Page 1
A CASE STUDY OF LEARNER LANGUAGE ON WRITTEN
REFLECTION OF BAHASA INGGRIS I CLASS B STUDENTS
IN THEOLOGY FACULTY SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By:
Aloysia Berlindis Lasar
Student Number: 121214154
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM
DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION
FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
YOGYAKARTA
2016
PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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A Sarjana Pendidikan Thesis on
A CASE STUDY OFLEARNER LANGUAGE ON WRITTEN REFLECTION OF
BAHASA INGGRIS I CLASS B STUDENTS INTHEOLOGY FACULTY SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
ByAloysia Berlindis Lasar
Student Number: 121214154
Approved by:
Advisor
\
Markus Budirahatjo, MEd., Ed.D.
11
4 May 2016
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A Sarjana Pendidikan Thesis on
A CASE STUDY OFLEARNER LANGUAGE ON WRITTEN REFLECTION OF
BAHASA INGGRIS I CLASS B STUDENTS INTHEOLOGY FACULTY SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
ByALOYSIA BERLINDIS LASAR
Student Number 121214154
Defended before the Board ofExaminersOn 1 June 2016
and Declared Acceptable
Board of Examiners
D E S MH ~-'/~I: r. . unarto, . urn. I'
: Christina Lhaksmita Anandari, S.Pd., Ed.M.~
: Christina Lhaksmita Anandari, S.Pd., Ed.M.
: Paulus Kuswandono, Ph.D.Chairperson
Secretary
Member
Member
Member : Markus Budiraharjo, M.Ed., Ed.D.
Yogyakarta, 1 June 2016
Faculty of Teacher Training and EducationSanata Dharma University
.Deanr--
// ,~~, ,~(;. ~.i' ':;1 "'.;! .. " """y'-~"~'A II
~... :~~/ ..Y~,.~ .:: ~:~_ "..:" _ 7
':'.. ~~ ,Rohandi, Ph.D'.11l
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The greatest victory is
to beat yourself
I dedicate this Thesis for my incredible Mom and Dad,
Oncu de Rozari & Yos Lasar,
also
my heart guardians,
Mario Lasar and Pedro Lasar.
I, too,
present this as special “thanks!”
to the one I give my heart to, Dion Lamanepa
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STATEMENT OF WORK'S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work
or parts of the works of other people, except those cited in the quotation and the
references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, 1 June 2016
The Writer
Aloysia Berlindis Lasar
121214154
v
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LEMBAR PERSETUJUAN PUBLlKASI
KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS
Yang bertandatangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dhanna:
Nama : Aloysia Berlindis Lasar
Nomor Mahasiswa : 121214154
Demi pengembangan i1mu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan
Universitas Sanata Dhanna karya i1miah saya yang berjudu1:
A CASE STUDY OFLEARNER LANGUAGE ON WRITTEN REFLECTION OF
BAHASA INGGRIS I CLASS B STUDENTS INTHEOLOGY FACULTY SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
~
Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan
kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dhanna hak untuk menyimpan,
menga1ihkan dalam bentuk media lain, menge101anya da1am bentuk pangkalan
data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau
media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya atau
memberikan royalti kepada saya se1ama tetap mencantumkan nama saya selaku
penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.
Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tangga1: 1 Juni 2016
Yang menyatakan
Aloysia Berlindis Lasar
VI
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ABSTRACT
Lasar, Aloysia Berlindis. (2016). A Case Study of Learner Language on Written
Reflection of Bahasa Inggris I Class B Students in Theology Faculty – Sanata
Dharma University. English Language Education Study Program, Department of
Language and Arts Education, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education,
Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.
Students of Theology Faculty in Bahasa Inggris I class B are considered
as second language learners. In that class, they were assigned to write reflections
related to topics discussed every two weeks. Using the writings, the researcher
analyzed learner language as defined by Ellis (2005). In writing a reflection, one
needs to use past tense appropriately so the message and values can be well
delivered. Using error analysis theory, this research elaborated learner language
further in order to complete the description with focus on errors of past tense
made by the students.
There were two questions to be answered. There were 1) how are the
written reflections of Bahasa Inggris I class B best described? and 2) to what
extent did the students’ personal experiences demonstrate their mastery of using
past tense as seen in the writing performance?
The research used qualitative inquiry. It was in a form of case study in
students of Bahasa Inggris I class B’s ten sets of writings as the sample of learner
language. To answer the first research question, a rubric of writing assessment
was used. In order to complete the description with specific focus of students’
mastery in using past tense, theory of error analysis also was used. To answer the
second research question, the researcher used interview as the data gathering
technique. In analyzing the data of interview, the researcher referred to notion of
source of errors proposed by Brown (1980).
The findings of this research were the description of the writings
completed with the result of error analysis in past tense and the analysis of
interview result. The description showed that these students achieved the lowest
point in terms of accuracy. The error analysis showed that most of them made
error in using form. As the confirmation, the analysis of interview result
elaborated that learners’ mother tongue, limited competencies in the target
language and context of language teaching that they had ever experienced impact
to the error making.
Keywords: learner language, written reflection, students of Bahasa Inggris I class
B, past tense, personal experience
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ABSTRAK
Lasar, Aloysia Berlindis. (2016). A Case Study of Learner Language on Written
Reflection of Bahasa Inggris I Class B Students in Theology Faculty – Sanata
Dharma University. Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan
Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan,
Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Mahasiswa di Bahasa Inggris I Kelas B Fakultas Teologi memelajari
bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua. Di kelas tersebut, mereka diberi tugas
membuat refleksi tertulis berdasarkan tema-tema yang didiskusikan di kelas
setiap dua minggu sekali. Menggunakan tulisan-tulisan tersebut sebagai obyek,
peneliti menganalisis bahasa pelajar berdasarkan definisi yang diperkenalkan
Ellis (2005). Dalam menulis refleksi, penggunaan past tense harus tepat agar
pesan dan nilai refleksi bisa tersampaikan dan dimengerti dengan baik. Dengan
menggunakan teori analisis kesalahan, penelitian ini juga mengelaborasi lebih
jauh bahasa pelajar untuk mendukung deskripsi tersebut. Penjelasan itu
kemudian difokuskan pada kesalahan penggunaan past tense yang ditemukan
dalam tulisan-tulisan tersebut.
Dalam penelitian ini, ada dua rumusan masalah: 1) Bagaimana refleksi
tertulis mahasiswa Bahasa Inggris I Kelas B di Fakultas Teologi dideskripsikan?
dan 2) Sejauh mana pengalaman pribadi para mahasiswa tersebut dalam belajar
bahasa Inggris mendemonstrasikan pemahaman mereka tentang penggunaan past
tense seperti yang tercermin dalam tulisan-tulisan tersebut?
Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif dalam bentuk studi
kasus terhadap sepuluh set refleksi tertulis dari para mahasiswa di kelas B
Bahasa Inggris I sebagai sampel dari bahasa pelajar. Untuk menjawab
pertanyaan pertama, peneliti menggunakan sebuah rubrik untuk mengevaluasi
tulisan-tulisan tersebut lalu kemudian dideskripsikan. Hasil analisis kesalahan
pada penggunaan past tense kemudian melengkapi deskripsi tersebut. Untuk
menjawab pertanyaan kedua, peneliti melakukan wawancara. Untuk menganalisis
hasil wawancara, peneliti merujuk pada konsep mengenai faktor penyebab
kesalahan yang dijabarkan oleh Brown (1980).
Temuan dari penelitian ini adalah deskripsi lengkap dengan hasil analisis
kesalahan yang ditemukan dari tulisan-tulisan tersebut dan analisis pada hasil
wawancara. Deskripsinya menunjukkan bahwa performa dalam hal grammar
pada tulisan-tulisan ini merupakan yang terendah. Hasil analisis kesalahan pada
penggunaan past tense menunjukkan bahwa kesalahan terbanyak dilakukan
dalam penggunaan bentuk past. Sebagai buktinya, analisis pada hasil wawancara
menunjukkan bahwa bahasa ibu, keterbatasan pemahaman konsep bahasa kedua
dan konteks pembelajaran bahasa Inggris yang pernah diterima dan dialami para
mahasiswa berpengaruh besar terhadap kesalahan yang mereka lakukan.
Kata kunci: learner language, written reflection, students of Bahasa Inggris I
class B, past tense, personal experience
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Above all, I praise the Almighty God, Jesus Christ, Holy Spirit and
Mother Mary for the wonderful grace and unstoppable blessings upon my life. I
dedicate this as the biggest thank to my incredible parents, ema Oncu de Rozari
and bapa Yos Lasar for the irreplaceble love, care and sacrifice for me. My
thankfulness also goes to my beloved little brothers, Ais and Edo, for their
prayers, spirits and love, especially during the process of finishing my study. My
special gratitude also goes to tta Dion Lamanepa, for his love, presence and
‘lessons’ of how to be faith and tough. I believe that God’s blessing has been
granted for me within the presence of Bapa Romo Datus Du’u, Pr., Om Romo
Richardus Muga Buku, Pr., Bapu Anton Tukan and family, Bapa Ambar
Hadipurnomo and family, and Kaka Romo Yance Sengga, Pr. I highly thank
their super love and support during my study.
It is an honor to have Mr. Markus Budiraharjo, M.Ed., Ed.D., as my
thesis advisor so I dedicate my major gratitude for his precious and meaningful
guidance from the very beginning of my thesis writing process. I am deeply
grateful also for having Miss Laurentia Sumarni, S.Pd., M.Trans. St., as my
academic advisor. She has spent her bunch of precious time to take care of and
love me. I also grant my deep appreciation to all lecturers of PBI Sanata
Dharma University. I am blessed to be the part of this big family and to get the
chance of being their student. I would like to adress my great thankfulness also to
all students of Bahasa Inggris I class B, Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma
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University, academic year 2015/2016, especially for Fr. Nade, SSCC., Fr. Lius,
CMF and Fr. Jorgi, SCJ. May God always be with them.
I thank my constant companions in PBI ’12 Class F for accepting and
supporting me so my dream of being a teacher has grown very well. For all
members of English Mass Community and Campus Ministry I dedicate my
deep gratitude for giving me chance to grow better as a person. I also would like
to present my thankfullness to all members of Badan Eksekutif Mahasiswa
Universitas Sanata Dharma Kabinet Menyala and the whole committee of every
event we had held in unforgottable togetherness. I learned how to be a leader and
‘a man for all’ from all of them. I address my appreciation and thankfulness also
to the big family of Flobamorata Paingan USD, where sweet memories,
unforgotten love and meaningful experiences I found. I thank to all members of
Rejoice Choir for boosting my mood and spirit everytime I am lost. For all my
friends in Kuliah Kerja Nyata, Program Pengalaman Lapangan, Titanium
SPD class, and Thesis class, I blow my special thanks also for standing beside
me through the whole process. All crew of English Action Days, Undergraduate
Conference, PROCESS 2013/2014, Gerakan 6000 Buku, would always remind
me the meaning of being a servant whole-heartedly so I thank them deeply. Last
but not least, I will never forget the presence of a true friend within Vania. I thank
her for her support and never ending patience upon me these years.
Finally, I would like to express my appreciation and gratitude for those
who had helped me during my study and living in Yogyakarta, whose name
cannot be mentioned one by one in here. All of them had painted beautiful
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pictures and written incredible stories in my life. I hope all of them still will be the
proofreaders for the living book I am writing. May God bless them all.
Sincerely,
Aloysia Berlindis Lasar
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE ................................................................................................ i
APPROVAL PAGES .................................................................................... ii
DEDICATION PAGE ................................................................................... iv
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ........................................... v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ......................... vi
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................... vii
ABSTRAK ....................................................................................................... viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................... ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................. xii
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................ xv
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................... xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES .............................................................................. xvii
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION
A. Research Background .......................................................................... 1
B. Research Problems .............................................................................. 5
C. Problem Limitation ............................................................................. 6
D. Research Objectives ............................................................................ 6
E. Research Benefits ................................................................................ 7
F. Definition of Terms ............................................................................. 8
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CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Theoretical Description ....................................................................... 11
1. Analysing Learner Language ........................................................ 11
2. Error .............................................................................................. 15
a. Definition of Error .................................................................... 15
b. Types of Error .......................................................................... 16
3. Sources of Errors ........................................................................... 19
4. Past Tenses .................................................................................... 21
a. Simple Past ................................................................................ 21
b. Past Continuous ......................................................................... 21
c. Past Perfect ................................................................................ 22
d. Past Perfect Continuous ............................................................ 22
B. Theoretical Framework ....................................................................... 22
CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A. Research Method ................................................................................. 24
B. Research Participants .......................................................................... 25
C. Research Setting ................................................................................... 26
D. Research Instruments .......................................................................... 27
E. Data Analysis Technique .................................................................... 28
F. Research Procedure .............................................................................. 29
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A. Research Results ................................................................................. 32
1. Description of the Writings ........................................................... 32
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2. Error Analysis on the Writings ..................................................... 36
3. Learners’ Personal Narratives ....................................................... 42
B. Discussion ........................................................................................... 57
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Conclusions ......................................................................................... 64
B. Recommendations ............................................................................... 66
REFERENCES .............................................................................................. 69
APPENDICES ............................................................................................... 71
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Types of linguistic knowledge ......................................................... 12
Table 2.2 Regularization errors in the misformation category observed in second
language learner production ........................................................... 19
Table 3.1 Error analysis on each learner presented in frequency and precentage
......................................................................................................... 29
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1 Average Point Achieved by the Students in Each Category .................. 34
Figure 4.2 Figure 4.2 Average Point of Each Student ……………................ 36
Figure 4.3 Sample of Errors Identified in Writings ........................................ 40
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A. Interview Transcription ................................................................. 71
Appendix B. Learners’ Errors ......................................................................... 80
Appendix C. Rubric for Writing ...................................................................... 89
Appendix D. Frequency of Error Type ........................................................... 92
Appendix E. Sample of Students’ Written Reflections ................................... 94
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This research deals with the analysis of learner language produced in
writing and how the personal narratives of the writers demonstrate their mastery
on past tense. This chapter consists of some parts namely background of the
study, research problems, research limitation, research objectives, research
benefits and the description of terms.
A. Research Background
Facing the rapid development of technology and science these days,
English as it is used as a contact language - or is generally known as a lingua
franca- is becoming more important for everyone. It is used widely to
communicate among countries. Even literatures, verbal and non-verbal vital
communication nowadays are internationally conducted in English. People then,
who compete in the global areas from almost all of occupations, are required to
master English well. In other words, whether we like it or not, English is
becoming the minimum requirement to manage ourselves to survive.
In Indonesia, English is used as a second language. It is offered in our
formal education system from the early grade of schools, as a second language.
As it is important for international communication purposes, English then is
considered urgent to be introduced in academic processes. When the students
could manage themselves to master English properly, at least they can later have a
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chance to break the challenge in global life competition. English proficiency
brings along that chance.
According to Brown (2007), “learning a second language is a long and a
complex undertaking. It makes the person will fully be affected by the struggle of
switching culture, feeling, way of thinking and acting from the mother tongue into
the second language” (p. 15). Further, Krashen (1981) introduces that language
acquisition is very similar to the process children use in acquiring their first and
second languages. It requires meaningful interaction in the target language in
which speakers concern not with the form of their utterances but with the
messages they are conveying and understanding. It shows that we still have the
way to accomplish a good result of second language acquisition among the
complexities.
These days, learning English is not merely perceived as an instrument by
nature. More than that, it also deals with some soft skills, such as self-reflexivity,
or discussions on values or morality. Those activities are in order to provide what
so called as meaningful interaction in the target language Krashen mentioned.
