4. Glossary of Eu D-E

Deepening

Deepening refers to the integration dynamic present from the outset of the European venture. Through the customs

union, the internal market, and then the Euro zone, the European Communities have grown into what aspires to be an

"ever closer union" among the peoples of Europe (Article 1 of the EU Treaty). Deepening is a process parallel to, and

often viewed as a necessary step prior to, enlargement.

In this spirit it has been decided to reform the main Community policies (common agricultural policy and structural

policy) and the workings of the institutions to create a favourable context for new Member States to join the European

Union.

Democratic deficit

The democratic deficit is a concept invoked principally in the argument that the European Union and its various bodies

suffer from a lack of democracy and seem inaccessible to the ordinary citizen because their method of operating is so

complex.  

At every stage of the European integration process, the question of democratic legitimacy has become increasingly

sensitive. The Maastricht, Amsterdam and Nice Treaties contributed to improving the democratic legitimacy of the

institutional system by reinforcing the powers of Parliament with regard to the appointment and control of the

Commission and successively extending the scope of the codecision procedure.

The Treaty of Lisbon continues in the same vein. On the one hand, it strengthens the powers of the European

Parliament on legislative and budgetary matters and enables it to carry out more effective political control of the

European Commission through the procedure of appointing the President of the Commission. On the other hand, it

strives to increase citizen participation in the democratic life of the Union by creating a citizens’ right of initiative and

by recognizing the importance of dialogue between the European institutions and civil society.

Furthermore, the Treaty provides that the sessions of the Council of Ministers will henceforth be made public in order to

promote transparency and information for European citizens.

Development aid

The glossary is being updated given the recent signing of the Treaty of Lisbon.

The beginnings of the European Community's development policy coincided with the signature of the Treaty of Rome in

1957, and the Member States' overseas countries and territories were its first beneficiaries. However, it is only since the

entry into force of the Treaty on European Union (the Maastricht Treaty, 1993) that this policy has enjoyed a specific

legal basis (Articles 177 to 181 of the EC Treaty). With the successive enlargements of the Union, cooperation has

gradually extended to other countries, such as the African, Caribbean and Pacific countries (ACP) which have a

particularly close and long-standing relationship with certain Member States. The Cotonou Agreement, signed in June

2000 and revised in June 2005, has strengthened this partnership, which is to a large extent based on the various Lomé

Conventions, the first of which was signed in 1975.

In addition to these initial agreements, other countries also benefit from the Community's development policy, such as

the countries of Latin America and Asia.

The main objective of the European Community's development policy is to eradicate poverty. This policy is

implemented not only through bilateral and regional agreements but also through specific programmes in certain

sectors such as health and education. The development policy also entails cooperation with international institutions

and the participation of the Community and Member States in initiatives implemented at global level such as the

Initiative for Highly Indebted Poor Countries.

Today, the Union is the main trading partner of developing countries and the main contributor to development aid. The

European Community and its Member States together provide 55% of international development aid.

Distribution of competences

The Treaty of Lisbon clarifies the division of competences between the Union and the Member States. Alongside the

principles of subsidiarity and proportionality, it includes the principle of conferral (Article 5 of the Treaty on European

Union – TEU). This principle provides that the Union shall act only within the limits of the competences conferred upon it

by the Member States in specified areas.

There are three types of competences:

exclusive competences: they are provided for by Article 3 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU (TFEU). Only the

Union may legislate in these areas. The Union may also conclude international agreements when this conclusion is

provided for in a legislative act of the Union or is necessary to enable the Union to exercise one of its exclusive

competences.

Shared competences: they are provided for by Article 4 of the TFEU. The Union and Member States may legislate in

these areas. Member States may exercise their competence as long as the Union has not exercised its competence or

when the Union decides not to exercise it. Member States may also request the Commission to repeal an adopted

legislative act in one of the shared areas in order to better ensure compliance with the principles of subsidiarity and

proportionality (Declaration No 18 annexed to the Treaty of Lisbon);

areas where Member States remain competent, but where the Union may complete their action by carrying out

supporting or coordinating actions.

These competences may be extended through the application of the flexibility clause (Article 352 of the TFEU). This

enables additional powers to be given to the Union when the means necessary for achieving one of its objectives have

not been provided for in the Treaties.

The principles of subsidiarity and proportionality act as power regulators so as to ensure compliance with this

distribution. National parliaments shall have a role in monitoring compliance with the subsidiarity principle.

Double majority

The Treaty of Nice (2001) redefined the qualified majority in terms of a double or even triple majority. While the

reweighting of votes works in favour of the large Member States, the qualified majority must also represent a majority

of the Member States. This is combined with a system known as the "demographic safety net" which enables each

Member State to request verification of whether the qualified majority represents at least 62% of the population of the

Union. If this condition is not fulfilled, the decision cannot be adopted.

The Treaty of Lisbon amends the rules of Council voting by introducing a simpler and more transparent system based

on the principle of double majority of States and population. The qualified majority can only be reached if it represents

at least 55% of the States of the Union and 65% of the European population (Article 16 of the Treaty on European Union

and Article 238 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union). This voting system shall only enter into force

after a transition period has taken place, ending on 31 October 2014. Until this date, the voting rules in the Treaty of

Nice continue to apply.

Economic, social and territorial cohesion

Economic and social cohesion is an expression of solidarity between the Member States and regions of the European

Union. The aim is balanced development throughout the EU, reducing structural disparities between regions and

promoting equal opportunities for all. In practical terms, this is achieved by means of a variety of financing operations,

principally through the Structural Funds and the Cohesion Fund. Every three years the European Commission presents a

report on progress made in achieving economic and social cohesion and on how Community policies have contributed

to it.

At European level, the origins of economic and social cohesion go back to the Treaty of Rome (1957) where a reference

is made in the preamble to reducing regional disparities. In the 1970s, Community action was taken to coordinate the

national instruments and provide additional financial resources. Subsequently these measures proved inadequate given

the situation in the Community, where the establishment of the internal market, contrary to forecasts, had failed to

even out the differences between regions. With the adoption of the Single European Act in 1986, economic and social

cohesion proper was made an objective alongside completing the single market. The Maastricht Treaty (1992), finally,

incorporated the policy into the EC Treaty itself (Articles 158 to 162).

Economic and social cohesion is essentially implemented through the regional policy of the European Union. Besides

the reform of the common agricultural policy and enlargement to the Central and East European countries in 2004,

regional policy was one of the major issues discussed in Agenda 2000, which covers the period 2000-2006, largely

because of the financial implications.

Regional policy is the European Union's second largest budget item, with an allocation of 348 billion euros (2006 prices)

for the period 2007-2013. Enlargement to 27 Member States in January 2007 has meant an entirely new order. The

surface area of the European Union has increased by over 25%, its population by over 20%, and its wealth by only 5%

approximately. Average GDP per capita in the European Union has fallen by more than 10% and regional disparities

have doubled. Since 60% of the regions whose development is lagging behind are in the 12 Member States which

joined the EU In 2004, the centre of gravity of regional policy is shifting eastwards.

