19. as a% of active population — 14.3(c) 16.6(c) 20.3(c)
( a ) e x c l u d i n g u n i t s w i t h 1 w o r k e r ( b ) i n c l u d i n g u n i t s w i t h 1 w o r k e r ( c ) t h e a d j u s t m e n t s u g g e s t e d i n t h e t e x t h a s b e e n m a d e t o e l i m i n a t e t h e e f f e c t s
o f c h a n g e i n b o u n d a r i e s ; t h e s e p e r c e n t a g e s , t h e r e f o r e , a r e r e f f e r e d t o p r e s e n t b o u n d a r i e s .
T A B L E A . 7 : I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S E S 1 9 1 1 - 1 9 8 1 ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )
CTi 1.2 0.9 17. Construction 12.5 15.9 15.3 16.8 18. Electricity, Gaz 2.2 2.1 2.4 2.3
water
19. Industry, Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
15. as a% of active popu 17.3 22.5 28.1 29.8 lation
19. as a% of active popu 20.9 28.0 34.7 37.3 lation
T A B L E A . 8 : 1 9 1 1 I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )
I . A B S O L U T E F I G U R E S
Food, Tobacco Leather, Textiles Clothing Furniture Paper Printing, Metal Engineering beverages shoes photography Food, Tobacco Leather, Textiles Clothing Furniture Paper Printing, Metal Engineering beverages shoes photography
T A B L E A . 8 : 1 9 1 1 I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )
I . A B S O L U T E F I G U R E S
Bricks, Chemi Rubber Other TOTAL Mining Construc Public TOTAL glass, cals MANUFAC
T A B L E A . 8 : 1 9 1 1 I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )
I I . P E R C E N T A G E C O M P O S I T I O N
Food, Tobacco Leather, Textiles Clothing Furniture Paper Printing, Metal Engineering beverages shoes photography
T A B L E A . 8 : 1 9 1 1 I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )
I I . P E R C E N T A G E C O M P O S I T I O N
Bricks, Chemi Rubber Other TOTAL Mining Construc Public TOTAL glass, cals MANUFAC tion Utilities tyles TURING
T A B L E A . 9 : 1 9 3 7 - 3 9 I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )
I . A B S O L U T E F I G U R E S
Food, Tobacco Leather, Textiles Clothing Furniture Paper Printing, Metal Engineering beverages shoes photography
T A B L E A . 9 : 1 9 3 7 - 3 9 I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )
I . A B S O L U T E F I G U R E S
Bricks, Chemi Rubber Other TOTAL Mining Construc Pubiic TOTAL glass, cals MANUFAC
T A B L E A . 9 : 1 9 3 7 - 3 9 I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )
I I . P E R C E N T A G E C O M P O S I T I O N
Food, Tobacco Leather, Textiles Clothing Furniture Paper Printing, Metal Engineering beverages shoes photography
T A B L E A . 9 : 1 9 3 7 - 3 9 I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )
I I . P E R C E N T A G E C O M P O S I T I O N
Bricks, Chemi Rubber Other TOTAL Mining Construc Public TOTAL glass, cals MANUFAC
T A B L E A . 1 0 : 1 9 6 1 I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )
I . A B S O L U T E F I G U R E S
Food, Tobacco Leather, Textiles Clothing Furniture Paper Printing, Metal Engineering beverages shoes
T A B L E A . 1 0 : 1 9 6 1 I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )
I . A B S O L U T E F I G U R E S
Bricks, Chemi Rubber Other TOTAL Mining Construc Public TOTAL glass, cals MANUFAC
T A B L E A . 1 0 : 1 9 6 1 I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )
I I . P E R C E N T A G E C O M P O S I T I O N
Food, Tobacco Leather, Textiles Clothing Furniture Paper Printing, Metal Engineering beverages shoes photography
T A B L E A . 1 0 : 1 9 6 1 I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )
I I . P E R C E N T A G E C O M P O S I T I O N
Bricks, Chemi Rubber Other TOTAL Mining Construc Public TOTAL glass, cals MANUFAC
Mining tion Utilities
tyles TURING
1. Piemonte-Val d'Aosta 3 59
3.97 1.69 1 26
85.72 0.91 11 65
1.71 100.00 2. Liguria 4
69 7.46 0.27 0.65 73.74 1.00 22
94 2.32 100.00 CO Lombardia 3
42 6.60 1.58 2
23 86.59 0.61 11
24 1.56 100.00
4. Trentino Alto Adige 3 82
2.21 0.16 0 91
65.27 3.68 26 49
4.56 100.00 5. Veneto 7
92 4.21 0.26 1
73 79.76 1.24 17
01 1.99 100.00
6. Friuli Venezia Giulia 4 42
2.56 1.03 0 44
76.66 1.40 20 34
1.60 100.00 7. Emi 1ia-Romagna 7
32 4.23 0.77 1
08 77.58 0.96 19
71 1.75 100.00
8. Marche 7 29
2.05 0.31 5 71
76.77 1.34 20 04
1.84 100.00 9. Toscana 10
33 3.87 0.41 0
58 79.85 4.65 14
21 1.29 100.00
10. Umbria 9 02
9.53 0.23 0 19
77.30 2.17 18 01
2.52 100.00 11. Lazio 6
79 6.38 0.80 0
46 70.11 2.07 24
39 3.43 100.00
12. Campania 6 73
3.64 0.30 0 85
79.58 1.32 16 15
2.95 100.00 13. Abruzzi-Molise 10
19 1.51 0.26 0
27 69.26 2.57 25
44 2.73 100.00
14. Puglia 4 91
1.45 0.25 0 30
73.53 3.83 19 35
3.24 100.00 15. Basi 1icata 4
31 0.60 0.10 0
03 53.38 2.08 40
76 3.79 100.00
16. Calabria 7 25
2.40 0.32 0 38
67.87 2.11 26 98
3.04 100.00 17. Sicilia 8
05 4.79 0.25 0
19 69.35 6.79 19
74 4.11 100.00
CO Sardegna 7
25 0.82 0.20 0
27 51.93 18.95 24
95 4.16 100.00
T A B L E A . 1 1 : 1 9 8 1 I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )
I . A B S O L U T E F I G U R E S
Food, beverages
Tobacco Leather, shoes
Textiles Clothing Furniture Paper Printing, photograph;
T A B L E A . 1 1 : 1 9 8 1 I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )
T A B L E A . 1 1 : 1 9 8 1 I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )
I I . P E R C E N T A G E C O M P O S I T I O N
Food, Tobacco Leather, Textiles beverages shoes Food, Tobacco Leather, Textiles Clothing Furniture Paper Printing, Metal Engineering beverages shoes photography
T A B L E A . 1 1 : 1 9 8 1 I N D U S T R I A L C E N S U S B Y R E G I O N S ( 1 9 5 1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N , A T T H E B O U N D A R I E S O F T H E T I M E )