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Textiles forResidential and

Commercial Interiors

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Third Edition Amy WillbanksVice President of Sales and MarketingTextile Fabric Consultants, Inc.

Nancy OxfordPresident

Textile Fabric Consultants, Inc.Assistant Professor Textiles, Merchandising and DesignMiddle Tennessee State University

Dana MillerAssociate Professor Interior DesignMiddle Tennessee State University

Sharon ColemanAssociate Professor Interior DesignMiddle Tennessee State University

Second Edition Jan I. YeagerAssociate Professor Textiles, Apparel and MerchandisingWest Virginia University

Lura K. Teter-JusticeAllied member ASID

Fairchild BooksN ew York


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Executive Editor: Olga T. Kontzias Assistant Acquisitions Editor: Amanda BrecciaEditorial Development Director: Jenni er Crane

Associate Development Editor: Lisa Vecchione Associate Art Director: Erin FitzsimmonsProduction Director: Ginger HillmanProduction Editor: Jessica RozlerCover Design: Erin Fitzsimmons

Cover Art: Ken Hayden/Red Cover Text Design: Tronvig Kuypers Title Page Art: CELC MASTERS OF LINEN

Copyright 2010 Fairchild Books, A Division o Cond Nast Publications.

All rights reserved. No part o this book covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any orm or by any meansgraphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,taping, or in ormation storage and retrieval systemswithout writtenpermission o the publisher.

Library o Congress Catalog Card Number: 2009931287

ISBN: 978-1-56367-651-2

GST R 133004424

Printed in China TP17

Seventh Printing 2007Sixth Printing 2005Fi th Printing 2004Fourth Printing 2003

Third Printing 2002

Second Printing 2001Second Edition 2000Fairchild Publications, Inc.Second Printing 1998 Textile Fabric Consultants, Inc.First Edition 1988Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc.


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v

Contents

Extended Contents vii

Pre ace xi

Acknowledgments xiii

Unit One:The Fundamentals of Textiles for Interiors 1

1. The Interior Textile Industry 2

2. Selecting and Evaluating Textiles or Interiors 14

3. Fiber Classi cation and Properties 24

4. Textile Fibers 49

5. Textile Yarns and Yarn-like Structures 84

6. Fabricating Textiles or Interiors: Weaving 98

7. Fabricating Textiles or Interiors: Other Techniques 113

8. Textile Colorants, Color Perception,and Color Application 122

9. Converting Interior Textile Greige Goods 142

10. Interior Textile Product Labeling 158

11. Interior Textile Products and Fire 171

Unit Two:Upholstered Furniture Coverings andFillings 201

12. Construction Features o UpholsteredFurniture 202

13. Upholstery Coverings 21314. Evaluation and Maintenance o Finished

Upholstery Fabric 233

Unit Three: Window and Wall Coverings 253

15. Selection Criteria or Window Treatments 254 16. Window Treatment Styles 265 17. Window Coverings and Linings 283 18. Evaluation and Maintenance o Finished

Window Covering Fabrics 301

19. Textile and Nontextile Coverings or Wallsand Panels 313


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vi C O N T E N T S

Unit Four:Soft Floor Coverings and Cushions 323

20. Selection Criteria or So t Floor Coverings 324

21. Fibers, Yarns, and Constructions Used in Textile Floor Coverings 340

22. Construction o Floor Coverings: Tu ting 349

23. Construction o Floor Coverings: Weavingand Other Machine Techniques 360

24. Construction o Floor Coverings: Hand Techniques 371

25. Carpet and Rug Cushions 379

26. Evaluations and Speci cations or So t Floor Coverings 387

27. Installation and Maintenance o FloorCovering Assemblies 400

Unit Five:Household and Institutional Textiles 423

28. Textile Products or the Bath 424

29. Textile Bedding Products 437

30. Textile Accessories or Tabletops 461

Glossary 470

Bibliography 509

Appendix A 514

Appendix B 515

Index 518


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vii

Pre ace xi

Acknowledgments xiii

Unit One:

The Fundamentals of Textiles forInteriors 1

1. The Interior Textile Industry 2Major Segments o the Industry 3Associate Members o the Industry 6Economic Factors A ecting the Industry 7Environmental Factors A ecting the Industry 9

2. Selecting and Evaluating Textiles or Interiors 14Selecting Interior Textiles 15Evaluating Interior Textiles 18Agencies Regulating Product Selections 20Organizations Establishing Model BuildingCodes 21

3. Fiber Classifcation and Properties 24Fiber Classi cation and Identi cation 25Fiber Composition, Molecular Structure,and External Physical Features 28Fiber Properties 30

4. Textile Fibers 49Natural Fibers 50Manu actured Fibers 70Manu actured Fiber Engineering 81

5. Textile Yarns and Yarn-like Structures 84Yarn Production 85Yarn Classi cation and Nomenclature 89Designation o Yarn Construction 93Formation o Yarn-like Structures 95

6. Fabricating Textiles or Interiors: Weaving 98Weaving 99Basic Interlacing Patterns 103Decorative Interlacing Patterns 106Pile Interlacing Patterns 108Triaxial Weaving 110

7. Fabricating Textiles or Interiors: Other Techniques 113Knitting 114

Tu ting and Fusion Bonding 116Knotting and Twisting Yarns 117Braiding Yarns 118Combining Fibers 118Extruding Polymer Solutions 120

Extended Contents


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viii E x T E N d E d C O N T E N T S

8. Textile Colorants, Color Perception,and Color Application 122Colorants and Color Perception 123Dyeing Fabrics and Fabric Components 125Printing Greige Goods 130

9. Converting Interior Textile GreigeGoods 142Trans orming Sur ace Appearance 143Improving the Quality and Serviceability o Structural Features 149Engineering Functional Per ormance 152

10. Interior Textile Product Labeling 158Federal Trade Commission 159Regulatory and Advisory Labeling Practices 160Voluntary Labeling Programs 165

11. Interior Textile Products and Fire 171Consumer Product Sa ety Commission 172Flammable Fabrics Act 172Combustion Processes and Byproducts 175Stages o an Interior Fire 175Flammability Testing 177

Unit Two:Upholstered Furniture Coverings andFillings 201

12. Construction Features o UpholsteredFurniture 202Exterior Construction Features 203Interior Textile Components 208Fillings Used in Upholstered Furniture 208

13. Upholstery Coverings 213Fiber and Yarn Usage 214Flat Upholstery Fabrics 216Pile Upholstery Fabrics 225Genuine Leather Upholstery 227Vinyl and Simulated Leather andSuede Fabrics 228

14. Evaluation and Maintenance o FinishedUpholstery Fabric 233Standards or Structural Qualities 234Evaluations o Physical Per ormanceProperties 234

Examination o Color Consistency and Retention 243Maintenance o Upholstery Fabrics 246

Unit Three: Window and Wall Coverings 253

15. Selection Criteria or Window Treatments 254Appearance Factors 255

Functional Values 257Cost Factors 262 16. Window Treatment Styles 265

Curtain and Drapery Treatments 266Blinds and Shades 277Awnings and Shutters 281

17. Window Coverings and Linings 283Components Used in Curtains and Draperies 284Woven Curtain and Drapery Fabrics 286Knitted Window Covering Fabrics 295Knotted and Twisted Window Coverings 297Coverings Formed rom Fibrous Webs 297Drapery Lining Materials 297

18. Evaluation and Maintenance o Finished Window Covering Fabrics 301Standards or Physical Per ormance Properties 302Evaluations o Color astness 306Evaluations o Flame Resistance 310Maintenance o Window Covering Structures 310

19. Textile and Nontextile Coverings or Wallsand Panels 313Selection and Serviceability 314Components and Constructions 315Installation Techniques 319

Unit Four:Soft Floor Coverings and Cushions 323

20. Selection Criteria or So t Floor Coverings 324Appearance Features 325Serviceability Expectations 333Design and Per ormance Regulations 335Cost Factors 337Environmental Considerations 338

21. Fibers, Yarns, and Constructions Used in Textile Floor Coverings 340Fibers Used in Carpet and Rugs 341Fiber Properties A ecting Floor Per ormance 343Yarn Features A ecting Serviceability 343Constructions Used in So t Floor Coverings 346

22. Construction o Floor Coverings: Tu ting 349Basic Components o Tu ted Floor Coverings 350Tu ting Operations 352Structural Qualities o Tu ted Constructions 354


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ix E x T E N d E d C O N T E N T S

23. Construction o Floor Coverings: Weaving and Other Machine Techniques 360Weaving Pile Floor Coverings 361Other Machine Operations 367

24. Construction o Floor Coverings: Hand Techniques 371Hand-woven Pile Rugs 372Hand-constructed Flat Rugs 375

25. Carpet and Rug Cushions 379Fibrous Cushion Structures 380Cellular Rubber Cushions 380Urethane Foam Cushions 382Listing Speci cation Data or Carpet Cushions 382Evaluating the Per ormance o Cushions 383

26. Evaluations and Specifcations or So t Floor Coverings 387Listing Speci cation Data or Carpet 388Evaluating Functional Features 388Evaluating Per ormance Properties 395

27. Installation and Maintenance o Floor Covering Assemblies 400Installing So t Floor Coverings and Cushions 401Maintaining Textile Floor Coverings 410

Unit Five:Household and Institutional Textiles 423

28. Textile Products or the Bath 424Towels and Toweling 425

Bath Rugs and Mats 432Shower Curtains 433 29. Textile Bedding Products 437

Fiber and Yarn Usage in Beddings 438Mattresses, Mattress Foundations,and Mattress Protectors 439Fillings Used in Bedding Products 442Pillows 445Sheets and Pillowcases 446Blankets 449Bedspreads, Quilts, and Com orters 452

30. Textile Accessories or Tabletops 461Producing Tabletop Coverings 462Labeling Textile Table Accessories 466Glossary 470Bibliography 509Appendix A 514Appendix B 515Index 518


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xi

n The third edition o Textiles for Residential and Commercial Interiors refects the suggestions o severalpro essors who used the second edition. Many o thesepro essors also willingly shared comments o ered by

their students. Together, their input led to changes in theorganization, pedagogy, and scope o the work. The book continues to be, however, written or use by students, ed-ucators, extension personnel, practicing interior designers,architects, retailers, and consumers with a pro essional orpersonal interest in textile urnishings.