For the period 2007-2013, economic and social cohesion will have to concentrate more on crucial development

concerns in the field of economic growth and employment while continuing to support regions which have not

completed the process of convergence in real terms. Structural assistance also remains necessary in geographical

areas facing specific structural problems (areas undergoing industrial restructuring, urban areas, rural areas, areas

dependent on fishing, and areas suffering from natural or demographic handicaps). Finally, simplification and

decentralisation of the management of regional policy financial instruments (Structural Funds and Cohesion Fund) will

be the watchwords of the regional policy reform for the period 2007-2013.

Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)

Economic and monetary union (EMU) is the process of harmonising the economic and monetary policies of the Member

States of the Union with a view to the introduction of a single currency, the euro. It was the subject of an

Intergovernmental Conference (IGC), which concluded its deliberations in Maastricht in December 1991.

EMU was achieved in three stages:

First stage (1 July 1990 to 31 December 1993): free movement of capital between Member States, closer coordination

of economic policies and closer cooperation between central banks.

Second stage (1 January 1994 to 31 December 1998): convergence of the economic and monetary policies of the

Member States (to ensure stability of prices and sound public finances) and the establishment of the European

Monetary Institute (EMI) and, in 1998, of the European Central Bank (ECB).

Third stage (from 1 January 1999): irrevocable fixing of exchange rates and introduction of the single currency on the

foreign-exchange markets and for electronic payments. Introduction of euro notes and coins.

So far, 17 of the 27 Member States of the European Union have introduced the single currency.

Three Member States did not adopt the single currency: the United Kingdom and Denmark, both of which have an opt-

out clause, and Sweden, following a referendum in September 2003. The States which joined the Union on 1 May 2004

and 1 January 2007 are required to adopt the euro as soon as they meet all the convergence criteria. They were not

granted opt-out clauses during the accession negotiations.

The challenges facing the long-term success of EMU are continued budgetary consolidation and closer coordination of

Member States' economic policies.

Economic policy

Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) implies close coordination of national economic policies, which have thus become

a matter of common concern. In practical terms, the Council, acting by a qualified majority on a recommendation from

the Commission, formulates draft guidelines that are sent to the European Council. In the light of the latter's

conclusions, the Council, again acting by qualified majority, adopts a recommendation setting out the Broad Economic

Policy Guidelines (BEPG) of the of the Member States and the Union and informs the European Parliament (Article 121

of the TFEU). These annual broad guidelines are the central element of coordination for the Union's economic policies.

In addition to these guidelines, the EC Treaty lays down other economic policy provisions in Title VIII of the TFEU,

including:

multilateral surveillance: the Member States, meeting within the Council, monitor economic developments and the

application of the broad economic policy guidelines; they may issue recommendations to the government of a Member

State which is failing to comply with the guidelines;

the excessive-deficit procedure: the Member States must avoid excessive government deficits, and it is up to the

Commission to ensure that this principle is complied with;

financial assistance: when a Member State is experiencing severe difficulties, the Council is able, under certain

conditions, to grant it financial assistance;

prohibition against assuming the commitments of other Member States;

prohibition of privileged access: it is prohibited to grant public bodies, authorities or undertakings privileged access to

finance.

Education

Each Member State is responsible for the organisation of its education and training systems and the content of teaching

programmes. In accordance with Article 165 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), the Union’s

role is to contribute to the development of quality education by encouraging cooperation between Member States and,

if necessary, by supporting and supplementing their action.

Policy cooperation among Member States and the EU institutions is based on the “strategic framework for European

cooperation in education and training (ET2020)”, which is complemented by a number of funding programmes. The

Lifelong Learning Programme supports exchanges, cooperation and mobility.

Employment

Promoting a high level of employment has been one of the Community's objectives since the Treaty of Amsterdam

came into force in May 1999 and added a Title VIII "Employment" to the Treaty establishing the European Community.

The Union's responsibilities with regard to employment are complementary to those of the Member States, the main

aim being to create a European Employment Strategy (EES). The EES is intended as the main instrument to provide

direction and coordinate the employment policy priorities supported by the Member States at European level.

Financial support for employment policy is provided through various instruments:

the programme PROGRESS 2007-2013, the aim of which is to provide financial assistance for work towards the Union's

employment and social affairs objectives;

the priorities of the European Social Fund which are part of the EES objectives;

the Mutual Learning Programme, launched at the beginning of 2005, as part of the incentive measures to promote

employment. Its main objective is to enhance the transferability of the most effective policies within key areas of the

EES.

At European level, the main structures in the field of employment are:

the European Employment Observatory, an employment policy information system established in 1982 by the

Commission in collaboration with the national authorities;

the EURES network, which contributes to creating a European labour market accessible to all through the international,

interregional and cross-border exchange of job vacancies and applications and the exchange of information on living

conditions and gaining qualifications.

Employment Committee

The Employment Committee is responsible for promoting the coordination of European Union (EU) countries

employment and labour market policies.

The Committee's main tasks are to:

follow the development of employment policies and the labour situation in EU countries;

formulate opinions at the request of either the Council or the Commission or on its own initiative;

assist the Council in its work on the European Employment Strategy and its instruments (Employment Guidelines,

recommendations on the implementation of national employment policies, etc.).

The Committee also formulates opinions at the request of either the Council or the Commission or on its own initiative.

It is made up of two representatives of each Member State and two representatives of the Commission. It consults the

social partners at European level in order to carry out its work successfully.

Energy

The treaties prior to the Lisbon Treaty did not provide a specific legal basis for Community energy policy. It was based

on the Euratom Treaty and a number of provisions contained in the chapters on the “Internal Market” and the

“Environment”.

Article 4 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU) now lays down sharing of competence between Member States and the

European Union in this field.

The policy of the Union shall (Article 194 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union – TFEU):

ensure the functioning of the energy market;

ensure security of energy supply in the Union;

promote energy efficiency and energy saving and the development of new and renewable forms of energy;

promote the interconnection of energy networks.

European energy policy measures shall be adopted under the ordinary legislative procedure. They shall respect the

right of each Member State to develop their own energy policy.

This new competence of the Union will continue, in a more effective way, a process initiated in 2006 with the

presentation of a Green Paper on A European Strategy for Sustainable, Competitive and Secure Energy. This Green

Paper led to the adoption of a comprehensive Energy Action Plan for the period 2007-2009 of which the three main

areas are:

the promotion of energy security;

the maintaining of firms’ competitiveness by giving them access to affordable energy;

the fight against climate change.

Several programmes have been launched with a view to implementing these objectives including the Intelligent Energy

- Europe programme, which comes under the framework programme for innovation and competitiveness (2007-2013).

It provides Community funding to help achieve the Union's objectives in the field of sustainable energy.

Enhanced cooperation

Enhanced cooperation allows those countries of the Union that wish to continue to work more closely together to do so,

while respecting the legal framework of the Union. The Member States concerned can thus move forward at different

speeds and/or towards different goals. However, enhanced cooperation does not allow extension of the powers as laid

down by the Treaties, nor may it be applied to areas that fall within the exclusive competence of the Union. Moreover it

may be undertaken only as a last resort, when it has been established within the Council that the objectives of such

cooperation cannot be attained within a reasonable period by the Union as a whole.