Therefore, even though the process of helping our second language learners
acquire English surely might be complicated, we have so many theories and
researches to help us. We are going to find the most suitable methods for the
learners of second language. Yet, the most important point to remember is that
we, ourselves, hold the control of constructing meaning towards the teaching and
learning processes. That is then surely hanged on teachers‟ hands. For the early
stage, as what Krashen (1981) believes, one of the ways to help the learner
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acquire the second language easier is to provide the chance to get in touch
meaningfully with the target language. Teachers are required to be able to do that.
There are four skills required in language learning named speaking,
listening, reading and writing skills. According to Hyland (2003), writing is
among the most important skills that second language students need to develop.
Moreover, Troyka (1987) explains some reasons for it. First that writing is a way
of thinking and learning. Second, it is a way of discovering. Third, it can create
reading. Through writing, one expresses thoughts and learns to compose ideas.
During the process one can also discover things in many aspects since writing
itself requires the awareness of grammar and the skill of communicating ideas
using words. As the result, writing produces sources of information that can be
read by other people.
Borrowing Canale and Swain‟s (1980) framework, a second language
learner writer at least needs: grammatical competence – a knowledge of grammar,
vocabulary, and the language system; discourse competence – a knowledge of
genre and the rhetorical patterns that create them, sociolinguistic competence – the
ability to use language appropriately in different contexts, understanding readers
and adopting appropriate authorial attitudes; and strategic competence – the
ability to use a variety of “communicative strategy” (Hyland, 2003). Norrish
(1983) also states that when writing was the only of storing information, it was
vital that people should be educated to construct grammatically acceptable
sentences and be able to spell correctly (para. 8).
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This research is conducted on the accomplishment of a language learner in
second language acquisition process through writing. Ellis (2005) explains some
types of data that can be studied in second language acquisition researches related
to the skill that a language learner required to accomplish. “One of the types is
non-linguistic performance data which involve measuring learners‟ non-verbal
responses to linguistics stimuli” (p. 15). Further Ellis (2005) explains:
They include measures of learners‟ reaction times to linguistic stimuli,
non-verbal measures of learners‟ comprehension of linguistic input, and
measures of learners‟ intuitions about the grammaticality or acceptability
of sentences. These measures enable inferences to be made about learners‟
linguistic knowledge based on their ability to process language
receptively. (p. 15-16)
The measurement offered by Ellis then would be used to construct an
overview on the learners‟ mastery of the language represented in their language
production. Specifically, the product would be writing. The objects of this study
are the students in an institution which enrolls education for Catholic Priests
candidates (a Seminary). For these seminarians, reflection writing is a habit
implemented for all of them from the early grade even as a part of daily activity.
Yet, it generally is conducted in Bahasa Indonesia. Referring to the concept which
holds a belief where providing the second language learner a medium to get in
touch with the target language meaningfully is beneficial for second language
acquisition processes, these students are introduced to write the reflection using
English. The introduction activity is conducted in their English class, by Mr.
Markus Budiraharjo, as a part of the subjects taken in their first semester.
Referring the idea of reflection writing as a habit for these students, writing
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English reflection then is considered properly as a tool to provide a meaningful
activity in the process of acquiring English as their second language.
In this study, students‟ writing as the product of learning process is
analyzed especially in terms of how student use past tense. As they write
reflection, past tense presence matters. The role of past tense in the reflective
writing is important to reveal the story and ideas. That is why, it is important to
see the capability of the objects here in this study; how they understand the use of
past tense and to what extent they apply their knowledge about it in their writings.
Further, as Hillier (2005) states that people not only have different level of
experience and knowledge relevant to what we are having as the process of
learning activities, they also have different ways of it. This works the same in
their preferences. The notion gives the researcher idea to think about asking the
students for their personal narratives. This may give information to help
researcher forming a pattern of each student, to clarify their level of mastery in
using past tenses.
B. Research Problems
Referring to the previous explanations, there are some problems need to be
solved. Those are:
1. How are the written reflections of Bahasa Inggris I class B students best
described?
2. To what extent did students‟ personal experiences demonstrate their
mastery of using past tense as seen in the writing performance?
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C. Problem Limitation
This study is limited to ten sets of written reflections and also personal
experiences of first-semester students of Theology Faculty, Sanata Dharma
University Academic Year 2015/2016. The sets of writings are reflection upon
four different topics. The reflections are in various forms. Two of them are in
forms of personal reflection, including personal opinion which is related to
personal experience. Another two are in forms of homily (type of reflection made
by clergy, to be shared and/or spoken). In those writings, the students are expected
to retell stories (based on video/children story presented in class and Bible stories
as well) then reflect them with their own opinion and finally relate it to deliver
particular value or message to the readers. Therefore, the presence of past tense is
important to be taken into account. The researcher considers past tense as the
focus for that reason. While personal experiences that are meant in this study were
revealed by the students which generally discussing their experience of learning
English as second language, being introduced to concept of past tense, the
learning process that they had ever got in the past and their mother tongue.
D. Research Objectives
This study is aimed to provide model of learner language in second
language learner‟s writing products. The results of error analysis would help
readers to have a glimpse of possibility error made by the learners and to complete
the description of the writings. Further, by analyzing these students mastery of
using past tense then defining their personal experience that demonstrate it, this
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study contributes to informing the students (of Bahasa Inggris I class B) about
what should be improved in terms of their English and English writing skills.
E. Research Benefits
This research would be beneficial for some academic parties. It is expected
that this study would bring some benefits for the researcher, the students of
Bahasa Inggris I class B Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma University
Academic Year 2015/2016, the ELESP students as the candidate teachers for
second language learners and also future researchers. Further would be elaborated
as follows:
1. For the researcher
This study is useful for the researcher in gaining the real model of second
language learner‟s writing production. It helps the researcher to get deeper
understanding on how second language learning process actually can be designed
later on if it is dealing with writing activity. Referring to its focus, which is past
tense, this study provides data of learner‟s common error. As it represents their
mastery of it, this supports the best description of learner language itself.
2. For the students
For the students of Bahasa Inggris I class B, this study can bring them
some enlighten in terms of their works. It is to identify their errors and reflect the
causes so that they can improve. Moreover, they also can consider writing
reflection as a regular activity outside class meeting as they can find the benefits:
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easy way of learning English and also deepening their ability to reflect more and
more.
3. For the ELESP students
As English teacher candidates, students of ELESP also can gain some
benefits from this study. It can be in form of better knowledge of second language
learner‟s learning strategy and an option of teaching second language method.
Those might be helpful for them later on when they are about to implement
certain strategies of learning in their classes. May the result of this study also can
give them sort of guideline in understanding theories in second language learning.
4. For future researchers
For the future researcher, this study can be a reference to support further
research on the relevant topic in the future.
F. Definition of Terms
In order to help the readers having the same understanding of this study,
there are some terms that needed to be explained. Those terms related to this study
are:
1. Learner Language
Ellis (2005) describes learner language is the oral or written language
produced by learners. For the study of Second Language Acquisition, learner
language serves as a primary data.
2. Written reflection
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There are 10 sets of written reflections used here in this study. The written
reflections were the products required by the lecturer of English subject (Bahasa
Inggris I class B), Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma University, Academic
Year 2015/2016. Each set was written under four different topics related to
themes or issues discussed in the class. Two of the topics are related to Holy Bible
(in forms of homily), and the other two related to personal experience, opinion
and arguments about learning strategies and children stories.
3. Students‟ personal experience
In this research, the researcher conducted interview towards some
participants in order to gather data. The interviews were conducted under the
general topic namely „personal experience in learning English‟. The result of the
interview then called as personal experience.
4. Students of Bahasa Inggris I Class B
There were 22 male students undergoing their first semester in Theology
Faculty of Sanata Dharma University and taking Bahasa Inggris I class with Mr.
Markus Budiraharjo as the lecturer, Academic Year 2015/2016, when the data
were gathered. However, only 10 out of those 22 were taken as the objects of this
study. Those ten students are called here in this study „the students of Bahasa
Inggris I Class B.
5. Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma University
Theology Faculty is one of the faculties in Sanata Dharma University
which enrolls undergraduate and postgraduate in Philosophy and Theology. The
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male students that are studying in the faculty are generally Catholic priest
candidates (seminarians).
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter consists of some theories from related literature that are used
by the researcher to conduct the analysis in this study. The major parts of this
chapter are theoretical description and theoretical framework.
A. Theoretical Description
Researcher reviews on some literature to find out some theories of learner
language and the language competencies required to describe written reflection of
Bahasa Inggris I class B students in Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma
University and to define their personal narratives. Researcher found some major
theories that meet to support the analysis on this study.
1. Analysing Learner Language
According to Ellis (2005), learner language serves as a primary data for
second language acquisition research. For many SLA researchers the goal of SLA
is the description and explanation of L2 learners‟ competence and how this
develops over time.
Further he explains that there are implicit and explicit knowledge that
cover what so called learners‟ competence. Implicit knowledge is the kind of
knowledge we gain from our L1 (mother tongue). The implicit knowledge we
produce is unconcious and spontaneous.
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Implicit knowledge is the kind of knowledge we possess of our mother
tongue. That is, it is unconscious and is proceduralized so that is available
for automatic use in spontaneous production. (p. 5)
While explicit knowledge is the vice versa. Ellis explains that explicit knowledge
is produced under learner‟s consciousness.
Explicit knowledge is consious and declarative. It consists of both
conscious awareness of the same minor and major schemas that figure in
implicit knowledge (but represented in an entirely different mental form)
and of the metalanguage that can assist in verbalizing this analyzed
knowledge (p. 6).
Table 2.1 Types of linguistic knowledge
Type of Knowledge Sub-types Definitions
Implicit (procedural) Formulaic Sequence of elements that are
stored and accessed as ready-
made chunks
Rule-based Unconscious knowledge of
major and minor schemas
consists of abstract linguistic
categories realizable lexically
in an indefinite number of
sentences/utterances
Explicit (declarative) Analysed Conscious awareness of
minor and major schemas
Metalingual Lexical knowledge of
technical and non-technical
linguistic terminology.
However, Ellis (2005) raises a big question about what kind of
performance of a learner‟s language that provides the most reliable and valid
source of information. According to him, there are many ways of it. A researcher
may depend on his intuition in term of judgements about the grammaticality of
sentences presented in discovering what the learner knows about the language.
Other researchers may prefer to collect samples of learner language and analyse
the grammar produced.
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On one hand some SLA researchers choose to rely on learner intuition (in
the form of judgements about the grammaticality of sentences presented to
them) to discovering what they know. Other researchers, especially those
of a more functional orientation, prefer to collect sample of learner
language. Not surprisingly analyses based n grammaticality judgements
and on learner language frequently produce different results. (p. 6)
As the heterogeneous of the linguistic performance in learner language,
Ellis also offers several options of solution. Tarone (1983) says it is “to redefine
competence as its variable” (as cited Ellis, 2005, p. 6), or to identify one type of
performances as the preferred source of information about competence, or to
recognize the need of multiple sources of performance data and look for points of
confluence as evidence of what learner knows.
In analysing learner language, Ellis also states that we can view the learner
language in two entirely distinct ways; learner language viewed as the expressions
and as the content. Both views may serve distinct forms of information. As
researcher, Ellis states, one can choose whether, first by examining the linguistic
forms produced by the learners as the evidence of what they know about the L2.
Second, by viewing it as the set of propositions relating to whatever topics which
are being communicated about. First view gives researcher information about
learners‟ beliefs and attitudes to the target language and also their behaviour that
they gain through the process of learning the language. (Ellis, 2005).
In this research, error analysis was chosen in order to analyze learner
language as Ellis describes. Corder (1974) then proposes the following points as
the steps a researcher can do to analyse the error (as cited in Ellis, 2005, p. 57).
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a). Collecting a sample of learner language
In this step, Corder (1974) suggests that the researcher should be aware that the
nature of the sample that is collected may influence the nature and distribution of
the errors observed (as cited in Ellis, 2005, p. 57). However, Corder also shares
other possibilities that a researcher can do to keep the originality of the data. He
suggests that a researcher may wish to sample errors more generally by collecting
a broad sample reflecting different learners, different types of language and
different production conditions.
However, it is advisable to provide full and explicit description of the
learner productions that make up the sample so that the effect of different
variables on errors can be examined post hoc. (p. 58)
b). Identifying the errors
In order to identify the errors, Ellis states that the researcher should
involve the comparison between what the learner produced with what a native
speaker counterpart would produce in the same context. In this research, the
researcher uses general concept and rules of English past tense as what so called
„a native speaker counterpart production‟ as what Ellis mentions.
c). Describing the errors
Corder (1974) writes that “the description of errors is essentially a
comparative process, the data being the original erroneous utterances and the
reconstructed utterance” (as cited in Ellis, 2005, p. 60). Again, he emphasizes that
to describe the errors, the researcher needs to identify how the forms produced by
the learner differ from those produced by the native‟s speaker counterparts.
Further, he mentions these two steps: “the development of a set of descriptive
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categories for coding the errors that have been identified and recording the
frequency of the errors in each category” (p. 60).
d). Explaining the errors
In here, Ellis explains that the rule of identifying source of errors works.
He mentions psychological and sociolinguistic sources of errors as what are used
in research for second language acquisition. Meaning to say that, Ellis proposes
that in explaining the errors, the researcher elaborates why do the students make
certain errors. Further in this researcher, the researcher also looks at what other
experts say about errors source in language learning process. Later would be
discussed more in the part of sources of errors.
e). Evaluating errors
Ellis states this is not so much a stage in the analysis of learner errors as
supplementary procedure. A reseacher needs to involve other steps in order to
conduct an evaluation of errors (para. 67). In this research, the researcher only
want to describe the writings and specifically the errors in order to provide models
for language teacher about learner language. Therefore, this step is considered as
not necesarry to be done here in this research.
2. Error
a. Definition of Error
Corder (1974) writes: “the description of errors is essentially a
comparative process, the data being the original erroneous utterances and the
reconstructed utterance” (p. 128). So the description of error involves the
identification of the difference between what is produced by the learner and the
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one produced by the native speaker. Here researcher refers to the two taxonomies
that are introduced by Dulay, Birt and Krashen (1982).
According to Dulay and Krashen, errors are the flawed side of learner
speech or writing. People cannot learn language without first committing errors.
To analyze error, here are the taxonomies that James (1998) states that those had
been used; (1) a linguistic taxonomy and (2) a surface structure taxonomy.
However, James also states that it is also possible to combine those two. Dulay
and Krashen mention the other two taxonomies used for the descriptive
classification of errors. Those are comparative analysis and communicative effect.
Further it is explained that the discussion of these descriptive taxonomies is
served to some major aims. Dulay and Krashen say:
Discussion of these descriptive taxonomies is guided by two major
purposes: to present error categories which rely solely on observable (rather
that inferred) characteristics for their definition; and to report the findings
of research conducted to date with respect to error types observed. (p.146)
b. Types of Errors
1). Error Types Based on Linguistic Category
The errors are classified based on the language category which includes
phonology (pronunciation), syntax and morphology (grammar), semantics and
lexicon (meaning and vocabulary), and discourse (style).
2). Error Types Based on Surface Strategy Taxonomy
According to Dulay, Burt, and Krashen‟s (1982: 150) surface taxonomy is
based on „the ways surface structures are altered‟ in erroneous
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utterances/sentences. There are four principal ways in which learners modify the
target language:
a). Omission
Omission errors are characterized by the absence of an item that must
appear in a well-formed utterance. Even generally any morpheme or word in a
sentence is possible to be omitted, some of them are more often to appear
compared among others. Content morphemes (nouns, verbs, adjectives and
adverbs) are included. For example:
Mr. Kopong is now our new Physics teacher.