The major objectives or the third edition are:

to enhance understanding by updating illustrations andadding extensive color photographs

to examine current and new technologies in the textileindustry, including micro bers, nanotechnology,

new construction techniques, and new berdevelopments

to expose the students to a wider variety of interiorabrics through use o an optional corresponding

swatch kit

to identify current green/sustainable methods in inte-rior design, including ber and abric production,recycling and nishing techniques

to increase awareness of environmental issues relatedto the manu acture and use o interior textiles

To achieve a greater understanding o interior textilesrequires examining and studying abrics as well as the in-

ormation included in the textbook. An optional abricswatch kit has been developed to correspond directly withthe textbook. The residential/commercial interior abricsinclude sustainable textiles and are organized in the orderthey are listed in the textbook. The abric swatches allow

or hands-on experience with interior abrics. The knowl-edge gained rom this experience will be use ul to boththe student starting and the pro essional continuing acareer in the interior design industry. (The InteriorDesign Swatch Kit can be obtained rom Textile FabricConsultants, www.textile abric.com.)

Because readers will have di erent levels o knowl-edge about textiles, the text begins with a ocus on textile

undamentals. As requested by users o the earlier edition,all aesthetic, durability, appearance retention, com ort,and health/sa ety properties are examined in greater

Preface


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xii P R E F A C E

depth. Fibers, both natural and manu actured, are dis-cussed in greater detail. Newly developed bers, as wellas new ber processing techniques, are also covered.

The scope o the book has been expanded to include

in-depth coverage o institutional textiles, as well ashousehold textile goods. Critically important material hasbeen added on codes, standards, environmental concerns,and green products.

For the bene t o the instructor and the student, thereare key terms and review questions or each chapter. Casestudies provide a means or the student to analyze a prob-lem. The appendices include a listing o generic manu-

actured ber names, ormulas or metric conversions, abibliography, and an extensive glossary. The text is richly illustrated, with line drawings and ull-color, detailedphotographs o bers, yarns, abrics, equipment used inmanu acturing, coloring and nishing processes, as wellas end products and end-use settings.

The text is presented in ve units, with Unit One hav-ing a ocus on textile undamentals. Readers having pre- vious ormal study o textiles and pro essionals withknowledge rom experience may use this unit or review;

others may study the material more thoroughly, to masterin ormation built on in later units. Units Two throughFive are divided by end-product category. Unit Two in-cludes discussion o upholstered urniture coverings and

llings; Unit Three ocuses on window coverings, drapery linings, and textile wallcoverings; Unit Four covers so t foor coverings and cushions; and Unit Five presents ma-terial on both unctional and decorative textile bath, bed-ding, and tabletop products used in household and insti-tutional settings.

In larger institutions with extensive o erings, Textiles for Residential and Commercial Interiors is appropriate or acourse to ollow completion o introductory textiles andinterior design courses. It can be used in either textiles orinterior design departments. In smaller institutions wherecourse o erings may be more limited, the text would be

use ul in an introductory course with an expansive scope(e.g., apparel textiles and interior textiles, or housing andinterior textiles). The books organization permits the se-lection o units or chapters dealing with topics in theorder pre erred by the instructor.


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xiii

n We are appreciative o all the companies and individ-uals who contributed color photographs and illustrationsto make this edition more visually appealing. Nancy Ox ord, Dana Miller, and Sharon Coleman would also

like to give special thanks to coauthor Amy Willbanks, who shot most o the photographs in this edition. Hermeticulous attention to detail and amazing organiza-tional skills acilitated the coordination o the entireproject.

We are grate ul to the many colleagues who providedideas and help ul comments as we developed this edition. We would also like to thank Textile Fabric Consultants,Inc., or providing acilities, use o photocopying, axingand scanning equipment, as well as numerous pots o co -

ee in the production o the new edition o Textiles for Residential and Commercial Interiors .

Other readers selected by the publisher were also very help ul. They included: Wendy Beckwith, La RocheCollege; Jan Cummings, Johnson County Community College; Rita Christo ersen, University o Wisconsin-Stout; Elizabeth P. Easter, University o Kentucky; KarenLaBat, University o Minnesota; Ann Beth Presley, Auburn University; Leanne C. Stone, University o Nevada-Reno; Katherine Wiggins, Madison Area Technical College; Patricia Williams, University o Wisconsin-Stevens Point; and Robyne Williams, NorthDakota State University.

As an added bene t to instructors and students, an

Interior Design Swatch Kit has been designed to parallelthis text. It is available rom Textile Fabric Consultants,Inc., 521 Huntly Industrial Blvd., Smyrna, TN 37167; www.textile abric.com; telephone 800-210-9394.

Amy WillbanksNancy Ox ordDana MillerSharon Coleman

Acknowledgments


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Natural FibersProductionNatural Cellulosic Fibers

Minor Natural Cellulosic

FibersNatural Protein FibersNatural Fiber Engineering

Manu actured FibersProduction

Manu actured Cellulose Fibers Manu actured Dextrose Fibers Manu actured Protein Fibers Manu actured Synthetic Fibers

Manu actured FiberEngineeringFiber VariantsFiber Modi cationsFiber Developments

Textile Fibers

C

p c y www. c k .c .

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50 t h e F u n d a m e n t a l s o F t e x t i l e s F o r i n t e r i o r s

Natural Fibers Natural fbers are ound in nature and used in the same

orm rom which they are ound. Natural bers are clas-si ed according to their origin and include those made

rom plant, animal, or mineral sources (see Table 3.1, p. 26).Plant bers are cellulosic in nature and include such -bers as cotton, fax, hemp, jute, and sisal. Animal sourcesare protein in nature and include wool, silk, and specialty

wools, such as mohair and cashmere. Mineral bers areound in the ground and include asbestos. Formerly, as-

bestos was used in such interior applications as insulationaround pipes and in walls and ceilings because o its reresistance. Its use has been discontinued because the beris a known carcinogen.

The production o all bers, natural and manu ac-tured, ollows this highly simpli ed sequence:

atoms monomers polymer chains usable bers

For most natural bers, this entire sequence is carried out by animals or plants; an exception is asbestos, which is amineral.

Production The production o natural ibers is accomplished by nature with human assistance but without direct hu-man involvement. Sheep, silk caterpillars, cotton and

lax plants, and other organisms synthesize the mono-

mers, orm the polymer chains, and produce the usableibers. The contribution o suppliers is important but

limited. They must nurture and protect their animalsand plants, keeping their sheep and caterpillars healthy and ed and their cotton and lax plants ertilized,

weed- ree, and protected rom harm ul insects. Woolleeces must be shorn rom the sheep, silk ilaments

must be unwound rom the cocoons, lax ibers must beremoved rom the lax stalks, and cotton ibers must beseparated rom the seeds in the bolls. Once the ibersare recovered, they must be cleaned, sorted, and gradedprior to yarn production.

Natural Cellulosic Fibers All plants contain ber that gives them strength. The mainingredient in plant bers is cellulose, a carbohydrate oundin all plant li e. Plant bers include those made rom theseed, stem (bast), or lea o a plant. Natural plant bers

will have many common ber properties because they allcontain cellulose. Properties common to all natural cellu-lose bers include high absorbency, low fame resistance,high moth resistance, low resiliency, and low mildew re-sistance. Natural cellulose bers exhibit no static buildupand are stronger when wet. However, each ber di ers inthe amount o cellulose, the physical structure, and themolecular arrangement. This gives each ber slight varia-tions in its properties and chemical reactions.