The general arrangements for enhanced cooperation are laid down by the Treaty on European Union (Title IV). In

principle, at least nine states must be involved in enhanced cooperation, but it remains open to any state that wishes to

participate. It may not constitute discrimination between those participating and the other states. Any acts that are

adopted within the framework of such cooperation are binding only on the participating Member States and do not

constitute a part of the acquis. Enhanced cooperation must further the objectives, protect the interests and reinforce

the integration process of the Union.

In addition to the general regime, special arrangements are laid down in the Treaty on the Functioning of the European

Union (Title III). Following the approval of the European Parliament on the Commission proposal, the Council grants

Member States’ requests to initiate enhanced cooperation. Decisions authorising cooperation in the field of the common

foreign and security policy (CFSP) are taken unanimously by the Council, following the opinions of the High

Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy and the Commission. Voting takes place only among

those members of the Council that represent the Member States participating in enhanced cooperation. Notifications on

participating in enhanced cooperation already in progress are given to the Council and the Commission and, in matters

relating to the CFSP, to the High Representative. Apart from decisions concerning military and defence matters, the

Council may, under certain circumstances, decide unanimously to act by qualified majority or under the ordinary

legislative procedure.

The Treaty of Amsterdam incorporated the "enhanced cooperation" concept into the Treaty on European Union as

regards judicial cooperation on criminal matters and into the Treaty establishing the European Community. The Treaty

of Nice introduced major changes aimed at simplifying the mechanism. In particular, a Member State may not oppose

the establishment of enhanced cooperation as originally allowed by the Treaty of Amsterdam. To further improve

cooperation and to make it more purposeful, the Treaty of Lisbon introduced additional modifications mainly related to

the procedure for the initiation of enhanced cooperation, as well as decision-making within the framework of such

cooperation.

Enlargement

The European Union (EU) currently has 27 Member States. Following the first six Member States — Belgium, France,

Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands — 21 countries have acceded to the Union:

1973: Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom;

1981: Greece;

1986: Spain and Portugal;

1995: Austria, Finland and Sweden;

2004: Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia;

2007: Bulgaria and Romania.

Croatia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Turkey have the status of candidate countries. Accession

negotiations with Croatia and Turkey opened on 3 October 2005.

The countries of the Western Balkans which are engaged in the stabilisation and association process have the status of

potential candidate countries. These are Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia, including Kosovo, as

defined by UN Security Council Resolution 1244.

Iceland submitted an application for accession to the EU in July 2009. The country, which is a member of the European

Economic Area and the Schengen area, has already reached a high level of integration with the EU. The Council shall

decide on the opening of accession negotiations.

Enterprise policy

The objective of enterprise policy is to produce an environment that is more conducive to the creation and development

of businesses, especially small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), within the European Union.

The main focus of this policy is on:

promoting entrepreneurship (encouraging business creation, and supporting companies, especially SMEs, during their

start-up and development phase);

promoting European performances in terms of competitiveness (encouraging businesses to adapt to structural change

and maintaining a high and consistent level of productivity growth;

taking account of the specific characteristics and needs of the different sectors of industry;

promoting innovation (following up technological developments, new product designs, developing new ways of

marketing products);

better access to funding, support networks and programmes;

simplification of the regulatory and administrative environment.

Enterprise policy thus contributes to sustainable growth and job creation. It is involved in achieving the objective set by

the European Council in Lisbon on 23 and 24 March 2000 when the Heads of State and Government declared that the

European Union was to become the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world by 2010.

EU enterprise policy helps to support and coordinate the Member States' activities. The Union can neither replace

national competences nor harmonise national legislation and regulations.

Environment

The European Union's environment policy, based on Article 191 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union

(TFEU), aims to preserve, protect and improve the quality of the environment and to protect human health. It also

focuses on the careful and rational use of natural resources and contributes to promoting, at international level,

measures intended to combat regional or global environmental problems, tackling climate change, in particular.

It is based on the precautionary, preventive action, correction at source and "polluter pays" principles.

The Sixth Environment Action Programme, adopted in 2002, defines the priorities and objectives of European

environmental policy until 2010, concentrating on four priority areas: climate change; nature and biodiversity;

environment, health and quality of life; and natural resources and wastes. It is complemented by seven thematic

strategies in the following areas: atmospheric pollution, waste, the marine environment, soils, pesticides, natural

resources and the urban environment.

Over the past thirty years, European environmental action has evolved from the resolution of certain specific problems

to a more horizontal, preventive and integrated approach. The idea of "sustainable development" was enshrined as one

of the objectives of the Union in the Amsterdam Treaty, and the mainstreaming of environmental protection has been

reinforced in other Community policies.

It has been made easier for a Member State to apply stricter standards than the harmonised standards, as long as they

are compatible with the Treaty and communicated to the Commission.

Most of the Union acts in this area have been adopted in accordance with the ordinary legislative procedure, with the

exception of certain fields such as fiscal provisions, land use planning or areas that significantly affect Member States'

choices with regard to energy.

Environmental liability

Environmental liability is an application of the "polluter pays" principle outlined in the Treaty establishing the European

Community. Arrangements for applying it are set out in Directive 2004/35/EC.

It applies to environmental damage and the risk of damage resulting from commercial activities, once it is possible to

establish a causal link between the damage and the activity in question. Environmental damage is defined as direct or

indirect damage caused to the aquatic environment, flora and fauna and natural habitats protected by the Natura 2000

network, as well as direct or indirect contamination of the soil which could lead to a serious risk to human health.

Two systems of liability have been created: a system with no fault to be proved and a system where evidence of a fault

or negligence must be presented. The former applies to dangerous or potentially dangerous commercial activities listed

in the Community legislation. In this case, the operator may be held liable even if he has committed no fault. The

second system applies to all other commercial activities where species and natural habitats protected under

Community law have been damaged or are at imminent risk of damage. In this case, the operator will not be liable

unless he has committed a fault or has been negligent.

Equal opportunities

The general principle of equal opportunities contains two elements: one is equal treatment between persons, and the

other is equality for men and women. It is intended to apply to all fields, particularly professional life, education, access

to health care, goods and services.

The recognition of the principle of equality forms part of the objectives of the European Union (EU), and the principle of

non-discrimination, which is closely linked thereto, has been reinforced by the Treaties of Amsterdam and Lisbon. The

Community can thus take all necessary measures to combat discrimination based on sex, racial or ethnic origin, religion

or convictions, disability, age or sexual orientation. It is assisted in its action by the Advisory Committee on Equal

Opportunities for Men and Women.

Adopted in December 2000 and incorporated into the Lisbon Treaty in 2009, the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the

European Union includes a chapter entitled "Equality" which sets out the principles of non-discrimination, equality

between men and women, and cultural, religious and linguistic diversity. It also covers the rights of the child, the

elderly and persons with disabilities.

The European legal framework is supplemented by a series of measures aimed at promoting equality such as the

integration of non-discrimination in all Community policies, positive action, awareness-raising and training and the

promotion of the inclusion of Roma.