The words, Mr. Kopong, Physics, our, teacher, are the content morphemes that
carry primary meaning. Reader can still understand if one says
Mr. Kopong our Physics teacher
On the contrary, it could not be understood if it is only grammatical morphemes
(including articles, verb auxiliaries and preposition):
is new
Dulay and Krahsen state that language learner omits grammatical
morphemes much more frequently than content words.
b). Additions
Additions are characterized by the pressure of an item which must not
appear in a well-formed utterance. Language learners, both in first and their
second language have been observed to add in three ways. First is double
marking, which is a type of error that occurs when learner produces double
marker in the utterance/sentences. For example: one says
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We didn’t went there.
Because two items marked for the same feature (didn’t and went indicate past
tense), it is called double marking error. The second is regularization is a rule
typically applies to a class of linguistic items, such as the class of main verbs or
the class of nouns. For example, when learners produce sheep in form of plural as
sheeps, the same way in producing words like fishes, putted, or cutted as if they
are applied the same rule as the regular plural nouns. The third is simple addition
errors. Actually books say that no particular features characterize simple addition,
as long as the additional element is not double marking error nor regularization
error.
- c). Misformation. It is a type of errors which are characterized by the use of the
wrong form of the morpheme or structure. Unlike in omission errors where
learner supplied nothing, in misformation learner supplies something although it
is incorrect. In misformation that are some sub-types there are first, regularization
errors. Regularization errors are those in which a regular marker is used in place
of an irregular one, such as in runned for run or gooses for geese. The second is
called archi-forms which are the error made in using form. For example, the
learner happens to select just one of the demonstrative adjectives in producing
noun phrase.
That dog
That dogs
So that here is selected to accompany both singular and plural form of noun. The
third sub-type is alternating form. Learner may alter the morpheme in incorrect
place for example the using of don’t + verb is alternated with no + verb.
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Table 2.2 Regularization Errors in the Misformation Category Observed in Second
Language Learner Production
Linguistic Item
Misformed
Examples*
Reflexive pronoun Hisself (himself)
Regular past I falled (fell)
Plural Gooses (geese)
Childs (children)
*these examples are taken from raw data collected by Dulay and Burt via the
Billingual Syntax Measure (lower and upper grade version) and unstructured
natural conversation, unless otherwise specified.
Source: Language Two. Dulay and Krashen page 159.
d). Misordering. It is type of errors which is characterized by the incorrect
placement of a morpheme or group of morphemes in an utterance/sentence. For
example, he is all the time late instead of he is late all the time.
3. Sources of Errors
Brown (1980) proposes three primary points as sources of errors that
commonly affect the process of one‟s language learning. There are interlingual
transfer, intralingual and context of learning. These three factors are used as the
basis of analyzing learner‟s personal experience to answer research question
number two. Furthermore, Corder (1973) also proposes similar concept of factors
that make a learner produces an error namely nature of mother tongue, basis
analogy, nature of teaching and teaching materials. Generally, they are quite the
same with what Brown has proposed.
Hence, in this study, the researcher used the theory of Brown. Where
interlingual transfer can cause learner‟s errors for the interference of his/her
mother tongue (L1). The strong influence of a learner‟s mother tongue can raise
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confusion in producing same, for instance, sentences in the target language. For
example, when a Bahasa speaker is learning concept of the use of past tense. He
might be confused to understand that the form of a verb would be changed when it
is used in a sentence, based on the time mark (tense), whether by adding –d or –ed
(if regular verbs) or by using the other form (for irregular verbs). Since in bahasa,
there is no concept alike. When the time is different, the words is replaced by
another new word instead of having form changing in a verb as we have in
English.
Intralingual as mentioned by Brown (1980: 173) makes learner produces
an error for the nature of the target language. There might be confusion on the
learner as the presence of rules and formulas in the target language. Afterwards,
Brown also stated that intralingual cause of error can be identified when there is
kind of overgeneralization in using certain rules in a language done by a learner.
The third, as Brown proposed is the nature of language teaching. This
includes material, method and teacher of the language itself that can make learners
misunderstand the concept or essence of the language or can also cause the learner
to hold false belief in learning the elements of the language.
In Second Language Acquisition scope, Ellis (2005) states that their
concern in analysing learner language is psychological source of error. He
elaborates as errors that made relating to the processing mecahnism involved in
L2 use and to the nature of the L2 knowledge system (Ellis, 2005 p. 62) which
similar to what Brown proposes above. Hence, we can use either what is in
Brown‟s and Ellis‟.
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4. Past Tenses
Azar (1999) defines past tense as tense that indicates an activity or
situation that began and ended at a particular time in the past.
a. Simple Past
1). Simple past form of a verb is V2. Example: lived for live, started for start,
wrote for write, died for die. Murphy (1985), explains that often the past simple
ends in –ed for regular vers and many other does not ends in –ed (those are
irregular verbs).
I
She
They
enjoyed
saw
went
2). In questions and negatives we use did/didn’t + infinitive. Examples:
3). The past of be (am/is/are) is was/were. Examples:
I/he/she/it was/wasn’t
We/you/they were/weren’t
b. Past Continuous
We use the past continuous to say that somebody was in the middle of
doing something at a certain time. The action or situation had already started
before this time but had not finished. The formula is:
was/were + V-ing
Examples:
Did
you
she
they
enjoy?
see?
go?
I
she
they
didn’t
enjoy
see
go
Was I/he/she/it?
Were We/you/they?
I/he/she/it was
We/you/they were
Playing
Doing
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c. Past Perfect
We use past perfect to talk about things that happened before a certain
starting point. For example, when Sarah arrived at party, Paul wasn’t there. He
had gone home. So the starting point meant is when Sarah arrived. It happened in
the past. The formula for past perfect is:
had + past participle (V3)
Examples:
- When we got home last night, we found that somebody had broken
into the flat
- At first I thought I had done the right thing, but I soon realized that I
had made a serious mistake
d. Past Perfect Continuous
We use past perfect continuous to talk about things that happen in the past
during certain period of time. For example: It was not raining when I looked out
of the window; the sun was shining. But it had been raining before. That’s why
the ground is wet. The formula for past perfect continuous is:
had + been + -ing
Examples:
- When the boys came into the house, their clothes were dirty, their hair
was untidy and one of them had a black eye. They had been fighting.
- I was very tired when I arrived home. I had been working hard all day.
B. Theoretical Framework
Writing is a complex skill. It requires not only the way of thinking and
imagining what ideas to write about but also how to write it. In order to be able to
produce a good writing, one is required to master various elements of the
language itself so that the ideas can be delivered well. Students of Theology
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Faculty of Sanata Dharma University had been introduced and accustomed to
activity of writing and reflecting (as a part of daily activity in Seminary),
eventhough it is conducted still in Bahasa. Mr. Markus Budiraharjo who was
teaching English in Bahasa Inggris I class B, Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma
University, academic year 2015/2016, proposed set of assignment of writing
reflection using English for the students to be done. The researcher then
considered writing as the suitable tool to enrich students‟ (of Bahasa Inggris I
class B) experience in learning English as their second language. Here in this
study, using the theory of analysing learner language by Ellis (2005), the
researcher is trying to provide a full description of the writing produced by those
students. The rubric was formed with adaptation from what proposed by Brown &
Bailey (1984) entitled „analytical scale for rating composition tasks‟. The rubric
helps the researcher to describe the writings of these students.
Further, the researcher considers the use of English past tense in the
activity of writing reflection hold an important role. One could not reflect and
retell the experience or events (in order to reflect or flashback) properly in writing
without having a well understanding about the use of past tense. Using the theory
of error analysis, the reseacher described the writings and mapped the students‟
mastery of past tense. Afterwards, Brown‟s theory which elaborates the source of
error in a process of language learning is used to help researcher analyse the
learner‟s personal narrative. By conducting interview, the researcher then find out
the source of errors from the writers and retell their experience that clarify their
mastery of English past tense as reflected in their writing.
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CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In this chapter, the researcher discusses how the research was conducted.
The chapter consists of six parts which are research method, research participants,
research setting, research instruments, data analysis technique, and research
procedure.
A. Research Method
The research method used in this study was qualitative research.
Qualitative research is defined by Lichtman (2003) as a way of knowing that
assumes that the researcher gathers, organizes, and interprets information with his
or her own eyes and ears as filter. Lichtman (2003) also mentions that qualitative
research often involves in-depth interview and/or observations of humans in
natural, online, or social setting.
Further, Lichtman (2003) explains that in qualitative research, the
researcher constructs the reality and he/she is the central. The interpretations that
might appear are based on the researcher‟s experience and background. The
purpose of this method is to understand and interpret social interaction.
This research was in the form of a case study, which according to Yin
(2012) the case serves as the main „unit of analysis‟. The case study research is
not limited to a single source of data. Therefore it also enables the implementation
of triangulation evidence from multiple sources.
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Sherman (1930) states that the purpose of “a qualitative research is not
verification of a predetermined idea, but discovery that leads to new insights”
(p. 5). Therefore, the researcher in qualitative research depends on natural setting.
In this study, the research used content analysis as the method in interpreting the
data. Silverman (1993) says that textual analysis which includes in content
analysis method is used to understand the participants‟ categories. Therefore, the
use of this method is considered relevant since this study specifically describes
learners‟ writing and analysis the learner language.
B. Research Participants
The researcher chose 10 first-semester students of Bahasa Inggris I class
B in Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma University, academic year 2015/2016,
who took the class with Mr. Markus Budiraharjo as the participants of this
research. Since only those ten that have already done writing in four topics
assigned by the lecturer. The rest of the class did not complete the four topics. The
four topics are namely: “Learning Strategy”, “Experience of being Forgiven”,
“Homily based on the Bible” and “Reflection on Children Stories”. The
participants did not know that their writings were intended to be analyzed in term
of their mastery on English past tense. That was done on purpose as the researcher
wanted to keep the learners produce their writing as what it is. Also this brings
them chance to write with their pure understanding of past tense. Then, three out
of these ten were interviewed to find the answer of question number two. Later, in
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the discussion part, due to keep the neutrality and to respect these participants,
they are then called as P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6, P7, P8, P9, and P10.
C. Research Setting
The research was conducted in Theology Faculty of Sanata Dharma
University. It is because the students of Theology Faculty are all Catholic priest
candidates who have accustomed to reflection writing activity. The researcher
then believes that the data, which are the writings of the students, are relevant to
the study. Further, the location of the campus where the participants are studying
is reachable for the researcher. That was very helpful since the researcher also
needed to meet the students to gather the data.
The researcher gathered the writings which were sent from the lecturer‟s
email. The data started to be gathered on September 26th
2015 of which are the
writings of first topic “experience of being forgiven”. The writings with the
second topic which is “learning strategies” were received via email on November
4th
2015. After that, on November 13th
2015, the third writings on topic “reflection
on children story” were received. The fourth writings on topic “homily based on
the Bible” were received on November 23th
2015.
All data were analyzed during November 2015 until February 2016. The
interviews towards three participants were conducted in three different places and
time. The first interview was conducted to P2, on Saturday, 16 April 2016, at 11
a.m. in Realino stage, Kampus I USD Mrican. The second interview was
conducted to P9, on Monday, 18 April 2016 at 11 a.m. in Kampus V USD
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Kentungan. While the last interview was conducted to P1 on Wednesday, 20 April
2016 at 3 p.m. in Scolatikat SCY, Kentungan.
D. Research Instruments
1). Document
Merriam (2009) defines document as „a ready-made source of data easily
accessible to the imaginative and resourceful investigator‟ (Merriam, 2009 p.
139). Further, Dalen (1979) explains that the materials used in document analysis
can be in form of „official records or any written, printed, verbal, or pictorial form
(para 290). In this research, the documents are the students‟ sets of written
reflection. The writings were gathered by the researcher through email. All the
writings were sent by the students via email to the lecturer then were forwarded
by the lecturer to the researcher. After gathering the data, the researcher classified
the writings according to the topics and the writers. In analyzing the writings, the
researcher then adapted a rubric proposed by Brown & Bailey (1984) entitled
„analytical scale for rating composition tasks‟ as the standard used to assess the
writings.
2). Interview Guide
In order to gather the data for answering the second research question, the
researcher made use of interview guide as one of the instruments in this research.
Ary et. Al (2010) mentions some advantages in using interview to collect data in a
qualitative research. According to him, the first advantage is for the researcher. By
conducting an interview, a researcher can gain „large volume of in depth data‟ in
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relatively short time. In this research, the researcher conducted interview typically
semi-structured interview. It is chosen for its flexibility and appropriateness in this
study. Merriam (2009) states that semi-structured interview enables the researcher
to give response directly upon the answers of interviewee. Ary et. al (2010) agrees
that the interview which conducted in qualitative research typically more probing
and less structured than that in quantitative research. However, in this research,
the researcher still used questions list as a guide to keep the allure of the interview
on the track, as can be seen in Appendix A.
3) Tools
In gathering the data, the researcher also used some tools. Those tools are
notebooks for taking notes, pen, and a voice recorder to record the interview.
E. Data Analysis Technique
The data gathered were analyzed in the form of description. Yet before
that, the researcher had done some important steps. First, the researcher collected
the writings and divided them based on the topics by looking at the title of the
writing. Second, the researcher read the writing one by one to confirm the topic
and to make sure that the four topics were already complete. Third, the researcher
made a list of the fixed writing and put codes. Then, the researcher went to the
writing one by one to read and assess them using the rubric (see Appendix C). The
rubric was adapted by the researcher from „analytical scale for rating composition
tasks‟ by Brown & Bailey (1984). Then, to clarify the points the researcher read
the writings for about two to three times each. The researcher also spent some
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times to see and consult the result to the advisor. After that, referred to points
achieved by each student, the researcher read again and started to mark errors in
using past tense that found in the writing and took notes of it. After that, using the
instruments presented below, the researcher starts to mark the error and then
analyzed it. The theory that was used in this step is Dulay‟s on Surface Strategy
Taxonomy (Dulay & Krashen, p. 146-192). The result of errors finding then was
used to describe the writings of the students. Afterwards, the researcher
interviewed the students and collected the answers as the data. The analysis was
done using the theory of Brown (1980) on sources of errors in language learner.
In describing the writing, below is the instrument that has been made by
the researcher. The table was used to sum up the error found in the writings. The
aims is to present more complete description of errors in using past tense made by
each student.
Table 3.1 Error analysis on each learner presented in frequency and
precentage
Subject Number
of errors
made
Type of error
made
Frequency Precentage
(%)
Dominant
type of error
P1
TOTAL 100
F. Research Procedure
In order to conduct this research, the researcher has done some procedures.
The procedure of conducting this research from the beginning until the end is
listed as follow:
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1. Selecting Topic
First the researcher met the advisor to consult and discuss on the possible
issues related to the researcher‟s interest. After some discussion sessions with the
advisor, the researcher looked for possible sources of data and references of
theories briefly. As the supporting possibilities collected, the researcher pointed
specific topic to be studied through the research.
2. Finding Research Questions/Problems
After having the topic, the researcher set some questions to help the
research constructing the meaning of the research itself. However, the researcher
also had asked for advices and had some personal consultation with the advisor to
construct it.
3. Reviewing Related Literatures
The researcher searched and referred to related literature that support the
questions, methods, and findings in the research. The way to provide those
supporting ideas is by reviewing it. Researcher tried to read as many book as
possible to collect various references that are relevant to the topic. In the practice,
some related literatures were found when all the data have been collected and
started to be discussed. This was because the researcher found possibility of
improving and developing ideas during the process of conducting this study.
4. Collecting Data
The researcher then collected the data based on the topic, both written and
oral. Written data were collected via email and the oral were gathered via
interview. The interview was done three times with three different interviewees.
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The date and the time were also different one another due to each interviewee‟s
difference of available time. The interviews were conducted using open-ended
questions. Therefore, the questions forms are not the same one another. They were
asked based on the answers of each interviewee. However, the researcher still
used the same guideline in forming the question due to keep the allure of the
interview itself consistantly on the track.