CottonCotton is a seed ber obtained rom the boll o the cot-ton plant. Cotton ber is the most important natural berthroughout the world and is used in both the interior andapparel industry. It is generally believed that the rst cul-tivation o cotton was in India. Cotton cultivation spread

to Egypt, China, Mexico, and Peru. Cotton was grown by the American Indians in the early 1500s and in the south-ern colonies as soon as they were established. For the next several hundred years, cotton bers were separated romthe seed by hand. This was very time consuming and te-dious, and only about 1 pound o ber could be separated

rom the seeds in a day. Samuel Slater, an English mill worker, migrated to America in 1790 and built the rst cotton mill rom memory. With the invention o the cot-ton gin in 1793 by Eli Whitney, cotton could now be sepa-rated rom the seed much aster, and volume was increased

or each worker rom 1 pound to 50 pounds per day. The

cotton gin made it possible to supply large quantities o cotton ber to the ast-growing textile industry.

Cotton is grown in climates in which the growingseason is long and hot. Adequate rain all or irrigation isalso required. Currently, there are our prominent types o cotton being grown commercially around the world. They are Egyptian, Sea Island, American Pima, and Upland. Inthe United States there are 14 major cotton growing statesthat produce Upland cotton. These states comprise aregion known as the Cotton Belt and include Alabama,

Arizona, Arkansas, Cali ornia, Georgia, Louisiana, Mis-sissippi, Missouri, North Carolina, Oklahoma, SouthCarolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia. American PimaCotton is grown in Arizona, Cali ornia, New Mexico,and Texas. The major producers o cotton are the UnitedStates, China, India, Pakistan, Turkey, and Brazil.

Cotton bers grow on bushes 2 to 5 eet high. Inapproximately 5 to 7 weeks, fower buds appear on the


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51t e x t i l e F i b e r s

plants. In another 3 weeks the buds open. A ter about 3days, they wither and all o , leaving small green podscalled cotton bolls. Cotton bers begin growing inside theboll. The boll splits open when the cotton bers matureand the fu y bers are exposed (Figure 4.1). Cotton bersrange in color rom white to cream. A ter cotton is picked,it is taken to the gin, which separates the ber rom theseed. The ginning process also removes oreign matter,such as burs, leaves, stem, dirt, and parts o the boll. Theginned ber, called lint , is pressed together and made intodense bales weighing approximately 500 pounds. Thesebales are sold to spinning mills or yarn production. The

remaining seeds are covered with very short bers calledlinters . The linters are separated rom the seed and usedin manu actured ber production (such as rayon and ac-etate), paper, and plastic production. Linters are also pro-cessed into batting or padding mattresses, urniture, andautomobile cushions. The seeds are used or livestock eedor processed into cottonseed oil, meal, and hulls.

Cotton bers are staple-length bers that range rom2 inches, depending on the variety. Longer-length

bers are considered to be better quality because they can be made into stronger, smoother, and so ter abrics.Convolutions (or ribbonlike twists) characterize the cot-ton abric (Figure 4.2). A microscopic view shows thesetwists that are unique to cotton. The cross-sectionalshape o cotton is kidney shaped. There are our distinc-tive parts o the cotton ber (Figure 4.3). The lumen isthe central canal and provides the nutrients to the ber.

The twists and convolutions o cotton ber are due to

the drying out o its liquid and the collapsing o the cen-

tral canal. This twist orms a natural crimp that makescotton very cohesive. Despite its short length, cotton isone o the most spinnable bers. The secondary wall ismade up o layers o cellulose. These layers are depos-ited daily while the cotton plant matures. The cellulosegrows in reverse spirals, urther contributing to the con-

volutions. The primary wall is the outer covering o thecotton ber. The cuticle is a waxlike covering on theprimary wall.

Cotton is relatively strong and has a so t hand anda pleasing appearance. Unlike wool, cotton lacks strongcross-linking bonds to stabilize the ber and contribute toresilient behavior. To compensate or this, chemical cross-linking resins are used to impart resiliency and wrinklerecovery. Cotton has excellent moisture absorption, isstronger wet than dry, and dries quickly, good eatures orhousehold and institutional textiles. Because convolutionsin the ber defect light rays (Figure 3.2, p. 29), the ber

Figure 4.1 C .C y a y W k , www. c.c .

Figure 4.2 l g c - c v w c .

C y s y t c g l , www. y


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most toxic classi ed by the Environmental Protection Agency. In developing countries, where regulations areless stringent, the amount o pesticides and insecticidesand their toxicity are o ten greater than in the UnitedStates. Cotton is also a very water intensive crop, re-quiring a minimum o 15 to 20 inches per year. In areas

where there is not enough rain all, irrigation is used. Soilerosion is a problem as well because o the tilling o theland. Cotton also depletes the soil o nutrients, so croprotation must be practiced.

has a matte luster. The luster, strength, and moisture absorp-tion o the ber can be increased with mercerization (seeChapter 9). Because cotton is fammable, it may be desir-able or necessary to use a fame-retardant nish. Cotton willalso decompose with prolonged exposure to sunlight and isnegatively a ected by mildew, especially in humid climates.Cotton is resistant to moths but harmed by silver sh.

The uses o cotton include curtains, draperies, bed-spreads, com orters, throws, sheets, towels, tablecloths,table mats, napkins, bath mats, shower curtains, carpets,rugs, and upholstery abrics.

Although conventional cotton is a natural ber, it has a negative impact on the environment. Farmers inthe U.S. apply nearly 1 / 3 pound o chemical ertilizers andpesticides or every pound o cotton harvested. When allthe cotton producing states are tallied, cotton crops ac-count or more than 25 percent o all pesticides in theUnited States. Some o these chemicals are among the

Figure 4.3 d g y c .C y K C , i t C , tt c u v y, 2001.

Figure 4.4 F F .C y a y W k , www. c.c .

a) Naturally colored FoxFibre cotton fiber.

b) Naturally colored FoxFibre upholstery fabric.


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crib and baby linens, mattress pads, and bath mats.Organic cotton can be USDA certi ied (organically grown), but the processing o the textile iber is not covered. The green and organic cotton industries areexperiencing rapid growth and expect a phenomenalincrease in sales.

There is also debate over the genetically modifed(GM) cotton seeds that have been developed. Several ag-ricultural companies have introduced GM seeds that areresistant to natural pests, which reduces the use o pes-ticides and herbicides. Some argue that this practice willcontribute to the sustainability o cotton, but others arguethat it is harm ul to the ood chain. Other types o geneti-cally modi ed cotton include fame retardant, water repel-lent, and durable-press treated.

A highly innovative insulation company recycled jeans and other denim apparel and converted the cottonto create its UltraTouch Natural Cotton Fiber insula-tion. The apparel was collected by colleges around thecountry as part o the Cotton Incorporated Dirty Laun-dry Tour. The insulation was then donated to Habitat

or Humanity homes. Cotton is also being recycled andmade into mulch to prevent land erosion and encouragegrass growth.

Organic cotton is grown without synthetic chemicalsand meets the standards established by certi ying organi-zations to ensure airness in the market. Organic cottonis grown using natural methods o arm management, in-cluding the introduction o bene cial bugs to eat harm-

ul insects. Compost, natural ertilizers, and crop rotation

practices are used to nourish the plants and keep themhealthy. Organic cotton signi cantly reduces pesticidesand soil erosion. Green cotton describes a cotton abricthat has not been bleached or treated with any other chem-icals common in nishing and dyeing. Natural-coloredcotton grows in di erent colors, which eliminates theneed or dyeing. Grown in South American and Central

America or centuries, naturally colored cotton has gainedimportance in the home urnishings industry. Found in-creasingly in bath towels, bedding products, and uphol-stery abrics, naturally colored cotton is ound in shadeso brown and green. Sally Fox has developed and patentedFoxFibre, an organically grown, natural-colored cottonin hues o brown, green, and a new redwood color (Figure4.4a and b).

Organic cotton is used to make sheets, towels,shower curtains, throw pillows, table linens, pillow-cases, duvet covers, upholstered urniture (Figure 4.5),

Figure 4.5 o g c c .C G y V , www.v .c .


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pulls the stalks through a coarse metal comb to separatethe seeds. The next step in fax ber production is retting ,

which is a rotting process that separates the ber rom the woody portion o the stalk. In the breaking stage, the ret-ted stalks are broken open by passing them through cor-rugated rollers. The next step is scutching and involvesthe removal o the woody portion o the stalk. Hackling pulls the ber bundles through rows o metal tines that align the bers or spinning (Figure 4.7). The fax seedsare used in the ood and eed industries and in the produc-tion o linseed oil.

Today, a ew individual mills grow fax ber in NorthDakota, South Dakota, and Minnesota. The major pro-ducers o fax are Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Ire-land, Italy, and Germany.

Flax is a staple ber that ranges rom 12 to 24 inches

in length. Short fax bers are called tow . The longer,better quality fax bers are called line . A microscopic view shows the bers to be multicellular, with polygo-

Flax Flax ber is obtained rom the stem o the fax plant.Linen re ers to cloth made rom the fax ber. Linens typically describe sheets, towels, tablecloths, napkins, andrelated products but are commonly made o other bercontents. Today, fax is considered a luxury ber as a result o its limited production and relatively high cost.