Equal treatment for men and women

As early as 1957, the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community enshrined the principle of equality

between men and women by requiring at first that they should receive equal pay for equivalent work.

Since 1975 a series of directives have broadened the principle of equality between men and women to cover working

conditions, training and promotion, social security, access to goods and services, maternity protection and parental

leave. Afterwards, this principle was extended to the defence of rights, compensation for victims and the burden of

proof in the judicial process.

The Amsterdam Treaty enabled the gender dimension to be integrated into all Community policies and established the

principle of equal treatment as a fundamental right. The European Union (EU) also recognises the principle of non-

discrimination which forms the foundation of the fight against unequal treatment. The Nice Treaty recognised the need

to adopt positive actions to encourage women to participate in the labour market.

The Lisbon Treaty establishes the principle of equality between men and women as a common value of the European

Union (Article 2 of the EU Treaty (EUT)). The Union promotes equality (Article 3 of EUT) and combats inequalities

through the actions it implements (Article 8 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU (TFEU)).

The principle of equal treatment is also a right written down in the European Charter of Fundamental Rights. Through

being integrated into the TEU, the Charter has become binding.

The Commission added a Community strategy (2001-2005), pursued through the PROGRESS Programme (2007-2013),

to the multi-annual programmes promoting equal treatment, which were started in the 1980s.

Since 2006 a new strategy has been in place. It is based on the 2006-2010 road map and its annual work programmes.

It applies to the priority action areas, such as:

economic independence,

work/life balance,

equal representation in public life and decision-making,

eradicating violence and the trafficking of women,

eliminating stereotypes present in society,

promoting equality between the sexes outside the EU.

In addition, a European Institute for equality between men and women was created in Vilnius (Lithuania) in 2006.

EU action (CFSP)

EU action, which is a legal instrument under Title V of the Treaty on European Union (common foreign and security

policy, CFSP), means coordinated action by the Member States whereby all kinds of resources (human resources, know-

how, financing, equipment, etc.) are mobilised in order to attain specific objectives set by the Council, on the basis of

general guidelines from the European Council.

EU position (CFSP)

This legal instrument is provided by Title V of the Treaty of the European Union regarding the Common Foreign and

Security Policy (CFSP). It enables the Council to define the EU position on a specific issue of a geographic or thematic

nature. Member States are required to ensure their national policies conform to the positions set by the EU. These are

adopted unanimously by the Council.

Eurojust

Set up by a Council Decision in 2002, Eurojust is the body entrusted with reinforcing the fight against serious crime

through closer judicial cooperation within the European Union.

This body for coordinating Member States' national public prosecution services comprises 27 national representatives:

judges, prosecutors and police officers on secondment from each Member State. It can carry out its tasks through one

or more of the national members or collectively. Moreover, each Member State may appoint one or more national

correspondents, who may also act as contact points for the European Judicial Network.

Eurojust's competence covers investigations and prosecutions in relation to serious crime, particularly organised crime

or cross-border crime. Its goals are to promote coordination between competent authorities in the Member States but

also to facilitate international mutual legal assistance, and carry out extradition requests and European arrest warrants.

Eurojust also contributes to Member States' criminal investigations on the basis of analyses carried out by Europol.

There is some overlap in the two bodies' competences with regard to: computer crime, fraud and corruption, laundering

of the proceeds of crime, environmental crime, participation in a criminal organisation.

Euro-Mediterranean Partnership

The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership or “Union for the Mediterranean” constitutes the policy of the European Union

towards the Mediterranean countries. Its purpose is to strengthen the links between the Union and the partner

countries, whilst encouraging closer ties among the Mediterranean countries themselves.

The objective of the Partnership launched in 1995 following the Barcelona Declaration is to promote peace and stability

in the region by establishing a political dialogue that respects the partners' shared values, such as democracy and the

rule of law. Further aims are to promote the prevention and resolution of conflicts, as well as prosperity, particularly

through the creation of a free-trade area, and to develop cooperation.

In this context, the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership brings together the Member States of the Union and 16

Mediterranean countries under a large-scale programme with three strands: a political and security strand, an economic

and financial strand and a social and cultural strand. Strengthening cooperation in the fields of justice, migration and

social inclusion is also an important element of the Process.

The Partnership is put into effect both bilaterally and regionally. The bilateral arrangements are tailored to the

individual partner country, an important aspect being the Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreements. Community

funding is principally based on the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI) and on the European

Investment Bank's Facility for Euro-Mediterranean Investment and Partnership (FEMIP).

The partnership has been strengthened by the launch of the Union for the Mediterranean at the Summit for the

Mediterranean, which took place in Paris in July 2008. A rotating presidency has been set up between the partners in

the North and the South and a permanent secretariat has been established in Barcelona to manage regional, sub-

regional and transnational projects.

The partners of the Union for the Mediterranean have set themselves a number of key objectives:

pollution abatement of the Mediterranean Sea;

development of maritime and land transport routes;

administration of civil protection against natural and man-made disasters;

solar energy production;

business development, specifically micro-businesses and SMEs;

establishing a Euro-Mediterranean university in Slovenia.

Europe 'à la carte'

This refers to the idea of a non-uniform method of integration which allows Member States to select policies as if from a

menu and involve themselves fully in those policies; there would still be a minimum number of common objectives.

European arrest warrant

The European arrest warrant is a judicial decision issued by a Member State with a view to the arrest and surrender by

another Member State of a person being sought for a criminal prosecution or a custodial sentence.

It is a tool designed to strengthen cooperation between the judicial authorities of the Member States by eliminating the

use of extradition. It is based on the principle of mutual recognition of decisions in criminal matters.

The European arrest warrant is based on a Framework Decision adopted by the Council on 13 June 2002. This decision

is applied from 1 January 2004.

European Central Bank (ECB)

Founded on 30 June 1998 in Frankfurt, the European Central Bank (ECB) is responsible for implementing monetary

policy in the Eurozone. Its main task is to maintain price stability in the Eurozone and, consequently, to preserve the

purchasing power of the Euro. The Eurozone comprises the sixteen countries of the European Union (EU) which have

introduced the Euro since 1999.

The European Central Bank and the national central banks constitute the European System of Central Banks (ESCB).

The decision-making bodies of the ECB (Executive Board and Governing Council) administer the ESCB, whose roles are

to manage money supply, conduct exchange operations, hold and manage the official foreign reserve assets of the

Member States and ensure the smooth functioning of payment systems.

With the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon, the European Central Bank becomes an EU institution in its own right.

It has legal personality and acts totally independently. It alone has the power to authorise the issue of the Euro.

The managing bodies of the ECB are:

The Governing Council, made up of the members of the Executive Board and the Governors of the national central

banks of the Member States which have adopted the Euro.

The Executive Board, made up of the President, the Vice-President and four other members appointed by the European

Council, acting by qualified majority on a recommendation from the Council and after consulting the European

Parliament and the Governing Board of the European Central Bank. Their term of office is eight years and is not

renewable.