5. Analyzing Data
After all the data have been collected, then the researcher analyzed the
data using the related literatures and theories to support. Sometimes, the
researcher consulted the progress of analysis to the advisor. On the process of
analysing the data, the researcher also did some rearrangement and revision due to
mistakes or errors, especially in elaborating the data and its discussion.
6. Making Conclusion
Conclusion was drawn based on the findings, supported by the related
theories and statements from the experts. Here in this report, the researcher also
put some points as the summary of the whole research that had been conducted,
followed by some recommendations related to the topic of this study.
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CHAPTER IV
RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter contains of two major parts namely research result and
discussion. In the part of research result there are description of the writings and
personal narratives of the writers related to their experience of learning past tense
in English presented. While in the part of discussion, the points as the result of
discussing on the findings supported by related theories are provided.
A. Research Results
1. Description of the Writings
There are ten sets of written reflections which serve as the data here in this
study. Those reflections were written under four different topics by ten different
students in the class. The first topic is ‗experience of being forgiven‘. Under this
topic, the students were asked to retell their experiences in forgiving and being
forgiven. In their written reflections, these students shared their stories and
reflected it with their opinion. They were allowed to put themselves as a candidate
of priest in writing reflection under this first topic.
The second topic was ‗learning strategies‘. Under this topic, the students
were asked quiet the same. They were expected to retell their experiences in
learning and to share their difficulties as well as their strategies in solving those
challenges. In their written reflections under this second topic, these students tried
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to suggest and recommend tips and reflected the DOs and DON‟Ts in learning
based on what they have experienced so far.
The third topic was ‗reflection on children story‘. In this topic, the students
were shown children stories in forms of videos in class. After that, the lecturer
opened discussion in general regarding to those stories. As the assignment, the
students were asked to choose any children story to be used in their reflection.
They wrote about that particular story they have chosen and related it to their own
experiences. As the result, in their writings under this third topic these students
deliver the messages and values of the stories which have been related to their
own opinion.
The fourth topic was ‗homily based on the Bible‘. This last topic is closely
related to their future profession. The lecturer asked them to choose any reading
for Holy Bible and arrange a reflection in forms of written homily. Under this
topic, these students worked freely based on how they interpret the readings, retell
their related experiences and reflected them altogether.
On all four topics, these students worked with the primary structure of a
writing which at least contains of an opening, the main body and closing. Ellis
(2005) states that the goal of a research in Second Language is the description and
explanation of L2 learners‘ competence. Therefore using the rubric for writing
proposed by Brown and Bailey (1984), the researcher assesses those written
reflections. There are four main terms that Brown and Bailey (1984) emphasized
namely grammar, which here in this study is called as accuracy, logical
development of idea or content, organization and diction.
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As the result of the assessment on those writings, here is the big picture
that the researcher found as can be seen in the following figure.
Figure 4.1 Average Point Achieved by the Students in Each Category
The highest point is achieved in terms of content, followed by in terms of
organization then diction. The lowest point is in terms of accuracy. Referring the
rubric, the researcher assesses the ideas and illustrations that are delivered by the
students in the writing as the content. Then the results showed that these students
are able to perform the best in terms of it compared to the other terms. In the view
of researcher the content of these writings are more likely good. These students
generally have ideas and issues in composing their reflection and homily. Their
ideas are generally interesting and fairly well developed. There is always a story
in it. It probably gives big impact on how they manage to deliver the ideas. They
put allure on the story and some went smooth. The correlation between their
illustrations and the intended topic also exist significantly. Yet, most of them still
miss some points so the ideas appeared to be incomplete.
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In terms of organization, the researcher focuses on how these students
arranging ideas. The average point in terms of organization as can be seen in the
figure above represents the presence of adequate title and introduction in those
writings. It works the same with the conclusion drawn there. However, these
students apparently provided lack of evidence that can support the content.
Generally, these students present minimally recognizable introduction. They also
are sometimes not clear in stating the opening which gives impact to severe
problems in ordering ideas. Some of them also provide limited supporting
evidence to form more solid conclusion and logic of their reflection.
While in terms of diction, these students perform fairly low average point.
The researcher found that these students still misused the vocabularies. Some
registers are not suitable used in expressing their ideas. For example as what is
produced by P5 in one of his writing as follows:
This example is very easy, but turns to be difficult when I am not
consistency.
This student is misused the word consistency which is a noun while in his
sentence, it should be a adjective.
Then as the last, in terms of accuracy which is the lowest performed by
these students, the focus of assessment includes minimum requirement,
punctuation, tenses and sentence structure. There are many run-on sentences
found in those writings. Some fragments also found. Errors in tenses also
appeared significantly. As can be seen in the figure, these students perform the
lowest for average point in term of accuracy.
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The detail performance of each student is presented in this following
figure. It is the smallest scope that the researcher in trying to provide in order to
describe these students‘ written reflections.
Figure 4.2 Average Point of Each Student
The individual point presented in the chart has been accumulated from the
points of the four writings. The researcher summed up all the four and divided
them by 4 so ended up with an average point. The average point in that way
represents the performance of the writer. In terms of content based on the result of
assessment, all ten students achieve the average point between 50 and 70. Most of
them even reach above 60. While in organization there is less than four who reach
50 and above. In term of diction, all of them achieve the average point between 44
and 71. Then for accuracy, among ten students, there is only one who achieves
more than 70. Other three are in between 50 to 59 and the other six are below 50.
One out of the six even is below 40.
2. Error Analysis on the Writings
Based on the finding discussed in the previous section, in this section the
research would report and discuss the error found in the writing, limited to error
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made in using of past tense. This analysis would further give more detail data and
explanation of the description of these writings.
According to Ellis (2005), teachers need to know that their students have
not yet mastered certain forms but are capable of self-correcting them. In this
research, the researcher analysed the errors made by the students in using past
tense to map their mastery of past tense itself. Later, in the next sub chapter, the
researcher would also discuss whether these students also able to do self-
correcting towards what they have produced using the personal narratives that
clarify it.
The following points are elaborated as referred to what Corder (1979)
proposes about the steps on error analysis. The report and discussion are presented
in the way those steps were done.
1). Sample of learner language
In order to collect the learner language as the sample in this researh, the
researcher took ten sets of written reflection with 4 topics in each set. The sets of
writing were written by ten different students in Bahasa Inggris I class B who had
been assigned in writing activity as the part of their English learning process in
class with the lecturer. The researcher chosen four sets on purpose. First, as what
Ellis has stated that in order to avoid the influence from the nature of the sample
itself towards the distribution of error made in that sample, the researcher needs to
sample error more generally by collecting a broad sample reflecting different
learners, type of language and different production conditions (Ellis, 2005 p.57).
Second, four is considered properly to map the learner‘s mastery. Technically,
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when an error is found in the first writing, the researcher considers it as an error if
it is found also in another writing (written by the same person) or in other word it
is repeatedly appeared. That is why, four would be enough to make sure whether
the writter made an error or only a mistake. In differentiating mistakes from
errors, we may take a look as what experts say.
Brown describes mistakes as what refers to a performance error either
random guess, fatigue, inattention or a slip of tongue (Brown, 1994 p.209). While
error as noted by Norrish (1978, 7-8) related to language teaching and learning,
are caused by learners on the processing of knowledge in the second language rule
systems. This happens because the learners still have lack of competence in the
rule systems of the language they are learning. Therefore, they would not be ready
to correct their errors. In this case, when the same errors are found in more than
one writing (written by the same person) or even in all four writings, the
researcher may be sure of the existence of errors.
The first topic given is about learning strategy. In giving this first topic,
lecturer asks the students to write about their experience in forgiving and being
forgiven. Second, it is about students experience in learning something. In that
writing, specifically the students are asked to also elaborate their obstacles and
challenges then share their strategy to overcome them. Third topic is reflection on
children story. In this topic, lecture gives the students some children stories in
form of videos than after brief discussion in class, the lecturer asks the students to
write a reflection on the story, related to their existence as a person in living their
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lives. As the forth writing, the lecturer asks students to pick certain reading from
Gospel and write a homily based on their own interpretation and further reflection.
Generally, these students write about a half page as the minimum and one
and a half pages as the maximum. Those writings are typed and collected via
email. The lecturer gave these topics to write to the students in every couple
weeks. There were no written feedbacks between the period of assigning and the
time when this report is done.
b). Identification of Errors.
From the sample, the researcher identified the errors using the concept of
error types based on surface taxonomy described by Dulay, Burt and Krashen
(1982: 150). The error types found in the writings are omission, addition (double
marking), archi-form (misformation), regularization (misformation), alternating
form (misformation), and misordering.
Omission errors made by five writers. Generally, they omitted
grammatical morphemes, in this case in past form. The example of omission
errors made by P3 is:
I (was) very scared to tell it to the others, ...
He omitted was as the to be in past form. The writer might understand that
past form already marked by the presence of scared. The word scared, which is
an adjective in this context might be understood as a past form (the presence of –
ed). Therefore, the writer might think that this sentence needs no other past forms.
The same form of omission error occurs twice in P2‘s writing. The figure below is
an example of erroneous sentences made by one of the students.
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Figure 4.3 Sample of Errors Identified in the Writings
Addition errors also found in some writings, especially in form of double
marking. The writers double the past form or marks in certain sentences. For
example the one that is made by P2:
I used to woke up late every day.
P2 understands that past form is used to every event or action that happenned and
done in the past. Yet, he doubled the mark of past form itself without consider
other rule of forming a habitual past sentence. This is clarified by his personal
interview as follows:
Pemahaman mengenai penggunaan past tense itu yang tahu adalah bahwa
sesudah berlalu, walaupun sedetik yang lalu, itu menggunakan past tense.
Dan kalau ada –ed berarti itu waktunya sudah lewat. Jadi indikasinya ya
itu. Pokonya asal ada tanda bentuk past, nah bagi saya itu sudah benar.
(I understand that we use past form for every thing that had happened in
the past, even if it is just a second ago. The –ed form indicates the past. As
long as I have the past form in a sentence, I consider it as right—form of a
past)
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Six out of ten made the same error (double marking). This clarifies that generally,
these learners might have same concept of what P2 has. As they understand that
past is applied in event or action happened and done in the past, other rules are not
taken into account.
Archi-form (misformation) is significantly found in these writings. All the
learners produced this type of error. For example the one that done by P9:
When the words were saying, I should think about the meaning.
Vaguely, the sentence above is grammatically correct. But, in the context of the
writing, P9 misformed the phrase were saying. From the previous paragraph we
know that he is telling about his difficulties of understanding a new vocabulary in
English (topic: Learning Strategy). He is trying to say that when a new word is
saying, he needs to think first to find the meaning. Yet, he ends up with producing
the sentence above in past form. Although the fact that he is talking about is still
happening until now. That is why his phrase above considered as an error in
misformation. Other archi-form error also done by P1 as follows:
Have you ever find yourself in front of a strong block and it seemed you
are going to give up?
This sentence is considered as an imparralel because the writer misformed the first
clause. He should mark both clauses with same tense (past tense).
Regularization errors found also in some of these writings. Yet, the
intensity of its occurance is much less than archi-form errors that found. As an
example, regularization errors found in P2‘s writing. He wrote,
When I am watching this movie, ...
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Actually, he is explaining what he had been feeling during the video watching.
Yet, he misform the to be as present instead of a past. In personal interview he
claims that he is still confused in using past tense. Although he knows the rule and
understands the concept, he sometimes still produce sentence like the one above
even again and again.
Pemahaman mengenai penggunaan past tense itu yang saya tahu adalah
bahwa sesudah berlalu, walaupun sedetik yang lalu, itu menggunakan
past tense. Dan kalau ada –ed berarti itu waktunya sudah lewat. Jadi
indikasinya ya itu. Pokonya asal ada tanda bentuk past, nah bagi saya itu
sudah benar. Tapi dalam aplikasinya, kecenderungan menggunakan
present. Tensenya, menggunakan present.
(I understand that we use past form for every thing that had happened in
the past, even if it is just a second ago. The –ed form indicates the past. As
long as I have the past form in a sentence, I consider it as right—form of a
past. But in its practice, I still tend to use present)
As the result, the most regular error made by the students is archi-form
(misformation). Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1981) defines archi-form
(misformation) is an error made by the learner in using form. Further, why do
these students mostly made archi-form error in their writings would be elaborated
in the following sub chapter.
3. Learners’ Personal Narratives
In order to answer the second research question, this section presents the
result of interview done by the researcher toward three students in Bahasa Inggris
I class B. Ellis (2005) states that errors involve determining their sources in order
to account for why those errors were made. Knowing the reasons of why the
students make errors is considered as an important part in SLA research. In this
research, then the researcher interviewed three of ten students related to their
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personal narratives in learning English especially in mastering the concept and the
use of past tense. Beside to find out why do they make errors in their writings, the
researcher also want to draw some clarification to the description of these
students‘ writings.
These three interviewees are P1, P2 and P9. There is a reason why the
reseacher chose these three students out of ten subjects here in this study. These
three students‘ writing descriptions represent each general division in terms of
their points. P1 achieves the highest score among all. He performs as the best
compared to the other nine in terms of accuracy, content, organization and diction
(see Chart 4.1). Therefore the researcher considers P1‘s level as best. While P9
represents those who achieve lower points in accuracy especially, and also
content, as well as the organization and diction (see Chart 4.1). Yet, P9‘s errors
are much less found in using of past tense. The errors commonly found are related
to other elements of English (preposition, subject-verb agreement, etc). So he
performs fairly good in term of past tense. The researcher considers P9‘s level as
good. P2 represents those who achieves lower points in accuracy, and the error
analysis result confirms that P2 produces fairly lot of errors in past tense. The
researcher considers P2‘s level as poor. By having the representative of each
level, the researcher expects a fairly result to clarify their performance in writing,
especially here in this study. That is why these three subjects then were picked up
to be interviewed.
There are some sources of error explained by Brown (1980) namely
interlingual transfer, intralingual factors and context of learning. While Corder
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(1973) proposes the similar concept. He explains there are four factors that give
impact to a learner in making errors while learning language namely mother
tongue, basis analogy, nature of teaching and teaching materials. The questions
that have been asked to the interviewee are to clarify it.
First of all, the interviewees were asked about when they learned English
for the first time. P1 states that he learned English for the first time when he was
in fourth grade of Elementary school. English lesson that he received at that time
was a formal English since it was taught at school. The other interviewee, P2
experienced the same. He managed to know English when he was in fourth grade
of Elementary school. Interestingly, both P1 and P2 claim that they got additional
class for English in the same time (fourth grade of Elemntary school).
P2: Pertama kali belajar bahasa Inggris itu SD kelas empat kalau tidak
salah e, tapi itu bukan formal.
I: Berarti kursus?
P2: Kursus, iyah kursus. Kursus tapi itu cuman berapa bulan e, tiga
bulan, dua kali pertemuan tiga bulan, setelah itu saya off.
Membosankan..membosankan.
(P2: I learned English for the first time when I was in the fourth grade of
Elementary school but it was not the formal one.
I: Was it an English course that you join?
P2: Yes, it was an English course. But, it was just for about moreless three
months with two meetings each month if I‘ve not mistaken, then I quited.
It was very boring for me.)
Yet, different from P2, P1 did not quit that early. He finished his English course
until he was in sixth grade of Elementary school. P1 claims that he even had
learned about past tense –and other tenses in that English course program.
P1: Eeh, di sekolah ada (bahasa Inggris, red). Terus gue dapat tambahan.
I: Nah itu maksudnya. Berarti frater les-lesan bahasa Inggris gitu pas SD?
P1: Iya. Tapi bener kan, pas SD kelas 4 itu gua udah dapat pelajaran
yang namanya bahasa Inggris. Cuman kalau past tense ya di les-lesan itu.
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(P1: Eeh, I got English at school. But also I got additional English lesson.
I: Yes, that is what I mean. So you learned English when you were in
Elementary school right?