Flax ber is the oldest o all domestically producedbers. Flax is thought to have originated in the Mediter-

ranean region o Europe. Remnants o linen have beenound among the remains o the Swiss Lake Dwellers,

who lived in the Stone Age. Linen cloth was used to wrap the mummies in the early Egyptian tombs. Me-dicinal uses or fax can be traced to the Ancient Greeks.In the United States early colonists grew fax or homeuse, and commercial production o the fax ber be-

gan in 1753. However, with the invention o the cot-ton gin in 1793, fax production began to decline. A terthe 1940s, fax production in the United States almost dropped to zero.

The fax plant grows to approximately 4 eet highand is usually planted very densely to minimize branch-ing (Figure 4.6). When approaching maturity, a ter about 70 to 100 days, small blue or white fowers are produced,depending on the variety. The strands o fax ber are em-bedded longitudinally in the stem o the plant. The faxstalks are harvested by pulling up their roots to preservethe ull length o the ber, which extend below the ground.

The stalks are then bundled and dried. A series o stepsseparate the ber rom the stem. Rippling , the rst step,

Figure 4.6 F w g f .C y CelC masters oF linen.

Figure 4.7 F ck .C y CelC masters oF linen.


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Flax burns easily, is highly resistant to UV damage andinsects, and more resistant to mildew than cotton. Flaxis used in upholstery and drapery abric, wallcoverings,toweling, bedding, tablecloths, table mats, and napkins(Figure 4.10).

Flax has a much less negative environmental impact than cotton. Flax production requires ewer chemicalsand less water. Soil erosion can be a problem because o harvesting, as the fax plant is pulled rom the roots. Sig-ni cant amounts o water are used in the retting process,but the water can be recycled. Dew retting is also popular,

which allows the plants to rot naturally by laying them onthe ground and leaving them or several weeks, exposedto dew and rain.

Hemp The hemp plant is a stem ber similar to fax, jute, andramie. Hemp is harvested or its bers, seed, and seed oil.Because o its high processing costs and limited quanti-ties, hemp is about 100 percent higher in cost than cot-ton. About 75 percent o hemp grown worldwide is beingturned into textiles.

Although hemp clothing and other consumer goodshave only recently gained popularity in the past several

years, the use o hemp dates back the Stone Age, with hempber imprints ound in pottery shards in China more than

10,000 years old. Hemp has played a very important part in American history. In the early 1600s, hemp was considered

such a vital resource that laws were passed ordering arm-ers to grow it. George Washington and Thomas Je erson

nal rounded edges (Figure 4.8). Like cotton, fax bersalso contain a lumen, which carries nutrients to the plant during growth. Individual fax bers are characterized by nodes , markings similar to the cross markings on bambooand corn plants. The nodes help keep the dried ber romcollapsing and help create a more lustrous ber than cot-ton. The longer bers also contribute to faxs strength.Flax bers are light ivory to dark brown in color. Thepolymer chains within fax bers are highly oriented. Flaxhas longer polymer chains and a higher level o crystal-linity than cotton, making the ber stronger but morebrittle and less fexible than cotton ber. (Linen productshave a crisp appearance). Flax is stronger when wet andexhibits excellent absorbency, hence its use in table linens.Flax has extremely low elongation, poor elastic recovery,low fexibility, and low abrasion resistance. Its low fex-

ibility is a problem, especially when abrics o fax berare repeatedly olded on the same crease line or storage,as is the case with tablecloths and napkins (Figure 4.9).

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Figure 4.9 F c w g k g .C y a y W k , www. c.c .


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nabis sativa, one o which is the marijuana plant. The banmade no distinction between the di erent kinds o hemp.Industrial hemp used or textiles cannot be used as a drugbecause it contains only about 0.3 percent THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, the active hallucinatory ingredient in marijuana) whereas marijuana contains at least 5 to 30percent THC. Hemp proponents are trying hard to over-come the obvious image problem.

For the rst time since World War II, hemp seedshave been planted legally on American soil. A total o 19 states have introduced hemp legislation. The legisla-tion in Hawaii, Minnesota, and North Dakota permitsthe production o industrial hemp, provided armersobtain licenses rom the U.S. Drug En orcement Ad-

both grew hemp on their plantations. The Betsy Ross fag,the Gutenberg Bible, the Declaration o Independence,and Lewis Carrolls Alices Adventures in Wonderland were

written on 100 percent hemp paper.Hemp clothing, home urnishing products, and

ood products are completely legal in the United States.However, the cultivation o hemp had been illegal in theUnited States since World War II, until legislation in thelate 1990s allowed or minor production. Hemp produc-tion has been the subject o a worldwide controversy that involves armers, government en orcement agencies, sup-porters o legalized drugs, and manu acturers o textile,

ood, and paper products. The controversy stems romthe existence o several varieties o the hemp plant,Can-

Figure 4.10 s w c.C y d h g .


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eet in height in about 4 months o growth. Harvestingstalks or high-quality ber occurs as soon as the crop isin fower. Once a hemp crop has matured and been har-

vested, hemp bers are separated rom the stalk throughthe retting process, much like fax. Hemp bers are dark tan to brown.

Hemp exhibits high luster because o its long berlength, ranging rom inch to several inches. Hemp -bers are similar to fax bers in eel and texture. Likecotton and fax, hemp can withstand high temperatures.Hemp ber is one o the most durable and strongest natural textile bers. Hemp bers are longer and stron-ger than cotton, with eight times the tensile strengthand our times the durability o cotton. Hemp bers aremore absorbent and more mildew resistant, and they hold more insulation power than cotton. Hemp can ab-

sorb moisture up to 30 percent its weight at 100 percent humidity and dries very quickly. Hemp bers are moreabsorbent to dyes, which, coupled with the bers ability to withstand ultraviolet rays, means that hemp abrics areless prone to ading than cotton abrics. Hemp bers areeasily damaged by strong acids, exhibit a high resistanceto alkalis, are di cult to bleach, and are highly resistant to moths and other insects.

Hemp ber is used in toweling, bedding, window cov-erings, curtain panels, wallcoverings, tablecloths, napkins,rugs, and carpeting (Figure 4.12b and c). Antimildew andantimicrobial properties make hemp bers very suitable

or sails, awnings, and foor coverings. Hemp seeds andfour are being imported into North America and used in

ood products, such as tortilla chips, pretzels, beer, saladdressings, cheese, and ice cream.

Hemp oil is used in body-care products, such as lo-tions, moisturizers, and shampoos. Hemp oil is very highin unsaturated atty acids and cannot be used or rying.

The pollution o soil and water by ertilizers andpesticides used in growing cotton has been a constant battleground or environmentalists. Because o its uniquenature, hemp can easily be grown organically. Hemp isnaturally resistant to mold, bacteria, and insects. Hempis grown without pesticides, herbicides, or agriculturalchemicals.

Hemp is a high-yield crop, maturing in about ahundred days and producing signi cantly more berthan fax or cotton in equivalent space. The li e cycle

or timber to make paper pulp and rayon can be a hun-

ministration (DEA). Currently, the majority o hempproducts are imported into the United States. Hempsold in the United States comes primarily rom China,Hungary, Romania, El Salvador, and Chile. Hemp isalso legally cultivated in Australia, England, Canada,and New Zealand.

Hemp bers come rom a tall shrub o the mulberry amily that can grow to 20 eet in height. The bark lay-

er contains the long bers that extend nearly the entirelength o the stem. The interior o the stalk is hollow,surrounded by a layer o woody bers called hurds (Fig-ure 4.11). Hemp hurds are used in various applications,such as animal bedding, composites, building materi-als, and paper. Hemp can be grown on a wide range o soils but tends to grow best on land that produces high

yields o corn. The soil must be well drained, rich in ni-

trogen, and nonacidic. Unlike cotton, hemp grows inmany climate zones. Hemp averages between 6 and 15

Figure 4.11 l g c - c v w .

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rediscovery o this renewable resource has made it theber o choice or uture textiles, personal care products,

building materials, and uel.

Jute Jute , a bast ber, is one o the most popular bers inthe world. It is also one o the least expensive. Jute -ber grows to a height o 15 to 20 eet. Extraction o the

ber is by the same basic method as or fax and hemp. Jute can be harvested within 4 to 6 months and is consid-ered a high-yield ber. Bangladesh is the worlds largest producer and exporter o jute. Jute is grown throughout

dred years. The hemp plant has a deep root system (thuspreventing soil erosion), removes toxins, and aerates thesoil to the bene t o uture crops. On a per acre basis,hemp yields 250 percent more ber than cotton and 600percent more ber than fax without the need or toxicchemicals. The entire plant can be used, rom seed to

oliage, or use in such diverse products as building ma-terials, insulation, paper, and ood. Another green aspect to hemp ber is that its dense growth makes it a primecontributor to weed control and elimination. Hempcan displace wood ber and save orests or watershed,

wildli e habitat, recreation, and oxygen production. The

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b) Hemp herringbone upholstery fabric.

c) Hemp hot pad.a) Hemp plant.


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Relatively modest amounts o ertilizer, herbicide,and pesticide are required or jute cultivation, especially in comparison to cotton. When jute is rotated with othercrops, it can improve the health o the other crops andreduce their risk o attracting pests and disease. Juteproducts are 100 percent biodegradable and recyclable.Ole n, nylon, and polyester are typically used in placeo jute because o their outstanding durability properties

and versatility.Ramie Ramie , a bast ber rom the ramie plant, is also known asgrass cloth, rhea, or China grass. Ramie has been grownin China or thousands o years. In the past, the separa-tion o ramie rom the plant stalk was very labor intensive.