European Commission

Established by the Treaty of Rome in 1957, the European Commission has comprised 27 Commissioners since the

accession of Bulgaria and Romania on 1 January 2007. Its main function is to propose and implement Community

policies adopted by the Council and the Parliament. It acts in the general interest of the Union with complete

independence from national governments.

It enjoys a quasi-exclusive right of initiative in matters where the Community method applies (matters where Member

States have transferred a significant part of their responsibilities, such as the Common Agricultural Policy, the Customs

Union, the internal market, the Euro, etc.), which drive European integration. The Lisbon Treaty “communitarises”

issues relating to justice and internal affairs and assigns the Commission a right of initiative in these areas, which it

shares with Member States.

As guardian of the Treaties, the Commission oversees the application of Union law under the control of the Court of

Justice of the European Union. It executes the budget and manages the programmes. It exercises coordinating,

executive and management functions, as laid down in the Treaties. With the exception of the Common Foreign and

Security Policy, and other cases provided for in the Treaties, it ensures the Union’s external representation. It initiates

the Union’s annual and multiannual programming with a view to achieving inter-institutional agreements.

The Commission is appointed for a five-year term by the Council acting by qualified majority in agreement with the

Member States. It is subject to a vote of appointment by the European Parliament, to which it is answerable. The

Commissioners are assisted by an administration made up of Directorates-General and specialised departments whose

staff are divided mainly between Brussels and Luxembourg.

European Company

The European Company (known by its Latin name of "Societas Europaea" or SE) is a company established under

Community law. It has its own legal framework and can operate as a single entity throughout the EU.

In 2001, the Union formally adopted the regulation on the Statute for a European Company and the associated directive

on employee participation in European Companies.

This legislation entered into force in 2004 after some 30 years of discussion. It allows companies to cut administrative

costs and provides them with a legal structure suitable for the common market, avoiding the legal and practical

constraints arising from 25 different legal systems.

Under the European Company Statute, an SE can be set up by:

merger;

creation of a holding company;

creation of a joint subsidiary;

conversion of an existing company set up under national law.

The SE must have a minimum subscribed capital of 120 000 euros and its registered office, specified in the statutes,

must be at the same place as its real head office.

The agreement on the SE is one of the priorities identified by the Financial Services Action Plan (FSAP) and is regarded

as vital to the creation of a fully integrated market in financial services.

European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)

The European Convention on Human Rights was signed in Rome under the aegis of the Council of Europe on 4

November 1950. It established an unprecedented system of international protection for human rights, whereby

individuals received the possibility of applying to the courts for the enforcement of their rights. The Convention, which

has been ratified by all Member States of the Union, established a number of supervisory bodies based in Strasbourg.

These were:

a Commission responsible for advance examination of applications from States or from individuals;

a European Court of Human Rights, to which cases were referred by the Commission or by a Member State following a

report by the Commission (in the case of a judicial settlement);

a Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe, which acted as the guardian of the ECHR and was called upon to

secure a political settlement of a dispute where a case was not brought before the Court.

The growing number of cases made it necessary to reform the supervisory arrangements established by the

Convention. The supervisory bodies were thus replaced on 1 November 1998 by a single European Court of Human

Rights. The simplified structure shortened the length of procedures and enhanced the judicial character of the system.

The idea of the European Union acceding to the ECHR has often been raised. However, in an opinion given on 28 March

1996, the Court of Justice of the European Union stated that the European Communities could not accede to the

Convention because the EC Treaty did not provide any powers to lay down rules or to conclude international

agreements on human rights.

The Treaty of Amsterdam nevertheless calls for respect for the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Convention, while

formalising the judgments of the Court of Justice on the matter. As regards relations between the two Courts, the

practice developed by the Court of Justice of incorporating the principles of the Convention into Union law has made it

possible to maintain their independence and coherence in their work.

As of the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon on 1 December 2009, the EU Treaty now provides the legal basis for

the Union’s accession to the ECHR. This will allow EU law to be interpreted in light of the Convention, and improve the

legal protection of EU citizens by extending the protection they enjoy from Member States to acts of the Union.

European Council

With the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon, the European Council becomes one of the European Union institutions.

Comprising the Heads of State or Government of the Member States, it meets at least four times a year and includes

the President of the European Commission as a full member. It elects its President for a period of two and a half years.

The role of the European Council is to provide the European Union with the necessary impetus for its development and

to define the general political guidelines (Article 15 of the Treaty on European Union - TEU). It does not exercise any

legislative function. However, the Treaty of Lisbon provides the option for the European Council to be consulted on

criminal matters (Articles 82 and 83 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union) or on social security

matters (Article 48 of the TFEU) in cases where a State opposes a legislative proposal in these areas.

Decisions are taken following negotiations between Member States during European summits. The outcomes of

European Council proceedings are recorded in conclusions published after each meeting. An extraordinary meeting can

be held whenever necessary.

The European Council was set up by the communiqué issued at the close of the December 1974 Paris Summit and first

met in 1975. Before that time, from 1961 to 1974, the practice had been to hold European summit conferences. Under

the terms of a declaration attached to the Final Act of the Intergovernmental Conference preparatory to the Treaty of

Nice, all meetings of the European Council have been held in Brussels since the Union attained a membership of 25

(May 2004).

European Development Fund

Created by the Treaty of Rome in 1957, the European Development Fund (EDF) is the main instrument providing

Community aid for development cooperation with the countries of Africa, the Caribbean and the Pacific (ACP countries)

and with the Overseas Countries and Territories (OCTs).

The EDF finances any projects or programmes which contribute to the economic, social or cultural development of the

countries in question. It consists of several instruments, including grants, risk capital and loans to the private sector.

The EDF is funded by the Member States and does not yet come under the general Community budget. However, the

aid granted to OCTs is to be included in the European Union's general budget as of 1 January 2008, while the aid

granted to ACP countries will continue to be funded by the EDF, at least for the period 2008-2013.

Each EDF, which generally follows the cycle of the partnership agreements, is concluded for a period of around five

years. The ninth EDF (2000-2007) has been allocated 13.5 billion euros, in addition to 9.9 billion euros left over from the

previous EDFs. The European Investment Bank's own resources contribution adds a further 1.7 billion euros over the

period covered by the ninth EDF.

European Economic and Social Committee (EESC)

The European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) is an advisory body of the European Union (EU). It was set up in

1957 by the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community to represent the interests of the various economic

and social groups.

The EESC consists of a maximum of 350 members from organised civil society (Article 301 of the Treaty on the

Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). They fall into three groups representing the interests of employers, workers

and particular types of activity (such as farmers, craftsmen, small businesses and industry, the professions, consumer

representatives, scientists and teachers, cooperatives, families, environmental movements). The members of the EESC

are appointed for five years and this term may be renewed by a decision of the Council taken unanimously on a

proposal from the Commission.

The EESC may be consulted by the European Parliament, the Council and the Commission in the cases envisaged by the

Treaties. It may also issue opinions on its own initiative.

Consequently, it is consulted before a great many instruments concerning the internal market, education, consumer

protection, environment, regional development and social affairs are adopted. Since the entry into force of the Treaty of

Amsterdam (May 1999), the EESC has to be consulted on an even wider range of issues such as the new employment

policy, the new social affairs legislation, public health and equal opportunities.