P1: Yes. I got English lesson when I was in the fourth grade of Elementary
school. But for past tense specifically, I learned it in that course—English
course)
While P9, because he was born in other country and just moved to
Indonesia when he was around 14 years old, he managed to know English little bit
later than the other two. Beside that his experience with English was not
interesting. He claims that the teacher used to ask them to memorize the English
words. P9 said:
saya mulai kenal bahasa Inggris waktu masih SMP kelas 1. Dan aah, saya
dapat bahasa Inggris, saat itu memang ya saya menganggap bahasa
Inggris ini kan satu pelajaran yang tidak terlalu apa juga untuk saya
karena belum ada orientasi ke depan seperti apa. Jadi semacam hanya
ikut dinamika bahasa Inggris, kelas bahasa Inggris. Dan, yaah, belum
belajar, waktu itu yang pertama kali belajar bahasa Inggris itu adalah
untuk vocabulary, kata-katanya walaupun sampai sekarang tidak hafal-
hafal juga (tertawa). Itu mulai kenal bahasa Inggris mulai kenal seperti
ini, kata-katanya seperti ini terus , ehh, kalau mau tau banyak harus hafal
kata-kata disuruh guru untuk hafal kata-kata saat SMP itu. Dan
pengalaman pertama memang, belajar bahasa Inggris itu sesuatu yang
menurut saya sulit ya, untuk lebih bisa pahami lebih dalam lagi mengenai
bahasa Inggris yang bisa dipraktekan.
(I managed to learn English for the very first time when I was in the first
grade of Junior High School. And for me personally, at that time, I didn‘t
consider English as an important subject because I didn‘t have any
orientation for my future. So, at that time, I just follow the lesson and the
activities in the class without really be involved. The first thing about
English that I learned was vocabularies. Even though until now, I still have
lack of vocabularies (laugh). That‘s how I know English for the first time.
At that time, our teacher always ask us to memorize those vocabularies.
Which for me, as the first experience with English, it became very
difficult. Moreover how to understand and than apply it (Eng).)
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P2 and P9 have similar case in term of mother tongue. P9 was born in
Timor Leste and raised there until he was around 14 years old. Therefore, he
speaks Tetun (local language). But, he explains that Tetun itself has various type
namely Tetun Terik and Tetun Portu. Tetun Terik mostly adapts many words from
Indonesia to be used while Tetun Portu mostly adapts many other words from
Portugesee. P9 used to speak those two types of Tetun. As he explains:
Bahasa ibu saya bahasa Tetun. Hhm. Bahasa Tetun. Setelah itu saya
masuk eeh, SD, itu saya dibawa ke Timor Leste dan Tetun saya itu Tetun,
eehh, campuran. Saya dari Tetun yang Terik ke daerah yang Tetun Portu,
mau tidak mau saya harus, ehh, beda lagi. Saya harus menyesuaikan
dengan Tetun Terik saya dengan Tetun, eeh, Portu.
(I spoke Tetun as my first language. After I entered Elementary school, I
was taken to live in Timor Leste. Therefore I started to speak mix-Tetun
(Terik and Portu) Both of them are different so at that time I had to adapt.)
While P2 speaks bahasa Adonara (East of Flores‘ local language). He also
has various type of bahasa Adonara. For its variety of dialects and some lexical or
morphemes as he explains:
Bahasa daerah bahasa pertama saya. ... Baru saya kan basicnya, bahasa
(L1) kan ada beberapa bahasa memang, jadi ehm, bahasa ibu ada
beberapa bahasa, ada bahasa dialek Flores Adonara-Adonara Barat,
kemudian Flores Adonara Timur, dan Adonara tengah. Itu kan,
maksudnya masing-masing punya dialek yang berbeda. Ya, saya gunakan.
Ketika berbicara dengan orang Adonara Barat, ya, sambung, kemudian
Adonara Timur juga harus menyesuaikan dengan mereka.
(My first language is our local language. Basically our local language is
different one another even compared among disctrict. The dialects are
different. For example, the one that I used to speak at home is bahasa
Adonara-Barat, then also bahasa Adonara-Timur and bahasa Adonara
Tengah. Each of them, based on the location, has its own dialect and I
used to use all of them depend on whom I speak with)
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Different from what P2 and P9 have, P1‘s first language is bahasa
Indonesia. Eventhough he comes from a Javanesse family, his parents decide to
use bahasa Indonesia as the language for communication among family members.
P1 explains:
Bahasa ibu saya, ya bahasa Indonesia. Kami keluarga Jawa tetapi tidak
memraktekkan adat Jawa semuanya. Jadi walaupun Jawa, kami di
keluarga tetep ngomong bahasa Indonesia.
(My mother tongue is bahasa Indonesia. We are Javanesse, but we don‘t
practice all things as what a Javanesse family usually do. Eventhough we
are Javanesee, we still use bahasa Indonesia as a language for
communication in our family)
In dealing with learning English, a learner‘s mother tongue impacts a lot.
As what Brown (1980) explains about interlingual transfer as one of three sources
of error, it is proved. P2 and P9 claim that it was fairly difficult to start learning
and understanding English past tense because of the big difference concept of
their mother tongues and English itself. P2 states:
Secara teori paham tetapi secara ketika practice nya itu yang sulit.
Kadang, mungkin karena konsepnya dalam konsep Indonesia ya sehingga
misalnya, “saya juga:,” I also”. Gitu, Begitu. Jadi konsepnya dalam
bahasa Inggris sehingga ketika hendak memikirkan untuk membicarakan
sesuatu, pasti menterjemahkan dulu, ya terbawa, konsepnya terbawa,
sehingga harus terjemahkan dulu dari kata per kata, sehingga kadang
membingungkan juga untuk menerapkannya dalam tense.
(Theoretically I understand but to apply them, I think it‘s difficult.
Sometimes it is because I still hold Indonesian concept, for example, ―saya
juga‖, -he translates- ―I also‖. I find that in English we have different
concept but everytime I try to use English, I translate it into bahasa first.
That is why sometimes the concept follows. I end up with my own
confusion then)
Similar to that, P9 also states:
Aahh, SMP kelas 2 itu saya sudah diperkenalkan dengan tenses. Dan
waktu itu tenses dasar yang saya tahu itu simple present, present
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continuous dan past. Past pun simple past. Itu SMP. Itu dasar, kira-kira
saya SMP kelas 2 lah, kira-kira seperti itu. Hhm, dan saat itu, saya hanya
bisa menangkap simple-nya (read: present tense). Tapi past-nya itu masih
sulit. Past-nya memang sulit, saat itu memang sulit. Saya pikir itulah
kesulitan bagaimana merubah, bagaimana merubah satu kata sederhana
simple ke past itu, saat itu memang kesulitan saya sejak awal, tentang
seperti itu, perubahan kata. Karena konsepnya berbeda, dari bahasa
Indonesia)
(I was introduced to English tenses when I was in the second grade of
junior high school. But it was just the basic. And, at that time, I think I
only could understand well about present tense while past tense even is
still difficult until now. How to change the form in present to past is
difficult for me. Because from the very beginning, my problems is in
changing the form of a word and it is different from what we have in
bahasa)
The different concept between English and their mother tongue here specifically
goes to the changing form or a verb based on the time marking of a sentence. In
Tetun, bahasa Adonara and even bahasa Indonesia, we do not change the verb
eventhough the time is different when a certain sentence is uttered or produced.
This creates bunch of confusion when they are to deal with English tenses
concept.
Among their confusion, these students admit that English then was
becoming higher and higher required as they entered their Congregation. P2
explains:
Tapi ketika masuk kongregasi kan memang tuntutan utama harus bahasa
Inggrisnya karena bahasa Internasional. Jadi sempat membuat saya
kewalahan juga dengan basic bahasa Inggris yang ala kadarnya
kemudian yang sampai ke tingkat itu yang waktu SMA itu, eh, waktu di
Kongregasi itu bulan-bulan e, tahun pertama itu kami dapat tiga dosen
bahasa Inggris. Itu, grammarnya guru khusus, dosen khusus, kemudian
ehm, pronunciationnya juga khusus kemudian dia dalam membuat tulisan
juga khusus. Itu.
(But when I joined Congregation, English became the main requirement.
So it was little bit difficult for me to adapt since the basic knowledge of
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English that I got from high school was not adequate. In our Congregation,
for initial months we had helped by three lecturers for English. Each of
them helped us in grammar, pronunciation and writing of English)
P9 also explains that, in Seminary, not also English that he got to learn more and
deeper but also reflection activity. He tells:
Dalam seminari, kami diwajibkan membuat refleksi setiap hari. Itu dari
tingkat awal masuk sudah begitu. Dan itu nanti sampai tahap akhir
memang harus punya refleksi tertulis setiap hari. Maka boleh saya
katakan, kami sudah cukup terbiasa dengan kegiatan berefleksi. Dulu
ketika awal, saya masih awal, saya membuat refleksi selama satu bulan
penuh, setiap hari, dalam bahasa Inggris. Setiap hari satu halaman. Dan
dari situ, paling tidak secara praktis saya bisa membuat tulisan-tulisan
bahasa Inggris karena terbiasa. Sampai sekarang, dalam satu minggu,
setiap hari Kamis, saya membuat refleksi dalam bahasa Inggris sehingga
kebiasaan dengan bahasa Inggris. Di komunitas juga kami memiliki hari
bahasa Inggris itu hari senin, selasa dan kamis. Jadi semua repertoa doa-
doa dan misa pada hari-hari tersebut, kami pakai bahasa Inggris. Kecuali
kalau hari selasa, karena kami misa dengan umat sehingga bahasa
Indonesia. Tetapi untk ibadat pagi, doa-doa dan nyanyian semua dalam
bahasa Inggris. Dan hari Kamis, itu kami membuat refleksi dalam bahasa
Inggris untuk disharingkan dalam komunitas. Jadi refleksi tertulis itu bisa
disharingkan kepada saudara-saudara dalam komunitas.
(In Seminary, we are required to write a reflection every day, from the
very beginning. So i can say that we are accustomed to reflection writing.
At that time, in my initial period of entering Seminary, I used to write
English reflection. But it was only for about one month. But I think it is
helpful for me in learning how to write a reflection in English. Until now,
every Thursday,I still write a reflection using Englis. In our community –
Congregation- we have English days, which are Monday, Tuesday and
Thursday. So every activity are in English such as daily mass, brevire and
prayers. Except when we have mass with other people from outside –
Congregation- we use bahasa. But other than that, we use English. Every
Thursday, we also have to share our English reflection to other members.
So on Thursday, we share what we have written in our reflection to other
brothers in community, using English)
The fact that, not only required but in Seminary or their Congregation, the
exposure of English is constructing through various activities. Based on P9‘s
experience, the activity of reflecting using English also done to help them getting
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involved to English more and more. P1‘s experience then is quiet the same. He
tells that in Seminary, they got a pretty good practice in tenses, including past
tense. He explains:
Itu beneran agak nambah waktu di kelas 1. Karena dia jago banget. S3.
Gurunya di Mertoyudan. ... H‟mm. Jadi dia itu pake buku yang udah lama
banget, dan itu buku itu semacam kumpulan tenses gitu. Itu cetakan lama.
Setiap pembahasan ada soal-soal kayak kalimat gitu.
(In first grade of high school in Seminary, I got more (of English). Our
teacher was very fluent, Mertoyudan (High School Seminary). He used to
use an old book, typically a compilation of English tenses. It was
published long time ago, I guess. Each part of discussion, there are
questions to answer)
When these students are asked about their own understanding in English
past tense, each of them answered in quiet the same way. Most of them are not
very comfortable to say that they understand and master it well. While, the thing
that differ them one another is their experience of learning it in the past. They
share what they had and learned before. P2 for instance, explains his learning
experience at school as he began to learn English intensively.
Ya, monoton, ikut di buku, kemudian tugasnya pun paling
menterjemahkan, Sekedar terjemahkan dan itu kesannya membosankan
dari kelas satu sampai kelas dua, kemudian kelas tiga, ganti guru tetapi
itu saya rasa bahwa gurunya itu terlalu pintar berbahasa Inggris
sementara tidak menyesuaikan dengan kami yang pemula. Jadi itu juga
kesannya membosankan. Lalu waktu masuk SMA di Seminari, memang
menarik di Seminari itu pada saat bulan-bulan awal itu kami belajar
mulai penggunaan tenses, grammar iya, tenses-tenses, Itu, tapi karena
gurunya kan Pater, iya kan, jadi hampir setiap hari itu hanya bahas
mengenai tenses, sedangkan aplikasinya dalam, misalkan untuk buat
tulisan ataupun itu kurang, hanya belajar saja, itu SMA Seminari, kelas
satu hingga dua.
(It was monotonous. Our teacher just copied what written in books and
only gave us assignment on translating. Translating is so boring for me,
from my first until second grade of senior high school that was only
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activity our teacher gave. Then in third grade the teacher was changed.
But, I think he was too smart so that the method that he used was quiet
difficult for us to understand. So it was also so boring. When I entered
Seminary, English became more interesting. The lecturer, whose a priest
taught me abou tenses, and grammar. But, the activities were also in
practicing questions on that. We never had practice to really use it in
speaking or writing. I feel that it was not enough for me to be able to apply
those tenses appropriately then.)
Further about his understanding in past tense P2 states:
Pemahaman mengenai penggunaan past tense itu yang tahu adalah bahwa
sesudah berlalu, walaupun sedetik yang lalu, itu menggunakan past tense.
I:Kalau Past continuous?
P2: Past continous sampai sekarang masih membingungkan. ... itu juga
saya sampai sekarang saya tidak tahu kapan menggunakan have been,
kapan menggunakan has been, itu masih suatu kesulitan bagi saya.
(My understanding in using of past tense as far as I know is if it is
something that had happened in the past, even it is only about seconds, we
should use past form.
I: How about past continuous?
P2: Past continuous is confusing for me. ... I also don‘t know when to use
have been and has been. Those are still difficult for me.)
The similar story is revealed from P9 when he was asked the same
question. P9 explains that his teacher in junior high school tends to give them
command to memorize the vocabularies as well as the tenses or rules in English.
He tells:
Dulu itu kan kalau di SMP, guru omong apa ya kita peracaya saja.
Metode yang digunakan oleh guru saya waktu itu adalah menghafal. Dan
bagi saya saya merasa itu tidak cocok. Kalau untuk orang yang gamapang
menghafal ya baik, tetapi kalau seperti saya yang tidak suka menghafal itu
sangat sulit. Guru saya selalu suruh kami hafal, misalkan contoh kalau
present itu formula nya harus subjek tanpa predikat dan itu, dan itu harus
dihafal. Formulanya harus dihafal dan kekurangan saat itu adalah praktis
formula, yang masuk dalam praktek, misalkan saya diajarkan formula
past tense, tetapi untuk masuk dan menggunakan past tense itu kurang.
Apalagi bicara, itu kurang. Sehingga formula itu hanya semacam untuk
belajar saja begitu. Kita diberi untuk menghafal tetapi tidak pernah
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dilakukan. Untuk mendalami itu secara terus menerus, kalau tidak praktis
kan susah.
(When I was in junior high school, we obliged whatever teachers say. The
method in teaching English that was used for us is memorizing. And for
me it doesn‘t work much. For those who can easily memorize things, it
probably would be okay. But for me, I don‘t like memorizing. Though, our
teacher used to ask us to memorize, for example the formula for present
tense or other concept. The teachers asked us to memorize without real
practising. So it turns to be very difficult for me to apply it in a sentence.
For example in past tense. I only memorized it without really understand
the function of it. In my opinion, in order to get the understanding of the
concept, we really need to practice how to apply it into real form. If it is
not, it would be difficult.)
Both P2 and P9 claim that their teacher in high school tend to give kind of
boring activities and only focus on the materials without further consider the
students‘ understanding. Add, they reveal that the method for them are helpless
since need more chance to practice and further explanation to understand instead
of memorizing and drilling with written questions.