India, China, Pakistan, Nepal, Myanmar, and Thailand. The jute ber is yellow, brown, or gray in color.

Jute is less uni orm than fax and has a much roughersur ace. A microscopic view shows the rough sur ace andirregular cross-sectional shape (Figure 4.13). Jute exhibitsexcellent absorbency, high covering power, poor fexibil-ity, low elongation, and low elastic recovery. The majority o jute ber goes into making rope, cordage, twine, andbagging. Burlap is a common abric o ten used or co -

ee and sugar bagging. Jute ber is also used or carpet backing (Figure 4.14a), curtains, chair coverings, wallcov-erings, area rugs (Figure 4.14b), and backing or linoleum.

Jute has many advantages in residential and commercialtextiles because o its strength, color astness, sound andheat insulation, and low thermal conduction. Its antistaticand UV protection are also advantageous. The use o jutehas decreased in the past because o competition rom

manu actured bers, such as ole n. As consumers demandmore green bers, the use o jute has been on the rise ininterior products.

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Figure 4.14 J c .C y a y W k , www. c.c .

a) Jute carpet backing.

b) Jute rug.


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However, newer, less expensive means o separating theber have been developed, and ramie is becoming more

commercially important each year.Ramie is a tall perennial shrub that can be harvested

several times a year. Ramie grows in hot, humid climates. The major producers o ramie are China, the Philippines,and Brazil. Ramie is a pure white ber similar to fax. Itscross-sectional shape (Figure 4.15) resembles that o fax,showing a multicellular ber with a thick and thin longi-tudinal shape.

Ramie is higher in luster than fax because o its lon-ger ber length. Ramie is highly resistant to mold andmildew as well as to rotting. Because o its high molecu-lar structure, ramie bers are sti and, like fax, will break i olded repeatedly. Ramie exhibits poor resiliency, poorelongation, and poor elastic recovery. Ramie has mod-

erate abrasion resistance and elongation. Ramie exhib-its natural resistance to mildew, insects, and ultraviolet light, and it dries very quickly. It is also one o the stron-




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Figure 4.16 r w c .C y a y W k , www. c.c .

gest natural bers. With these characteristics, ramie is a

choice or outdoor mats or the green ber market. Ra-mie is used in tablecloths, napkins, window treatments,bath products, and pillows as well (Figure 4.16).


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markably color ast, but strong sunlight will ade the colorover a period o time. Sisal area rugs (Figure 4.18) shouldnot be used in kitchens, as grease stains can be di cult toremove.

Products made rom sisal are rapidly increasing: car-pets, area rugs, outdoor mats, bags, table linens, home

urnishing upholstery abric, and window treatments(Figure 4.19). Sisal is used in the automobile industry as an environmentally riendly substitute or berglass.Sisal is also used in home urnishings as a substitute orhorsehair.

Minor Natural Cellulosic Fibers Abaca ber comes rom the lea stem o the abaca plant,a member o the banana amily. It has a natural luster be-cause o its long ber length. It is o -white to brown in

color. Strong and durable, abaca ber is used or place-mats or indoor/outdoor use and production o wicker

urniture. Pia ber is obtained rom the leaves o a pineapple

plant grown mainly in the Phillipines. It is used to pro-duce very lightweight, sheer abrics. Pia ber is used orplacemats, embroidered tablecloths, and clothing.

Henequin ber is grown in A rica and Central Amer-ica. It is a smooth, straight yellow ber that is used orbetter grades o rope, twine, and brush bristles.

Coir bers are seed bers obtained rom the brousmass between the outer shell and the actual nut o the co-conut. The bers are removed by soaking the husk in saline

water or several months. Coir bers are extremely sti .

Sisal Sisal ber is the most popular natural lea ber, obtained

rom the leaves o the agave or yucca plant. The sisal plant consists o a rosette o sword-shaped leaves about 3 to 6

eet tall. The sisal plant has a li espan o 10 years. Theleaves are harvested and transported to a decorticationplant to extract the ber. Mexico, A rica, South Ameri-ca, and Brazil are the leading producers o sisal (Figure4.17).

Long a avorite carpeting material or porches andsunrooms, sisal is moving into the more ormal roomso the home. Sisal works well in any room in which you

would use ne wool carpets. Sisal does not build up static,nor does it trap dirt. It is a strong, durable ber and re-sistant to sea water. Its outstanding weathering propertiesmake it suitable or use in outdoor settings. Dyes are re-

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Natural Protein Fibers

Natural protein bers are o animal origin. Wool and silk are the two major natural protein bers. Protein bershave common properties because o their similar chemicalcomposition. Properties common to all protein bers in-clude high resiliency, low density, high absorbency (hygro-scopic), fammability resistance, and weaker wet strength.

Silk Silk is a natural protein ber and is known or its so tness,com ort, and luster. Sericulture is the growth o silk-

worms and the production o cultivated silk. Sericulture isa tedious, labor-intensive industry.

The discovery o silk began between 2700 B.C. and2600 B.C., by the Chinese empress Xi-Ling-Shi. Con-cerned about the imperial mulberry grove, EmperorHuang Ti appointed Xi-Ling-Shi to investigate the tiny

white worms that were devouring the trees leaves. Gather-ing a bundle o cocoons, the empress accidentally droppeda silkworm cocoon in her hot tea. She noticed that the co-coon separated into long, slender laments. The empresslearned to reel the silk laments into yarns and weave the

yarns into beauti ul garments. Sericulture spread through-out China, and silk became a precious commodity highly sought by other countries. China maintained its virtualmonopoly over silk or 3,000 years. Silk reached Koreaaround 200 B.C., smuggled out o China by Chinese im-migrants. Sericulture reached Japan through Korea in theearly part o the third century A.D. Soon the silk industry began in the Middle East. The Persians mastered the art o silk weaving. Gradually, the silk industry became wide-

They are resistant to abrasion, water, and most weatherconditions. These properties make coir suitable or indoorand outdoor mats, rugs, outdoor carpeting, and brushes(Figure 4.21). These products are extremely durable. SriLanka is the major producer o coir ber.

Kapok is obtained rom the seed o the Java kapok tree. Kapok is a hollow ber, very lightweight and so t.Historically, kapok had been used or upholstery paddingand pillow ber ll. Kapok exhibits very low durability andthere ore has limited use in the interior textile industry.

Many o the manu actured bers are now used or theseapplications as a substitute or kapok.

Other minor cellulose materials are used in the homeurnishings industry on a very limited basis. Rush or marsh

grass , sea grass (China grass) , palm grass and cornhusks are used to make area rugs, upholstery covering, window

treatments, wallcoverings, and wicker urniture. Thesebers give products an interesting and natural texture(Figure 4.20).

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Figure 4.21 C g.C y ruCKstuhl aG, www. ck .c .


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spread in Europe. Today, the leading producers o silk areChina, Japan, and India.

Silk is a natural animal ber produced by the lar- vae o a silk caterpillar, o ten re erred to as a silkworm.Cultivated silk is the only natural ber ound in lament

orm. It is a natural protein ber composed o broin.Silk ber is long and thin and has a smooth sur ace. Silk has a triangular cross-sectional shape (Figure 4.23).

A ter several thousand years o captive breeding, thesilk caterpillar, Bombyx mori , evolved into a blind moththat cannot fy and lives or only a ew days, during whichit lays about 500 eggs and then dies. The egg hatches inapproximately 10 days and becomes a larva. The silkwormlarva will eat mulberry leaves almost nonstop or 35 days,increasing its weight 10,000 times, rom a tiny speck to alarge grub. Once ull grown, the larva begins spinning a

cocoon (Figure 4.22). This stage o silkworm li e is calledpupating. The silkworm produces liquid silk, a broinprotein compound, rom two glands inside the worm.

The broin, orced rom openings in the silkwormshead, hardens on contact with the air. A water solublegum, called sericin , keeps the two stands o silk joinedand provides a gluelike substance to hold the cocoon to-gether. By revolving its head in a gure eight ashion,the silkworm surrounds itsel with silk lament up to 1mile in length in less than 3 days. The silkworm maturesinto a moth and breaks through the cocoon to start theli e cycle again.

When the cocoons are to be harvested or the silk la-ments, they are exposed to heat that will end the li e o the silkworm and preserve the lament intact. In reeling ,

the sericin is so tened in warm water, and skilled techni-cians collect the lament ends and unwind the cocoons.

Throwing is used to skill ully combine several lamentsinto multi lament silk yarns. Any staple-length silk, knownas noil , is recovered and combined into silk spun yarns.

Silk may be su ciently whitened by boiling the la-ments in a detergent solution. This operation is known asboiling o and removes the sericin. I the sericin is le t inplace, the silk is marketed as raw silk . Tussah silk is a typeo raw silk (Figure 4.24).Duppioni silk is a type o silk that is a result o two silkworms spinning their cocoons to-gether. Duppioni silk abrics have irregular yarns that havea thick and thin appearance.