European Employment Strategy (EES)

The glossary is being updated given the recent signing of the Treaty of Lisbon.

Since the Treaty of Amsterdam added a new Title VIII on Employment to the Treaty establishing the European

Community, coordination of Member States' employment policies has become a Community priority.

It was on the basis of these new provisions that the Luxembourg European Council, held in November 1997, launched

the European Employment Strategy (EES), also known as the "Luxembourg process".

The EES is an annual programme of planning, monitoring, examination and readjustment of policies put in place by

Member States to coordinate the instruments they use to tackle unemployment. The Strategy is based on four

components:

Employment Guidelines: common priorities for Member States' employment policies, drawn up by the Commission;

National Action Plans (NAPs) for employment: implementation of the common Guidelines at national level;

Joint Employment Report: summary of the National Action Plans, to be used as a basis for drawing up the following

year's Guidelines;

Recommendations: the Council adopts country-specific recommendations by a qualified majority.

In 2005 the Lisbon Strategy was revised in order to focus more closely on developing strong, sustainable growth and

creating more and better jobs.

This re-launch of the Lisbon Strategy led to a thorough review of the EES, implementing the new process in July 2005,

with the European Council's approval of the Integrated Guidelines for Growth and Jobs.

The European Employment Strategy is based on four components:

the Integrated Guidelines for Growth and Jobs (the Guidelines will now be presented jointly with the guidelines for the

EU's macroeconomic and microeconomic policies for a period of three years);

the national reform programmes for each country;

the Commission's annual report on growth and employment, which analyses the 25 new national reform programmes

presented by the Member States;

any recommendations adopted by the Council.

The Integrated Guidelines for Growth and Jobs will serve as a basis for the Community Lisbon Programme and the

national action programmes.

European External Action Service

Through the Lisbon Treaty, the Common Foreign and Security Policy is henceforth assigned to the High Representative

of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. In carrying out their duties, the High Representative is assisted by a

European External Action Service tasked with the coordination of the Union’s external actions, preparing action

proposals or positions and implementing them after Council approval. They also provide support to the President of the

European Council, the President of the Council and to the members of the Commission on all areas of external relations.

The European External Action Service comprises officials from relevant departments of the General Secretariat of the

Council, the European Commission and diplomatic services of the Member States.

Existing EU delegations and crisis management structures within the General Secretariat of the Council, such as the

Crisis Management and Planning Directorate (CMPD), the Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC) and the

European Military Union Staff (EMUS), also form part of the European External Action Service.

European institutions

The Union has an institutional framework aimed at defending its values, objectives and interests, the interests of its

citizens and those of its Member States. This framework also contributes to ensuring the coherency, effectiveness and

continuity of Community policies and actions.

According to Article 13 of the Treaty on European Union, the institutional framework is composed of 7 institutions:

the European Parliament;

the European Council

the Council of the European Union (simply called “the Council”);

the European Commission;

the Court of Justice of the European Union;

the European Central Bank;

the Court of Auditors.

Each institution acts within the limits of their remit, granted in the Treaties in line with the procedures, conditions and

purposes laid down therein.

The European Parliament, the Council and the Commission are assisted by an Economic and Social Committee and a

Committee of the Regions performing advisory functions.

European Investment Bank (EIB)

Set up by the Treaty of Rome, the European Investment Bank is the European Union's financial institution. Its task is to

contribute to economic, social and territorial cohesion through the balanced development of the EU territory.

The EIB's shareholders are the 27 Member States of the European Union. The bank is supervised by the Board of

Governors, which comprises the 27 Finance Ministers. It has legal personality and is financially independent. It provides

long-term financing for practical projects, the economic, technical, environmental and financial viability of which is

guaranteed. It grants loans essentially from resources borrowed on capital markets, to which is added shareholders'

equity. Between 1994 and 1999 the transport, telecommunications, energy, water, education and training sectors were

the main beneficiaries.

In March 2000 the Lisbon European Council called for a strengthening of support for small and medium-sized

enterprises (SMEs). The EIB Group, which comprises the EIB and the European Investment Fund (EIF), was thus created

with a view to boosting European economic competitiveness. Through the Innovation 2000 initiative, it fosters

entrepreneurship, innovation and the optimal utilisation of human resources by granting SMEs medium-term loans and

bank guarantees, and by financing venture capital activities.

Outside the European Union the EIB supports the pre-accession strategies of the candidate countries and of the

Western Balkans. It also manages the financial dimension of the agreements concluded under European development

aid and cooperation policies. In this connection, it is active in the Mediterranean countries and in the African, Caribbean

and Pacific (ACP) countries.

European Judicial Network in criminal matters (EJN)

The purpose of the European Judicial Network (EJN) in criminal matters is to facilitate mutual judicial assistance in the

fight against transnational crime. It originated in a Joint Action adopted by the Council on 29 June 1998, which was

replaced by a Council decision of 16 December 2008.

The judicial network is made up of contact points designed to enable Member States' judicial and other competent

authorities to establish direct contacts between each other. These contact points also provide the legal and practical

information necessary for the authorities concerned to prepare an effective request for judicial cooperation.

The judicial network enjoys a privileged relationship with Eurojust that is based on consultation and complementarity.

There is also a European Judicial Network in civil and commercial matters, established by a Council decision of 28 May

2001 and based on the network in criminal matters.

European legal instruments

The term European legal instruments refers to the instruments available to the European institutions to carry out their

tasks. The instruments listed in Article 288 of the TFEU are:

regulations: these are binding in their entirety and directly applicable in all Member States;

directives: these bind the Member States as to the results to be achieved; they have to be transposed into the national

legal framework and thus leave margin for manoeuvre as to the form and means of implementation;

decisions: these are fully binding on those to whom they are addressed;

recommendations and opinions: these are non-binding, declaratory instruments.

Furthermore, the Lisbon Treaty introduces the possibility for the European legislator to delegate to the Commission the

power to adopt non-legislative acts of general scope which supplement or amend non-essential elements of legislative

acts (Article 290 of the TFEU).

In addition to the instruments listed in Article 288 of the TFEU, practice has led to the development of a whole series of

sui generis documents: interinstitutional agreements, resolutions, conclusions, communications, green papers and

white papers.

Under the CFSP, specific legal instruments are used, such as EU actions and positions.

European Parliament

The European Parliament (EP) is the assembly of the representatives of the 500 million Union citizens. Since 1979 they

have been elected by direct universal suffrage. The Lisbon Treaty set the total number of EP seats to 751. The number

of MEPs per country is set by a European Council decision adopted unanimously on the EP proposal. No country may

now have less than 6 or more than 96 MEPs.

The European Parliament's main functions are as follows:

legislative power: in most cases Parliament shares the legislative power with the Council, in particular through the

ordinary legislative procedure.

budgetary power: Parliament shares budgetary powers with the Council in voting on the annual budget, rendering it

enforceable through the President of Parliament's signature, and overseeing its implementation

power of control over the Union's institutions, in particular the Commission. Parliament can give or withhold approval

for the designation of Commissioners and has the power to dismiss the Commission as a body by passing a motion of

censure. It also exercises a power of control over the Union's activities through the written and oral questions it can put

to the Commission and the Council. And it can set up temporary committees and committees of inquiry whose remit is

not necessarily confined to the activities of European institutions but can extend to action taken by the Member States

in implementing European policies.