While P1 experience some difference in learning English since his very
first time. The English course that he took when he was in Elemnetary school
helps a lot for its method of finding ‗shortcuts‘ in understanding concepts in
English. As he explains:
Saat itu tuh, ada bahas „pedang bengkok‟ itu buat present. Pedang
bengkok itu S, jadi kalau S kan pedang bengkok. Jadi kami hafalinnya itu.
Jadi kalau present gitu kan pakai pedang bengkok. Misal, Ogi takes ... nah
ini ni pakai pedang bengkok. Kalau nggak, kalau misalnya di double atau
dia apa gitu, nah itu nggak pake pedang bengkok. Saat itu tuh, gue
ngerasa nah itu gua udah tahu tuh. Nah, jadi Alfa itu menyediakan cara
yang lebih mudah gua ngerti dan inget.
(There was a part of discussing something called ‗pedang bengkok‘ as a
representative of letter ‗s‘. So, we were taught that if it is in present than
the ‗pedang bengkok‘ should be used. For example, ―Ogi takes‖, nah, there
‗pedang bengkok‘ exists. If it is not in present than the ‗pedang bengkok‘
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should not be used. So, Alfa (the English course that P1 joined) provides
easy ways of understanding concepts in English. It was helpful for me)
As what he explained, can be seen that P1 experience different method compared
to what is experienced by P2 and P9 and the fact claims that the method that
applied when P1 started learning English helps him more in understand concepts
in English.
The researcher then tried to ask these students about their experience if
doing the writing reflection assigned by the lecturer in their Bahasa Inggris I class
last semester. Each of them answers differently.
P2 states that actually he expects a written feedback for what he had
written. Since for him, written feedback is easier to remember so that he will
know his mistakes and errors. He says:
kemarin yang buat refleksi itu bagus, itu memang sangat membantu sekali
ya untuk membuat refleksi dalam bahasa Inggris. Tetapi ketika di sana,
hanya sekedar mengumpulkan. Tidak ada feedback, kemudian tidak ada
memberi kami untuk, menyampaikan kepada kami gambaran sedikit apa
yang sudah kami sharingkan itu. Sehingga, istilahnya, mentok di situ.
(In doing the reflection assignment, I think it was very helpful. That
assignment gives me chance to practice writing reflection in English. But,
there was no feedback from the lecturer. Even any explanation about the
‗DOs and DON‘Ts‘ which actually we expect as the follow up of that
assginment. So it was not improved.)
P9 shares something different. He says that in doing the assignment, he
actually avoided using past tense. He did it because he is still confused about how
and when to apply past tense in sentences especially in writing a reflection. It is
seen as he explains:
Kalau refleksi, seingat saya itu saat menyusun itu, hal yang saya pikirkan
begini, saat ini saya menulis, saya akan mengatakan kepada orang, atau
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memberikan materi kepada orang, memberikan renungan ini kepada
orang sudah di waktu yang akan datang dan saya akan bekerja di hari ini.
Saya membawa teks yang hari ini saya kerjakan untuk hari esok. Artinya,
teks ini untuk hari esok itu sudah past. Itu kesulitan pertama yang saya
temukan. Dan menggunakan past tense secara tertulis seperti itu, saya
menemukan kesulitan. Awalnya, bagaimana mengatakan ini, apalagi
ambil lagi ayat dari kitab suci yang sudah ditulis beratus-ratus juta tahun
yang lalu untuk dihadirkan di sini dalam waktu present nah itu sesuatu
yang sulit dan itu membuat apa, semacam, ya saya bisa katakan bagi saya
membingungkan juga karena saya berpikir, masih, masih seperti ini,
karena itu tadi, membawa sesuatu yang masa lampau ke saat ini itu sulit.
Nah tapi saya berusaha dengan paling tidak apa yang bisa saya buat lah.
Jadi waktu itu saya memang tidak banyak menggunakan past tense. Teks
saya itu tidak banyak menggunakan past tense, lebih banyak saya
membawa ke present karena itu saya bisa lebih pahami dan saya merasa
lebih mudah untuk menyampaikan karena itu saat ini. Sehingga memang
banyak kesalahan-kesalahan yang sebetulnya itu kalimatnya harus past,
saya buatkan present. Saya semacam menghindari untuk buat jadi past
karena susah untuk saya mengerti.
(In doing the assignment, I thought like this. When I write that reflection, I
share reflection, experience and materials to people in the future. So, when
this written reflection is about to use in the future and the tense that I use is
present that would be irrelevant. Then, the reading that I use in my
reflection comes from Bible which speaks abouth events that had
happened in thousand years ago. That makes me so confused in
determining the tenses I use in that assignment. But I tried my best at hat
time, in doing that assignment. I worked on it but I avoided using past
tense. That is why there in my reflection, you may find lots of present
form instead of past form. Using present makes me easier to write and
understand my own allure of the reflection. I admit that some errors I
made commonly happen when I use present instead of past in telling
events that had happened)
As the final statement, the researcher asked these students to share their
opinions about how important to understand English well not only verbal, but also
written, for them as the candidate of Catholic Priest. They also share their
expectation of method in teaching and learning English based on what they had
experienced before.
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As what has been quoted previously, that P2 expects feedback in the
process of learning English, especially the written one. He further also refers to
what he had experienced when he was in junior and senior high school that
teachers should not be changed as the students moved to next grade. He thinks
that if there is only one teacher that teach them English from the first until the
third grade, the process of learning English would be more effective. Since the
teacher would be able to monitor students‘ progress and also control the materials
that are given in the process of learning. As the result, there will not be any
repetition in giving materials and teacher also can improve the method and
technique in teaching based on students‘ progress and need. His opinion can be
seen as he explains:
Satu problem nya itu juga bahwa setiap guru kan tiap kelas, setiap tingkat
berbeda. Kelas satu guru berbeda, kelas satu gurunya berbeda, kelas tiga
gurunya berbeda. Jadi guru yang bawa kami dari kelas satu itu
maksudnya tidak mengover apa yang sudah kami pelajari di kelas satu
sehinga nanti di kelas dua itu kecenderungan tetapi ulangnya dalam hal
yang lain. Ulangnya dalam hal yang lain sehingga dalam, membuat kami
bingung. Tercampur aduk, tidak fokus. Sehingga guru yang satu dengan
dia punya kapasitas yang satu nanti dia punya cara mengajarnya begini,
nanti berikutnya kami sudah merasa ya setidaknya sudah merasa in
dengan guru ini tapi nanti ketika naik kelas dua ganti lagi guru lagi. Guru
ini dengan dia punya type yang begini, cara mengajarnya begini, jadi itu
yang buat saya bosan.
(One problem for me is at school, teacher that teaches us English is
different each grade. The one in first grade is different from the one in
second and third grade. This makes some of our teachers could not
monitor the materials and control our progress. As the result, teacher then
repeats the materials that we have had before in the previous grade but in
different way or method. This creates chaos in our understanding about the
material itself and tends to be boring)
For the importance of English writing skill, P2 agrees that they –the candidates of
priest- need to learn and understand it well. As they have possibilities to receive
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mission abroad. He thinks that English writing skill should be prepared from now.
P2 states:
untuk kami para frater, kemampuan bahasa Inggris tidak cukup kalau
hanya menguasai yang komunikatif saja, tetapi kemampuan menulis juga.
Siapa tahu besok-besok kami diberi tugas misi ke luar negeri, komunikasi
lewat tulisan juga pasti sangat penting. Makanya kami butuh itu, untuk
bisa lebih berkembang.
(for us as the candidates of priests, it is not enough to master only English
for communication. Writing skill is needed too. As if we probably would
required to go abroad and run our mission.)
P2 realises the importance of mastering English writing skill. He has future
orientation which is to become a misionarist. The similar thought also revealed by
P9 as he tells:
Ketika sampai di sini, ketika saya mendapat kelas ini, saya pertama
mendapat kelas ini, dan saya berpikir mungkin ada hal-hal yang baru
yang saya bisa dapatkan karena saya memahami bahwa saya dituntut
untuk mampu berhadapan dengan teks (teks bahasa Inggris, red). Karena
di Filsafat, kami mulai berhadapan dengan teoi-teori teologi dan konsep-
konsep teologi yang mau tidak mau harus dari sana, dari bahasa sana
(Latin, Yunani, Jerman, Italia, red) Memang bahasa Inggris tidak menjadi
bahasa dasarnya gereja tetai kebanyakan teks bahasa Latin itu
otentisitasnya itu ditentukan oleh bahasa Inggris. Jadi teks-teks dokumen-
dokumen itu Gereja, biasanya selalu dalam bahasa Latin dan bahasa
Inggris. Dan mau tidak mau harus salah satu bahasa.
(As I arrived here and joined this class (English class, red) I think I could
get more knowledge. I realise that here I am required to be able to
understand texts. In Theology, we are facing theories which provided
mostly in English. Eventhough English is not the original language that
Church is using but, generally, its documents that originally written in
Latin, Greece, Germany, Italy) are first translated and verified firstly in
Latin and English. That is why, whether we like it or not, we need to
understand one of them)
As what is explained by P9, the fact that these students‘ future profession
requires also direct contact to written document in other languages. Interestingly,
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P1 even believes that English can be a transfer language to those other languages.
He tells:
Yaa, karena buat gua penting banget sebenarnya paham grammar tu. Buat
calon Imam, soalnya kita butuh buat baca tulisan ilmiah, iya kan, banyak
juga nih skripsi kakak-kakak pake bahasa Inggris. Dokumen-dokumen
gereja. Nah, kalau nggak ngerti grammar ntar orang ngertinya beda ya.
Dan orang itu kan, lha, biasanya Inggris itu yang kedua ya. Dalam
dokumen-dokumen itu biasanya yang pertama, Prancis, Jerman, Latin,
Italia. Nah, mereka begitu tahu, satu kata merea terjemahkan begini, lalu
ketika ke bahasa Indonesia, nanti maknanya bisa beda lagi. Sehingga
setidaknya kita harus tahu versi yang mendekatinya itu apa. Nah tu
biasanya tersedia dalam bahasa Inggris yang kedua itu. Maka paling tidak
kita harus tahu, biar ngerti. Kalau kita nggak tahu yang kedua itu, kita
nggak bakal tahu makna yang paling mendekatinya itu apa. Maka, buat
gua, penting tuh metode yang menekankan grammar buat kita calon Imam.
(For me understanding English grammar is very important. For priest
candidates it is important because we need to read scientific articles and
journal. Moreover, our seniors‘ thesis are almost written in English.
Apostolical documents are also presented in English. If we cannot
understand the grammar, we cannot understand the document well.
Generally, English is second language that is used. The documents are
originally written in France, Deutch, Latin, Italy, etc. It is important to
understand every single word and its context. If not, then the translation
might be different, when it is taken to bahasa Indonesia. English helps us
to understand at least the approximate meaning. If we don‘t master the
transfer language, we would misinterpret them. So in my opinion, the
method that emphasizes the grammar understanding in important for us as
the priest candidates)
B. Discussion
Learning language nowadays is not merely focused only on the technical
things. Many experts try to elaborate that grammar, tenses and many other rules
are not longer be the final goal of teaching and learning language process.
However, in preparing a learner to survive with future profession or occupation,
language skills including writing matters. In producing a good writing, one needs
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to master the language‘s rules, concept, formula or in other words what people
generally called it as grammar or structure. Yet, this study would not be focus on
grammar or structure as the goal of a teaching and learning language process. It is
used to describe learner language and map their mastery in one of English feature
called past tense.
This study analyses written products specifically written reflection.
Therefore, past tense then is considered as important to master by the writers. As
we know that in reflection, one shares ideas, values which related to experience.
Obviously, past tense here should be used properly so that the messages and the
value that the writer is sharing can be well transferred and understood. Moreover,
by seeing how the learners as the subject of this study write their reflection and
then analyzing the error of past tense that occurs, researcher than would be able to
provide a model of learner language. The involvement of these learners‘ personal
narratives in experience of learning English generally and past tense specifically
would complete the model of learner language a sort of clarification. From that, it
is expected that either language learners as well as language teachers of English
can learn from the data and the analysis in this study.
In order to describe the writings as the subject of this study, the researcher
use a rubric. Refering to the explicit knowledge of a learner language proposed by
Ellis (2005), the researcher forms a rubric that is used to assess the writings. The
rubric, as had been explained in the previous section contains of four focuses
namely accuracy, content, organization and diction.
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Generally, these students achieves best points for content. Based on the
data, these student achieves in average 58.45 for accuracy, which is the highest
average point among all four terms that assessed. Content here as the element that
is assessed in these writing covers what are the ideas and illustrations of messages
that these students use in writing their reflection. It is clarified that they actually
have been accustomed to reflecting, orally and verbally. Three interviewees claim
that they are required to have a written reflection every day which produced using
bahasa, even since the first day they started studying and living in Seminary. By
having reflection writing as a habit, there is no doubt that these students could
perform fairly good in picking their ideas to share. However, referring to the
rubric proposed by Brown & Bailey (1984), 58.45 cannot be considered as good
enough. There are still quiet lot of grammatical problems appeared and influenced
reader‘s understandings toward the writings. Students of Bahasa Inggris I class B
need to consider this point as what to be improved.
The second best point is achieved mostly all of them in term of
organization with the average point is 54.57. Generally, these students faced
problem in organizing their ideas. They are more likely missed to put some
particular ideas in the appropriate part, such as illustration is in the body of their
writing instead of in the opening or introduction part. Or in other cases, some put
conclusion in the early part without confirming it again in the next paragraphs.
This creates confusion when the ideas mentioned in the beginning never showed
again until the end. Also, sometimes, the writer even forgets their main ideas. The
main ideas are not even stated clearly. In the contrary, some of them repeat the
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same ideas quiet a lot. Much more that it should. The repetition then blurs the
main idea that the writer is actually going to deliver. Through the rubric used in
this study, the average point then confirmed that students need to develop more on
the ideas and pay attention more on the existence of the idea itself.
In diction, these students achieves quiet low with the average point is 52,9.
In the writings, still found relatively lot of vocabularies misused. The students
need to improve their awareness of part of speech of each word in English. Yet,
the lowest average point is in accuracy. The point for accuracy is 52,72. Through
the rubric, it can be seen that these students still produce run-on sentences. Even
the messages are getting through the readers but that problems affect the
understanding and later the communication between writer and the readers.
As the result error analysis, mostly the errors found in past tense are
typically archi-form (misformation). According to Dulay (1982), archi-form errors
are made by the learner in using form. Based on the findings, most of the errors
made by the students are in using form. Even there are some of the students found
to make errors only in using form. The personal narratives of the three persons
that have been interviewed show and clarify it. In order to make it clearer, the
discussion on this would be elaborated based on source of errors explained by
Brown (1980).
1. Interlingual transfer
Brown (1980) defines interlingual transfer is one of the source of learners‘
error in learning a language. Corder (1973) uses the term mother tongue. Both of
these experts explain that a learner can make an error because the impact of the
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mother tongue of the learner itself. Two out of three subjects that had been
interviewed used to speak their local language as their mother tongues. Both of
them even speaks their mother tongues in more than one types in terms of dialect.
The first one started to learn bahasa Indonesia before he formally attended
elementary school and then started to know and learn English when he just
attended junior high school. Therefore, his mother tongue is his local language,
then bahasa Indonesia becomes his second language and English becomes his
third language. The second one also claims the same. His first language is his
local language as well as his second language (bahasa Indonesia) and his third
language which is English. Only one of those three that has bahasa Indonesia as
his first language and then English as his second language. The first two (P2 and
P9) perform not as better as the third (P1) does. In their personal narratives, also
claimed by those who have local language as the first language that it is difficult
to understand and apply concept of past tense once they are learning English. That
is because they don‘t have such the same concept of tenses in their local language.