Weighting is a textile manu acturing process particu-lar to silk and involves the application o metallic salts toadd body, luster, and physical weight to silk abrics. I not

done properly, weighting can damage the silk abric. Puresilk describes a 100 percent silk abric that does not con-tain any metallic weighting compounds.

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aged by the emerging moth, wild silk is only ound instaple orm. The silk is much less uni orm than pure silk and is usually brown and tan in color. A common variety o wild silk is Tussah silk (Figure 4.24).

Silk is biodegradable and will decompose in land lls.Sustainable and eco- riendly silks that use low-impact and

ber-reactive dyes are available. Several organizations arehelping develop programs to assist poor rural communi-ties in conservation e orts and economic development.Programs include developing the wild silk industries andmarketing silk abric that is produced according to Fair

Trade principles, which protect workers involved in all

phases o producing the cloth.Scientists in Japan have been experimenting with natu-

rally colored silks by genetically engineering the pigment transport system o the silkworm. Red and fesh tone colorsin silk ber have been produced. The color o the silk canbe decided at the production stage. No chemical dyes areused, thus lessening pollution and saving water and energy.

Wool Wool ber comes rom the ollicles o a sheeps skin. Wool bers combined properties cannot be duplicatedby any other natural or manu actured ber: fame re-sistance, thermal retention, elting ability, initial waterrepellency, and ability to absorb moisture without eel-ing wet. Wool ber production began during the Stone

Age, about 10,000 years ago. Primitive man living in Mesopotamia had been using sheep or ood and cloth-ing or centuries. Between 3000 and 1000 b.c. the Per-

Silk is one o the strongest natural bers and has me-dium elongation and moderate abrasion resistance. Theincreased orientation and crystallinity contribute strengthto the ber. Although the lower abrasion resistance doesnot support the selection o upholstery abrics o silk, they nonetheless are used when luxury and luster is sought. Al-though silk is weakened or tendered by sunlight, it is used

when historical restoration calls or authenticity in docu-ment abrics. Dry cleaning or hand washing is generally recommended or cleaning abrics o silk, not only to avoiddamaging the ber with strong alkaline solutions, but alsoto prevent astness problems with unstable dyestu s.

Silk is used in window treatments, upholstered urni-ture (Figure 4.25), bedding, wallcoverings, and decorativetable accessories.

There are alternatives to cultivated silk or consumers who are concerned about the ethics o destroying the silkworm to harvest the ber. For those who love the eel, luster,and excellent aesthetic properties o silk, there are more ethi-cal options. Some silk producers allow the moths to emerge

rom the cocoon and then salvage the damaged cocoons. There are also many species o wild caterpillars that producesilk cocoons used in the production o upholstery abrics. Thelarvae eed on oak leaves instead o mulberry leaves. The la-ment ber is broken into staple bers by the emerging moth.

This silk is o ten calledpeace silk or vegetarian silk. Wild silk production is uncontrolled. Whereas culti-

vated silkworms eed exclusively on mulberry leaves, wildsilkworms eed on oak leaves. The cocoons are harvesteda ter the moth has emerged. Because the cocoon is dam-

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Figure 4.25 s k c .C y d h g .


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composed o overlapping scales. The scales are coveredby a thin, porous, waxlike membrane that repels water

yet absorbs perspiration (Figure 4.28). Wool bers rangein color rom various shades o black, brown, tan andivory. The quality o wool is determined by ber length,diameter, luster, color, and age o the sheep. The gradeo the ber determines the type o product or which the

wool wil l be used. Merino sheep are the most valued ortheir wool. Merino wool is 3 to 6 inches in length andhas a so t hand.

sians, Greeks, and Romans distributed sheep and woolthroughout Europe as they continued to improve breeds.

The Romans took sheep with them as they built theirempire in what is now Spain, North A rica, and the Brit-ish Isles. They established a wool plant in what is now

Winchester, England as early as 50 a.d. Sheep were rst introduced into what is now the southwest United Statesin 1519 by Spanish troops under Hernn Cortez. Wool

was the most widely used textile ber be ore the Indus-trial Revolution. Today, sheep thrive in all 50 states andin most countries o the world. Sheep can live on rough,barren land or in high altitudes that other animals can-not withstand because o lack o vegetation; sheep cansurvive and fourish on weeds and vegetation other ani-mals will not eat, converting to protein a group o natu-ral resources that would otherwise be wasted. The major

producers o wool are Australia, New Zealand, China,and Argentina. The rst step in the processing o wool is shearing ,

or removing the feece rom the sheep (Figures 4.26and 4.27). In most parts o the world, sheep are shearedonce a year, in early spring or early summer. A shearer canshear a sheep in about 30 seconds, using electric hand clip-pers. Long, smooth strokes very close to the skin are usedin order to preserve the length o the ber. The shear-er will peel away the feece in one piece. The best woolcomes rom the shoulders and sides o the sheep.

A ter shearing, the bers arescoured to remove sand,

dirt, plant material rom the environment, and dried body excrement. A set o rakes moves the feeces through aseries o scouring tubs o soap and water. Raw wool cancontain as much as 30 to 70 percent o these impurities. A byproduct o this scouring process is the grease rom thefeece. This grease, or lanolin , is separated rom the wash

water, puri ed, and used in creams, soaps, lotions, cosmet-ics, and other pharmaceutical products.

Wool bers range in length rom inch to 6 inches. The wool ber is composed o three distinctive parts. The medulla is the center o the ber and contains hol-low, honeycomb-shaped cells (Figure 4.28) that give

wool its excellent insulating power. The cortex is thecentral ber, containing long, cigar-shaped cells calledcortical cells. The cortical cells on each side o the -ber react di erently to heat and moisture. This causesthe ber to bend and turn, giving wool a natural three-dimensional crimp. The outer structure, or cuticle , is

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Figure 4.27 s v w - f c .C y www. c k .c .


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scales on the cuticle also give wool both a natural waterand stain repellency.

The physical structure o the outer scaly layer o the wool ber contributes to the wools unique property o

elting (Figure 4.28). Under the mechanical action o agitation, riction, and pressure in the presence o heat and moisture, the scales on the edges o the wool berinterlock. This prevents the ber rom returning to itsoriginal position. The elting property o wool is bothan advantage and disadvantage. Controlled shrinkage o a wool abric is called ulling and creates a so ter nishand more covering power or woven wool abric. Feltingis also an advantage because it provides a wide variety o

elt abrics or hats and industrial uses. Felting is a disadvantage because it makes washing o untreated wool ab-ric di cult. Untreated wool abric must be laundered by hand or dry-cleaned.

Wool is naturally sel -extinguishing because it con-tains moisture in each ber. Instead o burning reely

when touched by a fame, wool chars. When the fame

The natural crimp o the wool ber produces excel-lent lo t and resiliency. The crimp acts as a spring and in-

creases the resiliency and elasticity. A ter extension, thecrimp will return to its original shape, which make woolan excellent choice or carpets. Tra c patterns will not show because the bers exhibit high recovery to crushing.

The lo tiness o the wool ber entraps dead air and acts asa natural insulator, making wool one o the warmest natu-ral bers. The three-dimensional crimp also acts as an ex-cellent sound insulator, or sound-absorbing abric. Woolcarpeting and draperies will absorb sound and insulate as

well. Wool carpeting and rugs may be used to reduce noisein enclosed areas (Figure 4.29).

Wool ber is hygroscopic, taking up moisture in vapororm. Tiny pores in the cuticle allow vapor to pass through

to the center o the ber. Wool can easily absorb up to 30percent o its original weight in moisture without eelingdamp or clammy. The wool abric remains absorptive andcom ortable inside because its outer sur ace releases mois-ture through evaporation to the outer atmosphere. The

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reduces ber entanglement and eliminates the eltingshrinkage that occurs in nontreated wool products. Woolcan also be treated to make it highly resistant to moths,stains, moisture, and re.

Woolen abrics are made rom bers that are 1 to 3inches in length that have only been carded. Woolen ab-rics exhibit more lo t, or bulkiness; higher thermal reten-tion, resulting in more warmth; and more covering power,

or better insulation. Worsted abrics contain yarns 3 to 6inches in length that have been carded and combed, result-ing in a ner, smoother, thinner abric with a crisp hand.

Although wool bers and products are relatively expensive, these characteristics make wool ber highly desirable or upholstered urnishings, draperies, wallcov-erings, blankets, and carpeting.

Wool ber is o ten recycled or use by taking wool

yarn or abrics and converting them back to a ber in aprocess called garneting . These wool abrics must be so

is removed, the re goes out almost immediately. Woolis known or its durability as well. The bers high elon-gation and excellent elastic recovery contribute to woolshigh durability. The crimp and scale structure also makes

wool bers cohesive in the spinning process, producing very strong yarns.

Wool stays cleaner longer than other abrics. Becausethe high moisture content allows or less static, wool doesnot attract lint and dust. Wools coiled bers and theirshinglelike structure also help keep dirt rom penetratingits sur ace.