The Lisbon Treaty strengthens the role of the European Parliament by placing it on an equal footing with the Council of

Ministers. Namely, the Lisbon Treaty:

extends the ordinary legislative procedure (ordinary legislative procedure) to 40 new fields including agriculture, energy

security, immigration, justice and home affairs, health and structural funds;

reinforces the role of the Parliament in the adoption of the EU budget. The distinction between 'compulsory' and 'non

compulsory' expenditure is abandoned. The European Parliament is now responsible for the adoption of the entire

budget together with the Council;

enable MEPs to give their consent on a wide range of international agreements negotiated by the European Union such

as international trade agreements;

introduces new rights to be informed on the activities of the European Council, the rotating Council presidency and the

Union's external action;

gives the European Parliament the right to propose changes to the Treaty;

improves its power of scrutiny by giving it the responsibility to elect the President of the Commission, and approve the

Commission members by a vote of consent.

European political parties

The Regulation on the regulations governing political parties at European level and the rules regarding their funding

entered into force in 2004. It lays down conditions for recognition of a European political party, generating entitlement

to Community funding:

it must have legal personality in the Member State in which its seat is located;

it must be represented, in at least one quarter of Member States, by Members of the European, national or regional

Parliaments or assemblies, or have received, in at least one quarter of the Member States, at least three per cent of the

votes cast in each of those Member States at the most recent European Parliament elections;

it must observe the principles of the European Union;

it must have participated in elections to the European Parliament, or have expressed the intention to do so.

The conditions to be met for entitlement to Community funding (8.4 million annually) are also set: it must declare its

sources of funding, and certain sources are prohibited. Community funds must be used solely to cover expenditure

related to its political programme and can in no circumstances be used to finance national political parties.

The European People's Party (EPP), the Party of European Socialists (PSE), the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for

Europe (ALDE), the European Green Party (EGP) and European United Left (GUE) are just some of the parties set up in

European form.

European powers

European powers are those that are conferred on the European Union (EU) in specific areas by the Member States.

There are three types of powers, which depend on how they are conferred:

Explicit powers: these are clearly defined in the relevant articles of the Treaties.

Implicit powers: according to the implicit powers theory, competence in external matters derives from explicit internal

competence. Where the Treaties assign explicit powers to the Union in a particular area (e.g. transport), it must also

have similar powers to conclude agreements with non-Community countries in the same field (the principle of

parallelism between internal and external powers).

3. Subsidiary powers: where the Community has no explicit or implicit powers to achieve a Treaty objective concerning

the common market, Article 352 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU allows the Council, acting unanimously, to

take the measures it considers necessary.

European Research Area (ERA)

The European Research Area brings together all of the European Union's (EU) resources to better coordinate research

and innovation activities at the level of both the Member States and the Union. The area also aims to achieve a major

ambition of the EU: to arrive at a truly common research policy.

This concept was launched by the European Commission in 2000 with the idea of developing truly attractive

opportunities for researchers.

Previously, research at European level faced numerous difficulties: fragmentation of activities, isolation of national

research systems, disparity of regulatory and administrative frameworks, and low levels of investment in knowledge.

The Lisbon Treaty establishes a clear legal basis for the creation of a European Research Area (Article 179 of the Treaty

on the Functioning of the EU). This area will consist of a 'single market' for research and researchers and should make it

possible to share data, compare results, carry out multi-disciplinary studies, transfer and protect new scientific

knowledge and gain access to centres of excellence and state-of-the-art equipment.

European security and defence identity

The military intervention of NATO in Bosnia highlighted an imbalance in terms of risk linked to the fact that, broadly

speaking, the European forces were operating on the ground whereas the US forces intervened in the air, and were less

at risk.

The Clinton administration recognised that there could be crises within Europe in which the United States would not

wish to intervene. It was therefore in favour of the idea of creating a kind of European pillar within NATO -- in other

words, a European security and defence identity.

Against this background, the NATO Council held in Brussels in January 1994 recognised the importance of defining a

specifically European identity in relation to security and defence. The first steps towards this were taken at the NATO

Council held in Berlin on 3 June 1996.

Since then, the European Union has set up its own permanent political and military structures for the political control

and strategic management of crises. In December 2002, within the framework of the permanent arrangements for EU-

NATO cooperation and consultation known as "Berlin Plus", the Union and NATO signed a strategic partnership

agreement on crisis management. Through this agreement, the Union will have access with immediate effect to NATO's

logistical and planning resources, including intelligence.

European Union

The European Union (EU) was established by the Maastricht Treaty, signed in 1992. The project of creating a Union has

a long history, and was first mooted at the European summit of 1972.

The Union is both a political project and a form of legal organisation.

It is a political project in that its mission is to create an ever closer union among the peoples of Europe, in which

decisions are taken as openly as possible and as closely as possible to the citizen (Article 1 of the Treaty on European

Union).

To achieve this, the Union is set a number of objectives:

To promote peace, its values and the well-being of its peoples;

To offer European citizens an area of freedom, security and justice without borders;

To establish an internal market which ensures the right conditions for balanced economic growth and price stability;

To ensure the development of a highly competitive social market economy ensuring full employment and the pursuit of

progress through combating social exclusion, discrimination and inequality;

To protect the environment and promote sustainable development;

To ensure economic, social and territorial cohesion between Member States;

To respect the cultural and linguistic diversity of EU countries and to protect European cultural heritage;

To establish an economic and monetary union whose currency is the euro;

To act in accordance with its values in its relations with the wider world to ensure peace, security, sustainable

development, development of people, and the protection of human rights.

The Union is founded on values: respect for human dignity, liberty, democracy, equality, the rule of law and human

rights. It has its own symbols: a flag (twelve stars on a blue background), an anthem (Ludwig van Beethoven's "Ode to

Joy"), a motto ("United in diversity"), a currency (the euro) and a Europe day (9 May).

The Union is a form of legal organisation. The Treaty of Lisbon removes the three pillars organisation established by the

Maastricht Treaty. Henceforth, the "Community method" is to be applied to all policies coming under the responsibility

of the Union, with the exception of:

police and judicial cooperation on criminal matters where the Member State has a right of initiative and a right of

appeal to the European Council on legislative matters";

the common foreign and security policy where the intergovernmental method applies.

It has a single institutional framework (essentially consisting of the European Council, the European Parliament, the

Council of the Union and the European Commission). Furthermore, the Treaty of Lisbon confers legal personality on the

EU.

European Union (EU) hierarchy of norms

European Union law is based on primary legislation and secondary legislation. Primary legislation is made of the

Treaties, general principles established by the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) and international

agreements. Secondary legislation is made up of all the acts which enable the Union to exercise its powers.