While, the third one, whom perform much better in using past tense compared to
other two claims that it is quiet easier to apply the concept of past tense in English
because it is similar to his first language (bahasa Indonesia).
2. Intralingual
According to Brown (1980), students can produce an error because of the
nature of the target language. In cases of the three subjects that had been
interviewed found that intralingual is one of the sources of errors they produce. P2
and P9, beside that they have local language as first language, they also did not
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have as long period of time in learning English as P1 has. P1 has already
introduced to English tenses (including past tense) when he was in Elementary
school. It is obvious that the longer a learner learn the target language, the bigger
chance of him to understand the concept of that language. In performance, P2 and
P9 produce more errors in forming past tense compared to P1 does. When it is
clarified in the interview, P2 and P9 claim that they find it difficult to understand
the concept of past tense due to the lack of practice and chance to apply that
concept into real sentences, orally and verbally. They expect more practice adn
drilling in using it (past tense) instead of only learn about it theoretically.
3. Context of learning
Brown (1980) mentions context of learning as the third possible source of
error that made by a learner. This refers to the materials and method of teaching in
the target language that received and experienced by the learner. The personal
narratives of the three interviewees are quiet similar one another. Each of them
reveals that their experince in learning English from the very beginning is not
always interesting and challenging. Most of them tells the same story when
talking about their learning experience in the past. P2 sees that the method of
teaching English that was used by his teacher both in Elementary and Junior high
school is always boring. While his experience in Senior high school, as he sees,
that there was lack of chance to really practice and apply what they have learned
from books and drilling. The focus of the discussion was mostly in the theory of
tenses itself (including past tense). P9 emphasized his experience of being asked
to memorize words and rules of English in his early period of learning English as
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boring and frsutrating. Since he claims that he is not good in memorizing things
then that sort of method in teaching him English creates no improvement in his
English. P1, even though doesn‘t clearly states about his opinion in the method of
his teachers that teach him English, also mentions that he expect more from it.
Especially in the portion of practising and appyling what he was learning about
English and its tenses, including past tense.
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter contains of two parts. The first part provides the conclusions
derived from the findings and the discussion. The second part provides some
recommendations drawn by the researcher for some related parties. All are
adressed within the scope of the case study on learner language in written
reflection produced by ten students of Bahasa Inggris I class B in Theology
Faculty-Sanata Dharma University.
A. Conclusions
Based on the findings and discussion, it can be concluded these following
points:
1. Writing description
Generally, the students of Bahasa Inggris I class B perform well in
pouring content in their writings. As the impact of having a habit in writing
reflection, they could extract the value and relate it with their own reflection.
While in term of organization, not all of them could perform well. There are some
misplacing and repetitions of ideas. They need to be more careful in forming each
part of a writing such as opening, body and closing. Those three are the primary
parts of a good writing. Based on what are found and assessed in their writing,
these students tend to miss some points in each part. In term of diction, these
students also need to improve. There are still found some unsuitable words and
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terms used in the writings. In term of accuracy, the average point achieved by
these students is the lowest among the other three. Since in accuracy, grammar
and structure are the focus and the writings are typically reflection, then past tense
is considered as a feature that holds important role. Therefore, further analysis is
conducted on errors made in using past tense to clarify this description. Personal
narratives of the students later also used to complete the clarification.
2. Analysis of the error in using past tense
Based on the analysis, it is found that mostly these students make errors in
using form or as Dulay explains called as archi-form (misformation). It happens
when the learner use wrong form of words, in this case past form, in sentences.
There are some other errors that are made by these students namely, a). double
marking (addition) where the learner doubles particular morphemes or words or
time marker in forming sentence with past tense, b). misordering where the
learner put wrong order of a lexical or morpheme in a sentence with past tense,
c). regularization in misformation where the learner misform a past form of a
word, d). omission where the learner omits any past morpheme in sentences, e).
alternating form where learner put or alter a morpheme in incorrect place. Yet,
above all, the archi-form (misformation) is the most significant errors that found
made by these students.
3. Clarification from the students’ personal narratives
Based on the result of interview, it is discussed that learners experience in
learning English gives impact in how they perform in their writing. In case of
error in past tense they have made, they claim that nature of mother tongue, nature
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of the target language (English) and context of learning influence how they
understand and master the concept of past tense as well as the ability of applying
it in their writing. Referred to what Brown (1980) explains about those sources of
errors, it is clarified that:
a). nature of mother tongue can bring confusion when the learner has to deal with
concept in the target language, which in this case, is really different one another,
b). nature of target language also can bring confusion to the learner when the
learner is not accustomed enough to learn and apply that concept in real practices,
c). context of learning that forms the allure of leaning experience especially in
English concept also can lead the learner to confusion. When it is only focus on
the theory to be memorized or to be drilled without any further real practice and
application, the learners find it difficult to understand and later to be able to use
the feature (past tense) in their language production.
B. Recommendations
In this part, the researcher would like to give some suggestions to some
parties. They are the students of Bahasa Inggris I Class B, future researchers and
the English Language Education Study Program.
1. The Students of Bahasa Inggris I class B
This study has explained some description of the writings produced by
these students. Based on what have been found the students of Bahasa Inggris I
class B better to spend more time to practice writing in English. As the candidate
of priest, later, they would be required to master not only English for
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communication but also for reflection, both oral and written. Besides that, it is
needed for them to practice more in applying tenses as possible as the can. Since
practicing would give them chance to improve day by day.
2. Future researchers
For future researchers, this study can be used as a reference in conducting
other research related on Education and learner language as well as second
language acquisition. There are some findings found in this study that can be
researched further. For example in the writings of the students, also found errors
in subject-verb agreement, prepositions, and any other feature of English. Future
researcher might conduct a research which focuses on that related to how a learner
language improves in the process of learning the target language. Also, we have
found that there are some factors that give impact learners’ errors during the
process of learning a language. In those factors there are various forms or aspects
that found as the sources of errors. Future research probably may conduct research
in that aspects to help both students or language learners and language teachers
improve their method in teaching and learning English.
3. The English Language Education Study Program
This study can help the study program to consider teaching practice or
internship for students of ELESP as an English tutor or teacher in other
departments (such as theology, math education, or other departments in Sanata
Dharma University) in a quiet long period of time, as a part of a compulsory
subject offered in the study program. Since the internship later can provide real
model of learner language and broader background of language that other
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departments’ students hold. Different from what the study program has done these
years which called PPL, internship in other departments in campus provides more
complete experience. By involving the students of ELESP, which are expected to
be an English teacher in the future, to the real process of acquiring English as a
second language on those who are preparing for other profession than a teacher,
the experience and the knowledge of these teacher candidates may be enriched
and broadened.
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Brown, H. D. (2004). Language assessment; principal and classroom practices.
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Dalen, D. B. V. (1979). Understanding educational research, an introduction. 4th
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Harris, D. P. (1969). Testing english as a second language. New York:
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Hyland, K. (2003). Second language writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University
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Norrish, J. (1983). Language learners and their errors. London: Macmillan Press.
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APPENDIX A
INTERVIEW
TRANSCRIPTIONS
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Interviewee : P2
Gender : Male
Date/Time : Saturday, April 16th 2016.
I : Jadi, hal pertama yang saya ingin tahu, kapan pertama kali Frater
belajar bahasa Inggris?
P2 : Pertama kali belajar bahasa Inggris itu SD kelas empat kalau tidak salah
e, tapi itu bukan formal.
I : Berarti kursus?
P2 : Kursus, iyah kursus. Kursus tapi itu cuman berapa bulan e, tiga bulan,
dua kali pertemuan tiga bulan, setelah itu saya off. Membosankan..membosankan.
I : Lalu dapat formalnya?
P2 : Dapat formalnya SMP, SD kelas 6 sudah dapat tapi masih yang abjad,
nama-nama hari, yang dasar. Saya SMP nya di Santisima Hokeng, 2006. Di SMP
mulai belajar intensif, tapi cara mengajar gurunya yang kurang bagus.
I : Seperti apa tu? Maksudnya apakah monoton, ikut di buku atau?
P2 : Ya, monoton, ikut di buku, kemudian tugasnya pun paling
menterjemahkan,
P2 : Sekedar terjemahkan dan itu kesannya membosankan dari kelas satu
sampai kelas dua, kemudian kelas tiga, ganti guru tetapi itu saya rasa bahwa
gurunya itu terlalu pintar berbahasa Inggris sementara tidak menyesuaikan dengan
kami yang pemula. Jadi itu juga kesannya membosankan. Lalu waktu masuk
SMA di Seminari, memang menarik di Seminari itu pada saat bulan-bulan awal
itu kami belajar mulai penggunaan tenses, grammar iya, tenses-tenses, Itu, tapi
karena gurunya kan Pater, iya kan, jadi hampir setiap hari itu hanya bahas
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mengenai tenses, sedangkan aplikasinya dalam, misalkan untuk buat tulisan
ataupun itu kurang, hanya belajar saja, itu SMA Seminari, kelas satu hingga dua.
Kemudian saya lanjutkan, saya kan dikeluarkan dari seminari jadi lanjutkan di
SMA di luar itu, SMA di luar itu bahasa Inggrisnya sangat membosankan, saya
keluar dari SMA Seminari kemudian lanjut di SMA Darius Larantuka, dan itu
yang sangat membosankan. Karena cara mengajarnya sama kaya Pak -----. Terlalu
tinggi, bisa dikatakan terlalu tinggi juga, itu dan hampir setiap hari mendikte,
sesuai dengan apa yang, apa yang dia mau. Jadi, jadi tidak memberi ruang kepada
kami untuk mengekspresikan pengetahuan Inggris kami. Bahkan untuk, ehm,
palingan disuruh menghafal paragraf lalu menceritakan kembali
I : Oya?
P2 : itu, SMA kemudian, tense itu juga tidak disentuh sehingga masih, masih
bingung.masih bingung penggunaan tense-tense nya itu. Lebih kepada mendikte.
Sehingga pelajaran bahasa Inggrisnya itu tidak terlalu mendalam. Saya kan
jurusan bahasa, saya kan jurusan bahasa tetapi lebih spesifiknya lebih tertarik
dengan bahasa Jerman. Hanya bahasa Inggrisnya memang kualitaas gurunya
bagus tetapi cara mengajarnya yang kurang bagus sehingga membuat saya tidak
ada daya tarik untuk tidak belajar bahasa Inggris. Tapi ketika masuk kongregasi
kan memang tuntutan utama harus bahasa Inggrisnya karena bahasa Internasional.
Jadi sempat membuat saya kewalahan juga dengan basic bahasa Inggris yang ala
kadarnya kemudian yang sampai ke tingkat itu yang waktu SMA itu, eh, waktu di
Kongregasi itu bulan-bulan e, tahun pertama itu kami dapat tiga dosen bahasa
Inggris. Itu, grammarnya guru khusus, dosen khusus, kemudian ehm,
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pronunciationnya juga khusus kemudian dia dalam membuat tulisan juga khusus.
Itu.
I : Itu selama satu tahun frater?
P2 : Selama satu tahun. Selama satu tahun, satu minggu empat kali
pertemuan, tiga dosen empat kali pertemuan. Intensif, iya. Tapi itulah bahwa,
mungkin kelemahan kami di sana, kecenderungan, memang ada saat-saat untuk
berbahasa Inggris ya, tetapi kecenderungan untuk menggunakan bahasa Indonesia.
Sehingga lebih sering bahasa Indonesia walaupun itu aah, aturannya bahwa hari
itu adalah khusus untuk bahasa Inggris tapi nyatanya ehh, bahasa Indonesia.
Kemudian, waktu di ini juga kami diajarkan untuk membuat sharing-sharing
dalam bahasa Inggris, refleksi-refleksi dalam bahasa Inggris. Tapi masalahnya
ketika kami berbuat salah tidak dikoreksi. Tidak dikoreksi, iya. Misalnya dalam
tulisan waktu itu dia menggantikannya tetapi tidak memberi keterangan misalnya
ini kesalahan apa yang di sini, di sini, sehingga kurang memuaskan juga bagi
saya. Itu tahun-tahun pertama mulai belajar bahasa Inggris di kongregasi. Tetapi
memang waktu di dalam kongregasi saya merasa pengalaman bahasa Inggris saya
mulai, eh, sudah artinya di atas dari yang SMA lah, walaupun sedikit, ada
perubahan.
I : Lebih produktif?
P2 : Jadi, iya, lebih produktif, lebih banyak menulis dalam bahasa Inggris,
kemudian ada hari khusus berbahasa Inggris yang saya mencoba untuk berbahasa
Inggris tetapi itulah kecenderungan orang Indonesia. Jadi, satu yang, sesuatu yang
menjadi pergumulan bagi saya juga karena ketika berbicara bahasa Inggris tetapi
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dialeknya masih Flores. Itu jadi satu dilema bagi saya untuk berbicara dalam
bahasa Inggris. Sehingga waktu ada, dua tahun yang lalu ada kunjungan dari
pastor-pastor dari luar negeri, itu yang memang benar kami dibanting habis-
habisan dalam satu minggu hanya khusus untuk belajar bahasa Inggris supaya
nanti bisa berkomunikasi dengan pastor-pastor itu. Tetapi hanya begitulah, hanya
percakapan-percakapan lebih-lebih dalam persiapan itu ya, persiapan untuk
berkomunisi dengan para pastor dari Inggris itu kami hanya diberi kesempatan
untuk bercakap-cakap, bercakap-cakap saja, sedangkan untuk mengoreksi kadang
campur aduk, ehh, itu, dia punya tensenya itu. Amburadul semua, mana yang itu
past, present, future.
I : Tapi pada dasarnya frater sebenarnya memahami? Secara teori paham?
P2 : Secara teori paham tetapi secara ketika practice nya itu yang sulit.
Kadang, mungkin karena konsepnya dalam konsep Indonesia ya sehingga
misalnya, saya juga, I also. Gitu, Begitu. Jadi konsepnya dalam bahasa Inggris
sehingga ketika hendak memikirkan untuk membicarakan sesuatu, pasti
menterjemahkan dulu, ya terbawa, konsepnya terbawa, sehingga harus
terjemahkan dulu dari kata per kata, sehingga kadang membingungkan juga untuk
menerapkannya dalam tense.
I : Bahasa ibu frater apa?
P2 : Bahasa daerah bahasa pertama saya. Ada perbedaan antara konsep bahasa
Lamaholot (interviewee’s L1) dengan bahasa Indonesia saja sudah beda, apalagi
dengan bahasa Inggris. Baru saya kan basicnya, bahasa (L1) kan ada beberapa
bahasa memang, jadi ehm, bahasa ibu ada beberapa bahasa, ada bahasa dialek
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Flores Adonara-Adonara Barat, kemudian Flores Adonara Timur, dan Adonara
tengah. Itu kan, maksudnya masing-masing punya dialek yang berbeda. Ya, saya
gunakan. Ketika berbicara dengan orang Adonara Barat, ya, sambung, kemudian
Adonara Timur juga harus menyesuaikan dengan mereka.
I : Kita kembali sedikit ke past tense. Saya mau tahu secara umum
pemahaman frater tentang past tense bagaimana?
P2 : Pemahaman mengenai penggunaan past tense itu yang tahu adalah bahwa
sesudah berlalu, walaupun sedetik yang lalu, itu menggunakan past tense. Dan
kalau ada –ed berarti itu waktunya sudah lewat. Jadi indikasinya ya itu. Pokonya
asal ada tanda bentuk past, nah bagi saya itu sudah benar. Tapi dalam aplikasinya,
kecenderungan menggunakan present. Tensenya, menggunakan present.
I : Past continuous?