Several chemical nishes can be applied to wool, de-pending on its end use. Products labeled Superwash, atrademark owned by the Australian Wool Innovation, are100 percent wool that can be washed using ordinary laun-dry detergent and machine dried. A mild chemical treat-

ment is applied to the outer sur ace o the ber, orminga microscopic lm that essentially coats the scales. This

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In the United States, organic wool is produced in New Mexico, Montana, Maine, Vermont, and New Jersey.

Specialty WoolsSpecialty wools are obtained rom the goat, camel, andrabbit amilies (Table 3.1, p. 26). These bers have very limited use in the interior industry because o their highcost and limited supply. With the exception o mohair, thespecialty wool bers are less durable than sheeps wool.

Many o these specialty wool bers are blended with woolto add so tness, texture, color interest, or prestige value.

Alpaca bers are obtained rom the hair o a domesti-cated animal o the camel amily (Figure 4.30). Alpacas arenative to the Andes Mountains. The bers are so t, ne,and lustrous. Alpaca ber is so ter than llama ber and isused in upholstery abrics and rugs. Alpaca bers are typi-cally used in their natural colors, which include a range o

whites, browns, grays, and blacks. Mohair is the ber o the Angora goat. The goats

(Figure 4.31) are sheared twice a year. Mohair is a very re-silient ber, having ewer scales and less crimp than wool.

Mohair bers are smoother, with bers up to 12 inches inlength, giving them a lustrous appearance. Mohair is also a

ne ber and has better abrasion resistance and resiliency than wool. Because it resists crushing, mohair is used inupholstery abrics and foor coverings. Its high insulationproperties, sound absorbency, and fame resistance makemohair an excellent choice or draperies. Its thermal re-tention properties help blankets retain their heat. South

A rica is the largest producer o mohair ber, supplyingmore than hal o the worlds total production. Other ma-

jor producers are the United States and Turkey. Angora is the ur o the Angora rabbit. This domes-

ticated rabbit is raised in the United States, France, Italy,

labeled according to the Wool Products Labeling Act. Re-cycled wools have been used in carpeting or decades andare increasing in use because there is simply not enough

wool or use on a worldwide scale. Although it requires special production procedures

and certi cation, organic wool represents a growingmarket in the wool industry. For wool to be certi ed asorganic, it must be produced in accordance with ederalstandards or organic livestock production. These include:(1) livestock eed and orage used rom the last, third ges-tation must be certi ed organic; (2) the use o synthetichormones and genetic engineering is prohibited; (3) theuse o synthetic pesticides (internal, external, and on pas-tures) is prohibited; and (4) producers must encouragelivestock health through good environmental and man-agement practices. Organic wool is very limited in supply;much o it comes rom Australia and New Zealand.

Organic wool is also getting attention rom companiesthat produce bedding material. There are several manu ac-turers that produce organic wool blankets. Other manu-

acturers are o ering mattresses made rom organic wool.

Figure 4.30 a c .C y Wild Fibers Magazine .

Figure 4.31 a g g .C y Wild Fibers Magazine .


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and Japan. The ber is obtained by plucking or shearing. Angora ber is very so t and smooth. The smoothness o the ber contributes to its low cohesiveness. For this rea-son, angora is o ten blended with sheeps wool. Angora

ber has a high thermal retention and is used in blanketsand bedding products.

Camels hair is the ber o the two-humped Bactriancamel and provides the best insulation o all the specialty wools. The Bactrian camel originally came rom North A ghanistan. Today, they are ound living in Turkey, andas ar east as China, and as ar north as Siberia. In thespring o every year, the ber is gathered by hand, whenthe camels shed their outer hair and undercoat. A camelproduces about ve pounds o ber per year.

Llama bers, like alpaca bers, are also obtainedrom the hair o a domesticated animal (Figure 4.32) o

the camel amily. Llama bers are coarser and less strongthan alpaca ber. Also, other characteristics that di eren-

tiate the llama rom the alpaca is the llamas larger sizeand longer head. Llama bers are used on a limited basis,or rugs. As o 2007, there were more than seven million

llamas and alpacas in South America.1 Due to their impor-tation rom South America in the late twentieth century,there are now more than 100,000 llamas and 7,000 alpacasin the United States and Canada.

Cashmere ber is the feece o a cashmere goat 2 (Fig-ure 4.33) and is one o the so test, most expensive bersproduced. The ber is obtained by combing the domesti-cated animals during the molting season. Cashmere bersare used or bedding and blankets. More than hal o all

cashmere ber is produced by China, ollowed by Mon-golia, A ghanistan, and Iran.

Quivit is the ber rom the underbelly o the domes-ticated musk ox (Figure 4.34). These animals are raisedin Alaska and Canada or their rare and luxurious ber.

The ber sheds naturally and is separated rom the coars-er hairs by hand. Quivit bers are so t as cashmere and

warmer than wool. Vicuna ber is obtained rom the hair o the vicuna,

a rare wild animal o the camel amily. Vicuna ber is theso test, nest, and rarest o all specialty bers. Vicunas are

ound in Peru, Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia. Vicunas werehunted to the brink o extinction or their prized berand eventually declared an endangered species in 1974.Sanctions orbidding trade in vicuna were established,along with antipoaching e orts. Now, vicuna is making adramatic comeback and is sought by premium- ber pro-cessors in South America, Europe, and Asia. Vicunas are

Figure 4.32 .C y m m , www. .

Figure 4.33 C g .C y Wild Fibers Magazine .

Figure 4.34 m k .C y Wild Fibers Magazine .


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Production Virtually all manu actured bers are produced in thissequence:

obtain ber- orming substances orm polymer

solutions

incorporate polymer additives

extrude and solidi y laments draw heat set

For manu actured bers, the chemist becomes responsibleor production at the monomer stage, even when nature

provides the monomers and polymers.

Obtaining Fiber- orming Substances Most ber- orming substances are obtained by one o three techniques: extract them rom brous materials,synthesize them rom non brous natural materials, andcombine inorganic compounds.

Extracting Cellulose and Dextrose PolymersTo producerayon, acetate, lyocell, and PLA, the chemist extracts cel-lulose and dextrose material rom natural products suchas wood chips, cotton linters, bamboo plants, corn, andsugar beets. Although these materials are brous, wood

bers lack the fexibility needed or textile processing andend-use applications. Cotton linters are too short to bespun into quality yarns. The dextrose is extracted romboth corn and sugar beets and then converted to lacticacid, which is then converted to ber orm.

Synthesizing MonomersTo produce polyester, nylon, acryl-ic, ole n, and other manu actured synthetic bers, the chem-ist must rst synthesize the monomers rom such non brousnatural materials as natural gas, oil, and coal. Subsequently,the monomers are polymerized in vessels resembling pres-sure cookers. During this step o the process, the chemist can o ten control the degree o polymerization , that is, theextent to which the monomers link to orm polymer chains.

When high strength and abrasion resistance are needed, orexample, the chemist will orm longer chains.

Combining Inorganic CompoundsManu actured min-eral bers, including glass and metal bers, are inorganic

bers. Glass bers are ormed by heating silica sand,limestone, and other compounds until they use and liq-ue y; distinctive ber- orming units are not produced.

The resulting solution is normally converted into mar-bles that can be inspected or clarity. Today, glass bers

sheared similarly to sheep, and commercial harvesting o vicuna ber is allowed, but international export o the ani-mals, and hunting o them, is illegal.

Yak ber is produced rom a large ox (Figure 4.35)that is ound in Tibet. The so t inner coat is used orgarments and blankets. This so t and short ber is handplucked rom the chest and belly.

Natural Fiber Engineering With natural bers, appearance and per ormance engi-neering must be accomplished by working with already-

ormed bers having a given set o inherent properties. Thus, converters, not ber suppliers, are generally re-sponsible or altering the inherent characteristics o these

bers. While some treatments, such as the application o moth-repellent agents and cross-linking resins, producechemical changes within the bers, they are nonethelessintroduced during conversion o the greige goods. This

work is discussed in Chapter 9.

Manu actured FibersCurrently, our major groups o manu actured bers areproduced. These include the cellulose bers, dextrose

bers, synthetic bers, and mineral bers. Not all bersthat have been invented continue to be available. Amongthose no longer produced in the United States are triace-tate, azlon, anidex, lastrile, nytril, and vinal. Some o these

bers may be manu actured overseas and imported intothe domestic market.

Figure 4.35 Y k.C y s g b k r c , J W ,

g k c .c .


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Four basic spinning techniques are used to extrudeand solidi y laments: wet spinning, solvent spinning, dry spinning, and melt spinning.

Wet Spinning In wet spinning , a solvent is used to dis-solve the polymer. The solution is extruded through thespinneret into an acidic, aqueous bath where the solvent is extracted and the extruded strands coagulate or harden.

Wet spinning is used in the production o rayon and someacrylic and spandex bers.

Solvent Spinning Solvent spinning is similar to wet spinning in that a solvent is used to dissolve the polymerand the solution is extruded through a spinneret into afuid bath. The bath, however, is not water based; it is asolvent that is recovered or continued use. Solvent spin-ning is used in the production o lyocell, a relatively new cellulosic ber.