With the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon and the abolition of the pillar structure, the majority of European

policies are henceforth subject to the Community method with the exception of the Common Foreign and Security

Policy (CFSP). From now on, only acts covered by Article 288 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the EU (TFEU) may be

adopted. This includes regulations, directives, decisions, recommendations and opinions. In the majority of cases, the

Treaties detail the type of act which should be used. In those cases where it does not, Article 296 of the TFEU permits

the institutions to choose the type of act to be adopted on a case-by-case basis.

The Treaty of Lisbon also introduces, for the first time, a hierarchy of norms within the secondary legislation. It

establishes a distinction between:

legislative acts (Article 289 TFEU). These are legal acts adopted by an ordinary or special legislative procedure;

delegated acts (Article 290 TFEU). These are non-legislative acts of general application which supplement or amend

certain non-essential elements of the legislative act. The power to adopt this type of act may be delegated to the

Commission by the European Parliament or the Council;

implementing acts (Article 291 TFEU). These acts are generally adopted by the Commission, which is conferred with

implementing powers; in certain cases the Council may also be called upon to adopt implementing acts.

European Union agencies

The agencies of the European Union are bodies set up by the European Union (EU) to carry out a specific technical,

scientific or administrative task.

The first agencies were set up in the 1970s but most of them started work in 1994 or 1995, following the decision of the

Brussels European Council (October 1993) on the sitting of the headquarters of seven of them. The most recent are the

executive agencies that have been created to manage one or more European programmes. These are established for a

fixed period of time and are located in Brussels or Luxembourg.

29 bodies currently meet the definition of a Community agency, though referred to by various names (centre,

foundation, agency, office, monitoring centre, etc.).

As autonomous organisations, the agencies are a heterogeneous group, with a common organisational model. They can

be divided into three sub-groups according to their areas of activity, to which the executive agencies have recently

been added.

European Union agencies:

OHIM – Office for Harmonisation in the Internal Market (Trade Marks and Designs), with its headquarters in Alicante

(Spain);

CPVO – Community Plant Variety Office, Angers (France);

ERA – European Reconstruction Agency, Thessaloniki (Greece);

EMEA – European Medicines Agency, London (United Kingdom);

EFSA – European Food Safety Authority, Parma (Italy);

EMSA – European Maritime Safety Agency, Lisbon (Portugal);

EASA – European Aviation Safety Agency, Cologne (Germany);

ENISA – European Network and Information Security Agency, Heraklion (Greece);

EU-OSHA – European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, Bilbao (Spain);

ECDC – European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, Stockholm (Sweden);

CEDEFOP – European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, Thessaloniki (Greece);

EEA – European Environment Agency, Copenhagen (Denmark);

EUROFOUND – European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, Dublin (Ireland);

EMCDDA – European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Lisbon (Portugal);

EFRA - European Fundamental Rights Agency, Vienna (Austria);

ERA – European Railway Agency, Valenciennes and Lille (France);

ETF – European Training Foundation, Turin (Italy);

CdT – Translation Centre for the Bodies of the European Union, Luxembourg;

CFCA – Community Fisheries Control Agency, Vigo (Spain);

FRONTEX – European Agency for the Management of Operational Cooperation at the External Borders of the Member

States of the European Union, Warsaw (Poland);

ECHA – European Chemicals Agency, Helsinki (Finland);

European Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Supervisory Authority, Brussels (Belgium);

EIGE - European Institute for Gender Equality, Vilnius (Lithuania).

Agencies in the field of the common foreign and security policy:

EDA – European Defence Agency, Brussels (Belgium), headed by the High Representative for Foreign Affairs and

Security Policy;

EUISS – European Union Institute for Security Studies, Paris (France);

EUSC – European Union Satellite Centre, Madrid (Spain).

Agencies in the field of police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters:

Eurojust – The European Union's Judicial Cooperation Unit, the Hague (Netherlands);

Europol – European Police Office, the Hague (Netherlands);

CEPOL – European Police College, Bramshill (United Kingdom).

Executive agencies:

Executive agencies are organisations established under Council Regulation (EC) n° 58/2003. They are entrusted with

the management of one or more Community programmes. These agencies are set up for a fixed period. They are

located at the seat of the European Commission.

Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency, Brussels (Belgium);

Executive Agency for Health and Consumers (EAHC), Luxembourg;

Executive Agency for Competitiveness and Innovation (EACI), Brussels (Belgium);

European Research Council Executive Agency (ERC), Brussels (Belgium);

Research Executive Agency (REA), Brussels (Belgium);

Trans-European Transport Network Executive Agency (TEN-TEA), Brussels (Belgium).

EURATOM Agencies and bodies:

Fusion for Energy (European Joint Undertaking for ITER and the Development of Fusion Energy), Barcelona (Spain).

European Union law

Strictly speaking, European Union law consists of the founding Treaties (primary legislation) and the provisions of

instruments enacted by the European institutions by virtue of them (secondary legislation - regulations, directives,

etc.).

In a broader sense, European Union law encompasses all the rules of the European Union legal order, including general

principles of law, the case law of the Court of Justice, law flowing from the European Union external relations and

supplementary law contained in conventions and similar agreements concluded between the Member States to give

effect to Treaty provisions.

Europol (European Police Office)

Europol is a European Union agency with responsibility for improving cooperation between Member States' police

authorities and law enforcement services.

The idea of a European Police Office was first raised at the Luxembourg European Council (June 1991). Provision for the

Office was made in the Treaty of Maastricht, and it began its activities in January 1994 as the Europol Drugs Unit (EDU).

The Convention establishing Europol was signed in July 1995 and it entered into force on 1 October 1998.

With the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon on 1 December 2009, the provisions on Europol now fall under the

Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (Title V - Area of freedom, security and justice). Furthermore, a Council

decision replaced the Europol Convention as of 1 January 2010.

Europol's field of competence is the combating of serious crime and terrorism, but it is not a European police force as

such. It is an instrument at the service of Member States designed to help them deal with criminal phenomena. In

practical terms, Europol's work consists of facilitating the flow of information between national authorities and providing

the latter with crime analyses. Europol participates in joint investigation teams comprising representatives of the

various Member State authorities and provides the information they need on the spot.

Excessive deficit procedure

The excessive deficit procedure is governed by Article 126 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union,

under which the Member States are obliged to avoid excessive deficits in national budgets.

The Commission assesses the situation and the Council decides whether or not an excessive deficit exists. The

Commission, which draws up a report in this connection, is required to take into account all the relevant factors (cyclical

conditions, reforms, etc.) having a bearing on an excessive deficit.

When the Council decides that an excessive deficit exists in a Member State, it first of all makes recommendations to

the State concerned, with a view to rectifying the situation within a given period. If the Member State fails to comply

with these recommendations, the Council may instruct it to take appropriate measures for reducing the deficit. If

necessary, the Council has the option of imposing penalties or fines and of inviting the European Investment Bank (EIB)

to reconsider its lending policy towards the Member State concerned.

The reference value for the existence of an excessive deficit is 3% of gross domestic product (GDP). A Council

Regulation adopted in 1997 is designed to speed up and clarify the implementation of the excessive deficit procedure.