P2 : Past continous sampai sekarang masih membingungkan. Kalau dalam
penggunakan itu ya kadang saya temukana dalam pengalaman, misalnya kalau
sudah ada kata to, ada to di depan, berarti tidak, verb nya harus verb 1. Tapi itu
bukan dalam apa e, dalam pengalaman sehari-hari ketika dikoreksi oleh teman-
teman itu kemudian kalau untuk menggunakan, itu juga saya sampai sekarang
saya tidak tahu kapan menggunakan have been, kapan menggunakan has been, itu
masih suatu kesulitan bagi saya. Itu waktu teori, pernah diajarkan tapi kapan
menggunakan itu yang mungkin sudah diajarkan tetapi pada saat itu saya
ngelamun atau bagaimana saya juga tidak tahu. Iya, practicenya, practice memang
kurang.
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I : Terus, eeh, kalau misalnya frater mulai bingung saat writing. Apa yang
frater lakukan?
P2 : Kalau untuk penggunaan have, has nya itu saya tahu. Kalau have kan
untuk orang pertama, orang kedua. Sedangkan has kan untuk orang ketiga
tunggal. Tapi kecenderungan itu nanti pada saat practicenya itu bingung. Pada
saat menulisnya. Meskipun have, has nya tetapi menempatkan pada saat mana
menggunakna ini yang tidak tahu. Itu yang tidak tahu,
I : setelah ikut kelas bahasa Inggris di sini, bagaimana? Semakin jauh atau
dekat pemahamannya dengan yang benar?
P2 : Merasa justru semakin jauh. Semakin jauh. Mengawang-awang. Baru
omong nya, mungkin karena, iya, lompat-lompat, itu sudah, dan kecenderungan
campur. Indonesia-Inggris, Indonesia-Inggris sehingga bingung. Ya bingung.
I : Lalu frater ingin seperti yang mana?
P2 : Kalau Inggris, sebaiknya Inggris semua supaya biar kita menganalisanya
kan juga bagus kan. Bisa berusaha untuk belajar dari yang sudah dia bicarakan itu
tadi tapi karena campur-campur sehingga bingung. Bukan Cuma untuk saya
sendiri, untuk teman-teman yang terkhusus dari confrik saya juga saya, begitu,
bahwa bahasa Inggrisnya Pak --- memang dia orangnya basicnya Inggris tetapi
terlalu tinggi untuk kami.
I : Kembali ke frater punya pengalaman belajar bahasa inggris dulu.
Apakah ada guru ideal yang cara mengajarnya paling nyaman dengan frater?
P2 : Itu kelas tiga SMA, eh, SMP, dan kelas tiga SMA tapi bukan baru satu
problem nya itu juga bahwa setiap guru kan tiap kelas, setiap tingkat berbeda.
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Kelas satu guru berbeda, kelas satu gurunya berbeda, kelas tiga gurunya berbeda.
Jadi guru yang bawa kami dari kelas satu itu maksudnya tidak mengover apa yang
sudah kami pelajari di kelas satu sehinga nanti di kelas dua itu kecenderungan
tetapi ulangnya dalam hal yang lain. Ulangnya dalam hal yang lain sehingga
dalam, membuat kami bingung. Tercampur aduk, tidak fokus. Sehingga guru yang
satu dengan dia punya kapasitas yang satu nanti dia punya cara mengajarnya
begini, nanti berikutnya kami sudah merasa ya setidaknya sudah merasa in dengan
guru ini tapi nanti ketika naik kelas dua ganti lagi guru lagi. Guru ini dengan dia
punya type yang begini, cara mengajarnya begini, jadi itu yang buat saya bosan.
Saya juga termasuk orang yang cepat bosan. Saya kan bukan, harus aktif, harus
ada sesuatu yang dikerjakan begitu.
I : Bagaimana dengan metode yang frater harapkan?
P2 : Kalau untuk metodenya pak --- kemarin yang buat refleksi itu bagus, itu
memang sangat membantu sekali ya untuk membuat refleksi dalam bahasa
Inggris. Tetapi ketika di sana, hanya sekedar mengumpulkan. Tidak ada feedback,
kemudian tidak ada memberi kami untuk, menyampaikan kepada kami gambaran
sedikit apa yang sudah kami sharingkan itu. Sehingga, istilahnya, mentok di situ.
Mentok di kumpul, setelah itu mungkin dia ambil nilai, setelah itu sudah. Begitu.
Saja, tidak ada feedback untuk kami. Misalnya dalam hal ini, penggunaan ini, ini,
ha, kalau misalkan kemarin dengan ---- kan mantaplah, kita sampaikan, kita baca,
kemudian ada feedback nya nah itu yang biasanya kalau yang feedback nya itu
yang sering kita ingat, kan. Padahal untuk kami para frater, kemampuan bahasa
Inggris tidak cukup kalau hanya menguasai yang komunikatif saja, tetapi
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kemampuan menulis juga. Siapa tahu besok-besok kami diberi tugas misi ke luar
negeri, komunikasi lewat tulisan juga pasti sangat penting. Makanya kami butuh
itu, untuk bisa lebih berkembang.
I : Oke, baik. Terimakasih frater untuk interview hari ini. Terimakasih
banyak frater sudah meluangkan waktu membantus saya.
P2 : Sama-sama. Sukses selalu.
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APPENDIX B
LEARNERS’ ERROR
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S Type
of
Error
Sub-
categor
y of
error
Erroneous sentences Researcher’s notes
P1 O -
A DM -
RegA -
SimpA -
Mo - -
Mf RegMf -
Archi 1. Have you ever find
yourself in front of a
strong block and it seemed
you are going to give up?
2. I move gradually, step
by step.
3. They realize that the
true friendship is the
greatest teasure
Inconsistency
indicates the writer
doesn’t sure how to
use past tense in this
sentence.
In the previous
sentences, the writer
uses past tense
because the event
happens in this
sentence also had
already done in past.
So it should be
moved.
Idem.
Af -
P2 O - -
A DM 1. I used to woke up late
every day
2. However, we were tend
to say ...
3. If i got it, sometimes I
felt struggled or confused.
This should use the
concept of habitual
past. The writer
probably doesn’t
understand that used
to indicates the past
habit already so that
the verb 2 is not
needed anymore.
Add, the writer
shoul know that to-
form uses base verb.
That is why this is
considered as
misformation error
too (see the column
of misformation
error below)
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It is doubled
because the writer
uses were before a
verb.
The writer doubles
the verbs here, also
this sentence raises
confusion to the
readers because it
inconsistency of the
tenses used. That is
why this also is
considered as an
error in
misformating.
RegA -
SimpA -
Mo - One day my school have
planned a program, called
Jalan Santai.
The writer probably
misorders the phrase
have planned
because what
happenned in the
past is the school
had a plan of a
program. Not the
plan itself.
Mf RegMf When I am watching this
movie, ...
It happened in the
past so it should be
was
Archi 1. I used to woke up late
every day
2. If he got angry with me,
I just smile and said ...
3. I found the value
contained said, ...
4. Who also took part ...
5. If i got it, sometimes I
felt struggled or confused.
6. Because my desired to
follow the competition was
so strength, I gave much
time to improve my skill.
7. Finally, I can present a
This sentence should
be parallel. Smile
smiled
It doesn’t need to be
in verb 2 since the
idea discussed in
this sentence is
actually a general
turth.
The writer
misunderstood that a
noun cannot be
treated like a verb.
Can should be
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silver medal for my group.
8. The other way is when I
faced some difficulties, I
am often asked how to
keep the difficulties that
can be overcome.
could.
Af -
P3 O - 1. I (was) very afraid
2. I (was) very scared to
tell it to the others, ...
3. I (was) very scared to
tell it ...
The writer omits the
to be
A DM 1. I’m was in pretending
area
2. ...when I go into the
monestary I was faced it.
RegA -
SimpA -
Mo - -
Mf RegMf -
Archi 1. ..that among Jews has
become a culture when the
Sabbath one should not
engage in activities that
are very heavy.
2. ...when I go into the
monestary I was faced it.
3. I’m surprised ...
This sentence was
expected to tell the
event happened in
the past but the
writer didn’t use the
past form for the
verb go
Idem.
Idem.
Af -
P4 O - From the video, I (was)
impressed about the
loyality of Mary and
Joseph, especially to do
the best for the God plans.
A DM 1. Rosa was lived in her
cage.
2. This experience was
happened when I was
seven years old.
3. So, she can roamed
freely an grow up happily.
4. She was created of all
just for us.
5. God was gived in her
soul ...
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RegA -
SimpA -
Mo - -
Mf RegMf -
Archi 1. When she walk out from
the zoo, she thought and
cried “friends!”.
2. She met and disturbs the
ice cream vendor, the
seller of coconut, she
entered in the shop of TV
screen and also make a
traffic jam.
3. When I get my holidays
to home, he always
requested me to visit his
house and told me many
things.
4. I have feel it.
5. I was given food and
watch TV comfortably.
This sentence was
expected to tell the
event happened in
the past but the
writer didn’t use the
past form for the
verb go
Idem.
There is
inconsistency of
using the past form.
Idem.
Not parralel.
Af I gave a pocket money
before went to school or
many foods was given to
me when in my home
weren’t food.
P5 O - Jesus wants (to) invites us
to be seriously when we
are going to pray
A DM Jesus wants invites us to
be seriously when we are
going to pray
RegA -
SimpA -
Mo - -
Mf RegMf -
Archi 1. Since we was a child ,
we got the love from our
parents.
2. After that, I am afraid to
meet with my father.
3. I try to be brave to meet
him and tell him my
mistake.
4. My father come to me
Missformed. Also
there is confusion
whether the writer
wants to use
singular or plural.
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and said, “I loved you my
son, don’t be afraid
because you is the best
son.”
5. I prefer to my father to
be a good man in my
school.
Af -
P6 O - She (is) left by her
husband
A DM 1. They were had many
problems in their lives but
she has to pay the college
fee.
2. She was always happy
and gave me her cute
smile everytime I saw her,
The writer doubles
verb in past form
here.
The doubling
happens in the tense
used. Was indicates
past while always
requires verb base
(present usually)
RegA -
SimpA -
Mo - -
Mf RegMf -
Archi 1. They were had many
problems in their lives but
she has to pay the college
fee.
2. I did angry with my
mother.
3. ... either she allow, or
did not allow me.
4. ... because my
behaviour that always
went home at midnight.
The verb should be
in past.
Wrong formation. It
should be a past to
be.
Af -
P7 O - -
A DM 1. I will knew purpose of
the experience what is said
to me.
2. I will brought come to
grief in my life every day
RegA -
SimpA -
Mo - From the films were gave This might be a
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teacher, ... misordering error.
Mf RegMf I misunderstanded them.
Archi 1. The meaning of this idea
is Jesus has gave notice
His life in the future.
2. When he said like that, I
am sure that people who
listened to His voice didn’t
understand His purposed.
3. From the films were
gave teacher, ...
4. I was knew as a naughty
boy.
5. I always apposed their
adviced.
6. I always looked for the
happiness time outside my
home.
7. I cannot controlled my
self.
8. They have start to study
it very well.
The form should be
verb 3; given
The writer probably
is confused with the
form of verb and
noun.
This might be also a
misformating error.
The writer misforms
the past form of
cannot.
It should be in past
form.
Af -
P8 O - -
A DM -
RegA -
SimpA -
Mo - -
Mf RegMf -
Archi 1. Once upon a time there
is a man who works as a
fisherman.
2. One day, when the
fisherman goes to work,
the fisherman catches a
fish which can speak in
human language.
3. The magic fish asks the
fisherman to let him go.
4. When the fisherman
come back home, he tells
to his wife.
5. And you know, his wife
is very angry with the
fisherman.
6. When his wife hears a
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news from the fisherman
about the magic fish, she
tells the fisherman to go
back again ....
7. The fisherman does that.
8. After that, the fisherman
stands in the shore then
telling it to the fish.
9. And the fish grants the
fisherman’s wife desire.
10. .. he sees that he has a
big house.
11. The fisherman’s wife is
not satisfy.
12. She sees that a big
house is not perfect.
13. She tells hers desire to
her husband again that she
wants a stone castle.
14. The fisherman goes
more with another will of
his wife: A stone castle.
15. The fish answers.
16. After that, the
fisherman goes back home
and he sees that there are
many servants, ...
Af -
P9 O - -
A DM -
RegA -
SimpA -
Mo - -
Mf RegMf -
Archi When the words were
saying, I should think
about the meaning.
Related to the
context in the
paragraph, the writer
should use a present
instead of a past
because that is what
always the writer
does (it is a repeated
action)
Af -
P10 O - -
A DM -
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Notes:
P1 stands for participant 1, the
rests are the same.
O stands for Omission
A stands for Addition
Mo stands for Misordering
Mf stands for Misformating
DM stands for Double Marking
RegA stands for Regularization of
Addition
SimpA stands for Simple addition
error
RegMf stands for Regularization
of Misformating
Archi stands for Archi-form
Af stands for Alternating form
RegA -
SimpA -
Mo - -
Mf RegMf -
Archi The little pianist has a
great desire to play piano
and dreamed of becoming
a pianist someday.
This sentence is not
parallel.
Af -
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APPENDIX C
RUBRIC OF WRITING
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Rubric of Writing as adapted from Brown and Baley (1984)
Elements ≥75 ≥50≤74 ≥25≤49 ≤24
Accuracy
(grammar)
Advanced
proficiency in
English
grammar;
some
grammar
problems
don’t
influence
communicatio
n, although
the reader is
aware of
them; no
fragments or
run-on
sentences, no
more than two
inappropriate
tenses used
Ideas are
getting through
the reader but
grammar
problems are
apparent and
have a negative
effect on
communication
; run-on
sentences or
fragments
present
Numerous
serious
grammar
problems
interfere with
communicatio
n of the
writer’s ideas;
grammar
review of
some areas
clearly
needed;
difficult to
read sentences
Severe
grammar
problems
interfere
greatly with
the message;
reader can’t
understand
what the
writer was
trying to say;
unintelligible
sentence
structure
Content
(logical
development
of ideas)
Essay
addresses the
assigned
topic; the
ideas are
concrete and
thoroughly
developed; no
extraneous
material;
essay reflects
thoughts
Essay
addresses the
issues but
misses some
points; ideas
could be more
fully
developed;
some
extraneous
material
present
Ideas
incomplete;
essay does not
reflect careful
thinking or
was hurriedly
written;
inadequate
effort in area
of content
Essay is
completely
inadequate
and does not
reflect
college-level
work; no
apparent
effort to
consider the
topic
carefully
Organization Appropriate
title, effective
introductory
paragraph,
topic is stated,
leads to body;
transitional
expressions
used;
arrangement
Adequate title,
introduction,
and conclusion;
body of essay
is acceptable,
but some
evidence may
be lacking,
some ideas
aren’t fully
Shaky or
minimally
recognizable
introduction;
organization
can barely be
seen; severe
problems with
ordering of
ideas; lack of
Absence of
introduction
or
conclusion;
no apparent
organization
of body;
severe lack
of supporting
evidence;
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of materials
shows plan
(could be
outlined by
reader);
supporting
evidence
given for
generalization
and
conclusion
logical are
complete
developed;
sequence is
logical but
transitional
expressions
may be absent
or misused
supporting
evidence;
conclusion
weak or
illogical;
inadequate
effort at
organization
writer has
not made any
effort to
organize the
composition
(could not be
outlined by
the reader)
Diction Attempts
variety; good
vocabulary;
not wordy;
register OK;
style fairly
concise
Some
vocabulary
misused; lacks
awareness of
register; may
be too wordy
Poor
expression of
ideas;
problems in
vocabulary;
lacks variety
of structure
Inappropriate
use of
vocabulary;
no concept of
register or
sentence
variety
Source: adapted from ‘analytical scale for rating composition tasks (Brown &
Bailey, 1984, pp. 39-41)
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APPENDIX D
FREQUENCY OF ERROR
TYPE
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APPENDIX E
SAMPLE OF STUDENTS’
WRITTEN REFLECTIONS
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