Dry Spinning In dry spinning , a highly volatile solvent is used to dissolve the polymer compound, producingthe spinning solution. The solution is extruded through

have diminished use because o the weight and relatively low fexibility.

True metal bers are made rom such substances asgold, silver, copper, and stainless steel. The expense o gold and silver, o course, precludes their widespreaduse; other structures have been developed to simulatetheir appearance.

Forming Polymer Solutions The second step in the production o manu actured -bers is the ormation o a solution o the ber- ormingsubstance. In some cases, a solvent is used to dissolve thepolymer compound; in other cases, heat is used to melt the substance.

Incorporating Additives

A ter the polymer solution is ormed, the producermay incorporate additives to engineer speci c proper-ties. Such additives include dye pigments or superiorcolor astness, optical brighteners to improve apparent

whiteness and brightness, ultraviolet absorbers to mini-mize light degradation, fame-retardant agents to reducefammability, delusterants to reduce light refectance andhide accumulated soil, and antistatic agents to increaseelectrical conductivity.

Extruding and Solidi ying FilamentsFilaments are ormed in a mechanical spinning operation.

This type o spinning should not be con used with yarnspinning, the combining o staple-length bers into textile

yarn structures. The spinning operation involves the extrusion o the

polymer solution through a device called a spinneret . As schematized in Figure 4.36, a spinneret is similar to ashower head. In the same manner as pressure orces waterthrough a shower head, pressure orces the polymer solu-tion through the minute openings in the spinneret.

The openings in spinnerets are o ten no more than aew ten-thousandths o an inch in diameter, but their size

can be varied to produce ner or coarser laments. Thisenables the producer to regulate the fexibility o the la-ments, to increase or decrease the area that the laments

will cover, and to control the amount o sur ace area per unit o volume the laments present or soil adhesion. In somespinning operations, the shape o the apertures is designedto produce laments with speci c cross-sectional shapes. Figure 4.36 s v c g c


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Heat Setting Heat can be used to stabilize or set thermoplastic or heat-sensitive fbers bers that so ten and shrink whenexposed to a controlled amount o heat, and melt whenexposed to an excessive amount o heat. With the excep-tion o rayon, lyocell, and the high-temperature resistant aramid and novoloid bers, most manu actured bers arethermoplastic.

In the heat setting operation, the ber is heated toits glass transition temperature . At this temperature,lateral bonds within the ber are disturbed and the poly-mer chains can shi t their positions. In order to prevent excessive shrinkage, the heated ber is held under sometension. As the ber cools, new bonds orm to lock thepolymer chains into their new position, stabilizing thelength o the lament.

Heat setting will be postponed until the yarn stage when the laments are to be given a two- or three-dimensional crimped or curled con guration. It willbe postponed until the greige good stage when a three-dimensional, embossed design is planned, or when theconverter intends to improve the alignment o the yarnsand stabilize the dimensions o the abric. Whenever heat setting is per ormed, it must be carried out at approxi-mately 50 F higher than the temperatures that may beencountered later in processing, laundering, or ironing.Exposure to temperatures higher than those used or heat setting will overcome the initial set and stability o thetextile item.

Manu actured Cellulosic FibersIn the 1800s and early 1900s, chemists eagerly sought toinvent a ber to substitute or the luxurious but costly silk.Early tries included a brous but explosive combination o cellulose and nitrogen. Subsequently, chemists created anartifcial silk in the late 1800s, and the bers were com-mercially produced in the United States in 1910. Becauseo negative connotations associated with the term arti cial,

ber producers wanted to discontinue its use, and the namerayon was coined and used in the mid-1920s. Further work resulted in two additional cellulose-based bers, acetate and triacetate , being introduced to consumers in 1924.

The production o triacetate bers in the United States,however, was discontinued in the mid-1980s. In the early 1990s a ourth cellulose ber, lyocell , was created. PLA , a

th manu actured cellulose ber, was introduced in 2003.

a spinneret into a warm air chamber where the solvent evaporates, solidi ying the ne laments. Dry spinningis used in the production o acetate, triacetate, and someacrylic, modacrylic, spandex, and vinyon bers.

Melt Spinning In melt spinning , heat is used to melt thepolymer, producing the liquid spinning dope . The liquidis extruded through the spinneret into a cool air cham-ber where the laments harden as they cool. Variationsin aperture shapes are o ten used in melt spinning as the

laments retain the shape o the openings. Melt spinningis used or the production o polyester, nylon, ole n, andglass bers.

Drawing Because most extruded laments are disordered, they

must be drawn or stretched to increase the orientation o their polymer chains and their degree o interior order. The drawing operation may be carried out by the berproducer or by the throwster.

Drawing lengthens the laments and reduces theirdiameters, aligning the chains and causing them to pack more closely. These changes increase the likelihood that crystalline regions will result rom extensive lateral bond-ing. As the degree o interior order increases, there areparallel increases in strength and sti ness and decreasesin extensibility and the rate at which such substances as

water, dye, and nishing agents will be absorbed. Produc-ers develop an appropriate balance among these proper-ties by controlling the extent o drawing, always limitingthe operation to avoid producing a totally oriented andcrystallized arrangement.

Drawing or stretching an extruded lament introducesstrain within the ber, like that created within an elastic band

when it is stretched. I an unstabilized drawn lament wereexposed to conditions such as water and heat that encour-age the release o this imposed strain, the polymer chains

would relax, reverting back to the undrawn, amorphous ar-rangement. This would be accompanied by a shortening o the ber, a reaction like that o an elastic band returning toits original length a ter the stretching orce releases it. Inorder to prevent this interior relaxation and loss o length,manu acturers generally stabilize drawn laments by expos-ing them to controlled amounts o heat.


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ment bers are success ul in silklike uses. Lyocell blends well with other bers, including wool, silk, rayon, cotton,fax, nylon, and polyester. Fabrics made o lyocell have ex-ceptional strength, a luxurious hand, and excellent drape.Lyocell is breathable and com ortable, and it resists wrin-kling and shrinking (Figure 4.38). Unlike other natural

bers, lyocell is stronger when wet and exhibits betterdimensional stability when laundered. Lyocell is muchstronger than rayon when wet. This property o high

wet strength allows abrics made o lyocell to be machine washed success ully.

Tencel is the trade name owned by Lenzing FibersInc., o Germany. Lenzing is currently the only producero lyocell. Production costs are greater than or cotton,making products made o lyocell more expensive.

Acetate The Federal Trade Commission de nes acetate as a manu-

actured ber in which the ber- orming substance is cellu-lose acetate. Where not less than 92 percent o the hydroxylgroups are acetylated, the term triacetatemay be used. Tri-acetate is no longer produced in the United States.

Production o acetate begins with cellulose, generally rom trees, cotton linters, or bamboo. There ore, thesebers are o ten re erred to as cellulose-based bers. Thebers are dry spun.

Fabrics o acetate have high drapability and the look and eel o silk, but are more reasonably priced (see Fig-ure 4.37). A major problem is gas astness. With exposureto such gaseous pollutants or air contaminants as oxideso nitrogen or sul ur, acetate dyed with disperse dyestu spermanently changes color: blue turns pink, brown be-

comes yellowish, and green converts to a reddish hue. Thisunsightly problem, known as ume or gas ading , can beprevented with solution dyeing as described in Chapter 8.Fume ading is an especially important consideration orsuch interior textile products as drapery and upholstery

abrics. Should the original color o such items be lost, theharmony o the interior would be destroyed, necessitatingan unplanned, costly, and disruptive replacement.

Acetate was the rst manu actured ber that was ther-moplastic or heat sensitive. Although heat setting can beused, its use is restricted to preserve high fexibility anddrapability. Consumers must be cautious with ironing

temperatures to avoid melting the bers.

Lyocell Lyocell was introduced to consumers in 1991 and origi-nally marketed as a type o rayon. In 1996 the FTC o -

cially approved lyocell as the new generic name or asolvent spun ber that is obtained by an organic solvent spinning process. Lyocell is a cellulose ber made romthe wood pulp o trees grown on managed tree arms,

where the trees are constantly replanted. Unlike rayon, virtually all the chemicals used in the production processare reclaimed and recycled. Environmentalists have her-alded lyocell as a new ber that represents a milestone inthe development o environmentally sustainable textiles.

Lyocell shares many properties with other natural cel-lulose bers, such as cotton, fax, and silk. Short, staple-length bers give a cottonlike look to abrics. Long la-

Figure 4.37 s c c .C y a y W k , www. c.c .

Figure 4.38 C y c t c y c .C y a y W k , www. c.c .


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expensive ber. Rayon is used in curtain and drapery abrics,upholstery abrics, table linens, and blankets. It also is usedin such window treatment trimmings as cords and galloons.One o the advantages o rayon over cotton is its resistanceto shrinkage, a notorious problem or cotton. Rayon is lesslikely to ade or to orm pills as a result o riction.

Modal is a registered tradename o Lenzing AG, aGerman company that specializes in regenerated manu-

actured bers. Whereas rayon may be made o the woodpulp o a number o di erent trees, Modal is a variety o HWM rayon derived exclusively rom beech trees. Modal is very so t and is popular or household textiles, such asbedding, upholstery, and towels. Many companies market

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